korean literature (character of korean literature korean cla.pdf

8/17/2019 Korean Literature (Character of Korean Literature Korean Cla.pdf

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Search for AsianInfo.org Korea's Main Page Seoul's Main Page Summary of Korean Literature

Korean Literature

1.The Character of KoreanLiterature

3.The Modern Literature ofKorea

2.Korea's Classical Literature The Literature of theEnlightenment Period Literature of the JapaneseColonial Period Literature of the Period ofNational Division

The Translation of KoreanLiterature inForeign Languages

Hyangga from the Shillaperiod The Koryo Kayo (KoryoSongs) Shijo and Kasa The Classical Fiction

The Character of Korean LiteratureKorean literature is usually divided chronologically into aclassical and a modern period. But the basis for such a divisionis still being questioned. Great reforms swept Korea after themid-19th century as its society actively absorbed Westernthings.

Korea's classical literature developed against the backdrop oftraditional folk beliefs of the Korean people; it was alsoinfluenced by Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Amongthese, Buddhist influence held the greatest sway, followed byenormous influences from Confucianism - especially Song

Confucianism - during the Choson period.

Modern literature of Korea, on the other hand, developed out ofits contact with Western culture, following the course ofmodernization. Not only Christian thought, but also variousartistic trends and influences were imported from the West. Asthe "New Education" and the "National Language and LiteratureMovement" developed, the Chinese writing system, which hadtraditionally represented the culture of the dominant class, lostthe socio-cultural function it had previously enjoyed. At thesame time, the Korean script, Han-gul was being used moreand more frequently, resulting in the growth and development

of Korean language and literature studies. With the advent ofthe "new novel" (shinsosol ) came a surge in novels written inthe Korean script. Music and classical poetry, formerly fusedtogether in a kind of a song called ch'anggok , were now viewedas separate endeavors. New paths opened up for the new

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literature. While Korea was importing Western culture via Japanor China, it was also carrying out literary reforms from within.

Linguistic expression and manner of transmission are issues ofutmost importance in the overall understanding of Koreanliterature. Korean literature extends over a broad territory:literature recorded in Chinese; and literature written in Han-gul .These two aspects of Korean literature greatly differ from eachother in terms of their literary forms and character.

Korean literature in Chinese was created when Chinesecharacters were brought to Korea. Because Chinese charactersare a Chinese invention, there have been times in Korea'shistory when efforts were made to exclude literature written inChinese from the parameters of what constitutes Koreanliterature. But in the Koryo and Choson cultures, Chineseletters were central to Koreans' daily lives. We also cannotoverlook the fact that the literary activity of the dominant classwas conducted in Chinese. While Chinese-centered ideas andvalues are contained in this literature - a feature shared by mostof East Asia during this period - they also contain experiencesand thought patterns that express the unique way of life of theKorean people.

The use of the Korean script began during the Choson periodwith the creation of the Korean alphabet (Hunmin Chong-um ).The creation of the Korean alphabet in the 15th century was acrucial turning point in Korea's literary history. Compared withthe literature written in Chinese which was dominated by theupper classes, Korean script made possible the broadening ofthe literary field to include women and commoners. Thisexpanded the social base of Korean writers and readers alike.The Korean script (Han-gul ) assumed its place of leadingimportance in Korean literature only during the latter half of the19th century. After the Enlightenment period, the use of

Chinese letters swiftly declined and the popularity of Koreanletters greatly increased. As soon as the linguistic duality of"Chinese" and "Native" within Korean life was overcome,literature in the Korean script became the foundation uponwhich the national literature developed.

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Korea's Classical Literature

Hyangga from the Shilla period

The Hyangga poetry of the Shilla period signaled the beginningof a unique poetic form in Korean literature. The Hyangga wererecorded in the hyangch'al script, in which the Korean languagewas written using "sound" (um ) and "meaning" (hun ) ofChinese characters. Fourteen poems in the Hyangga style fromthe Shilla period have been preserved in the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms). This poetic form waspassed down to the Koryo Dynasty, and 11 poems from thatperiod are preserved in the Kyunyojon (Tales of Kyunyo).Observing the form of the extant poems, we see a variety offormal characteristics: 4-line, 8-line, and 10-line poems. The 4line poems have the character of folk ballads or nursery songs.The 10-line poems, with the most developed poetic structure,are divided into three sections of 4-4-2.

It is difficult to make general determinations about the


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personalities of the Hyangga poets. But it is thought that the 4-line poems with their ballad-like attributes may indicate that thepoets came from a broad range of backgrounds. Most of the10-line poems were written by priests like Ch'ung Tamsa, WolMyongsa, Yung Ch'sonsa, Yongjae and Kyunyo; they were alsocomposed by the Hwarang ("flower warriors"), including DukOgok and Shin Chung. These warriors were the backbone ofthe Shilla aristocracy. The 10-line poems reflect the emotionsof the aristocrats and their religious consciousness. Fromamong the Hyangga, Sodong-yo (The Ballad of Sodong) is

characterized by its simple naivet'e; the Chemangmaega (Songof Offerings to a Deceased Sister) and Ch'an -gip'arangga (Song in Praise of Kip'arang) boast a superb epic technique,and give fine expression to a sublime poetic spirit. Theseexamples are accordingly recognized as the mostrepresentative of Hyangga poetry.

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The Koryo Kayo (Koryo Songs)

The literature of the Koryo period is marked by an increased

use of Chinese letters, the disappearance of Hyangga , and theemergence of Koryo kayo (Koryo songs) which continued to betransmitted as oral literature until the Choson period. Thetransmission of the Hyangga literature of Shilla was continueduntil the early part of Koryo but, as in the eleven verses ofKyunyo's Pohyon shipchung wonwangga (Songs of the TenVows of Samantabhadra), these were mostly religious prayerswith no secular or artistic flavor.

The new poetic form introduced by writers of the Koryo periodwas the Koryo kayo called pyolgok . The identities of most ofthe Koryo kayo authors are unknown. The songs were orally

transmitted; only later in the Choson period were they recordedusing the Korean script (Han-gul ). This poetry has two forms:the "short-stanza form" (tallyonch'e ) in which the entire work isstructured into a single stanza; and the "extended form"(yonjangch'e ) in which the work is separated into manystanzas. Chong Kwajonggok (The Song of Chong Kwajong)and Samogok (Song of Maternal Love) are examples of theshort-stanza form, but the more representative Koryo kayo ,including Ch'nongsan pyolgok (Song of Green Mountain),Sogyong pyolgok (Song of the Western Capital [P'yongyang]),Tongdong and Ssanghwajom (Twin Flower Shops), are allwritten in the extended form, and divided into anywhere fromfour to thirteen stanzas.

The Koryo Kayo are characterized by increased length and afree and undisciplined form. The bold, direct nature of thesongs make them distinctive. They deal with the real world ofhumankind. But because the songs were transmitted orallyover a long period and recorded only after the beginning of theChoson period, there is a strong possibility that they have beenpartially altered.

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Shijo and Kasa

The creation of the Korean alphabet in the early Choson periodwas one of the turning points in the history of Korean literature.In the process of creating the Korean alphabet (Han-gul ) and


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investigating its practicality, akchang (musical scores) werewritten in the Korean script, such as Yongbioch'bon-ga (Songsof Flying Dragons Through the Heavens) which celebrates thefoundation of the Choson Dynasty(1392-1910), and which iscomplete with musical notation and instrumentation. Thesewere written by the Hall of Worthies (Chiphyonjon ) scholarswho served the court officials. King Sejong also wrote Worin Ch'on-gangjigok (Songs of the Moon Lighting the Rivers of theEarth), a compilation in song of the life history of theSakyamuni (Gautama Buddha), extolling praise for the

Buddha's grace. These series of poems were written in formsthat had not existed in previous ages. They provided a greatstimulus in the development of poetic literature.

The shijo ("current tune") is representative of Choson periodpoetry. Its poetic form was established in the late Koryo period,but it flourished to a greater extent under the Choson period'snew leading ideology, Song Neo-Confucianism. The fact that amajority of the shijo poets were well versed in Confucianism,and that these poems of the late Koryo and early Chosonperiods for the most part dealt with the theme of loyalty, helpsus to understand the historical function of the shijo .

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The shijo has a simple, three-stanza structure: first, middle andlast. Its three-stanza form is related to the structure of its poeticmeaning, a fundamental requisite which prescribes its formalaesthetic. It is constructed in four feet, with each line containingthree-to-four syllables, to make a total of about 12 feet. It ischaracterized by moderation in form and a slow, leisurelyelegance. Despite its formal simplicity, its expressions arepoetic and the poems achieve an esthetic wholeness. To thisend, we may suppose that the shijo was widely loved by boththe commoners and the yangban (gentry) class.

Centered around such authors as Maeng Sa-song, Yi Hyon-bo,Yi Hwang and Yi I, the shijo of the early Choson periodrepresented "natural literature," or kangho kayo , in whichConfucian ideals were expressed using themes from nature.Following the style of Chong Ch'iol, Yun Son-do and others, thegreatest shijo poets of their time, there emerged in the laterChoson period poets like Kim Ch'mon-t'aek and Kim Su-jangwho paved the way for the creation of new kind of poetry whichincorporated elements of satire and humor. Collections of shijo were also compiled, such as Ch'eonggu yong-on (EnduringPoetry of Korea) by Kim Ch' on-t'aek and Haedong kayo (Songs of Korea) by Kim Su-jang.

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In the late Choson period, sasol shijo ("current tunes explainedin words") were developed to give simple form to the unaffectedemotions of the commoners. The sasol shijo departs from theform of the original three-stanza p'yong ("flat") shijo , in whichthe middle and final stanzas are arranged into four feet, and ischaracterized by increased length. Hence, the sasol shijo isalso called the changhyong ("long form") shijo .

The sasol shijo is distinct from the moderate from of the p'yong

shijo in that it pursues a free and undisciplined form, andexpresses the joys and sorrows of the commoners, as well assatirizes reality, making it comical.

It is said that the kasa and the shijo make up the two greatest


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forms of the Choson period poetry. The kasa is properly placedin the category of verse, but its content is not limited to theexpression of individual sentiment. It often includes moraladmonitions, and the subjects regarding "the weariness oftravel" and "grief." The kasa form is a simple verse form, with a"twin" set of feet of three to four syllables each, which arerepeated four times. Because of the varying nature of itscontents, there are some who view the kasa as a kind of essay,as in early Choson period kasa like Chong Kuk-in's Sangch'un- gok (Tune in Praise of Spring); Song Sun's Myonangjongga

(Song of Myonangjong Pavilion); and Chong Ch'iol's Kwandong pyolgok (Song of Kwandong), Samiin-gok (Song inRecollections of a Beautiful Woman) and Songsan pyolgok (Song of Mt. Songsan), and so on. These kasa have, as theirmain subject matter, the following themes: contemplation ofnature for spiritual enlightenment; the virtues of the greatgentleman who espouses anbin nakto (being content in povertyand delighting in following the Way); and the metaphor of lovebetween a man and a woman to express loyalty betweensovereign and subject. Later, following Pak Il-lo's Sonsangt'an (Lament on Shipboard) and Nuhangsa (Words of the Streets),we find in the late Koryo period kasa themes like "travelabroad" as in Kim In-gyom's Iltong chang-yuga (Song of aGlorious Voyage to the East of the Sun) and Hong Sun-hak'sYonhaengga . Also, there were the naebang kasa (kasa of thewomen's quarters) written by women. These gained widepopularity. In particular, the kasa of the latter period underwentchanges in form, becoming both longer and prosaic.

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The Classical Fiction

The first appearance of the classical fiction in Korea include

Kim Shi-sup's Kumo shinhwa (Tales of Kumo) which waswritten in Chinese characters and Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong chon (Tale of Hong Kil-tong) written in Han-gul . After the turnof the 17th century, fictions like tale of Kumo shinhwa came tobe even more actively produced, and a large-scale readershipwas formed at that time. Especially popular was the p'ansori (story-in-song), which appeared in the late 17th and early 18thcenturies. A performance art, the p'ansori is rooted inheightened musical expressiveness. As its contents were"fictionalized" it also made great contributions to thedevelopment of the classical fiction. In the 18th and 19thcenturies, the quality of these classical fictions increased in

variety as well as in quantity. Also, book rental business thrivedwith the advent of commercial publishing .

The characters appearing in Kumo shinhwa embody theconcept of chaejagain ("talented young man and beautifulwoman"). It also employs to an extreme degree the style ofaesthetic expression used in Chinese letters. Along with thesecharacteristics, Kumo shinhwa also shows aspects of themysterious fiction (chon-gisosol ) in that its contents are of amysterious nature and distant from reality. In the mid-Chosonperiod, works with parable-like characteristics were published,such as Im Je's Susongji (Record of Grief) and Yun Kye-son'sTalch'on mongnyurok (Record of a Dream Adventure to

Talch'on). But with the coming of the late Choson period,authors like Pak Chi-won and Yi EOk wrote realistic fictions inChinese. Pak Chi-won's Hosaengjon (The Tale of Scholar Ho),Yangbanjon (A Yangban Tale), Hojil (The Tiger's Roar) and Yi'sShimsaengjon (Tale of Scholar Shim), for example, all depart


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from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literarystudies and introduce a variety of characters such asmerchants, men of wealth, thieves and kisaeng (femaleentertainers). They are sharply critical of a manifold socialproblems and often ridicule various aspects of daily life. Thiskind of fiction, together with the fiction in Han-gul of the laterChoson period, opened up new paths for fiction writing.

After the creation of the Korean alphabet, an abundance offictions were written in Han-gul, beginning with Ho Kyun's Hong

Kil-tong chon and including works like Kim Man-jung'sKuunmong (Dream of the Nine Clouds) and Sassi namjonggi (Record of Lady Sa's Southward Journey). Hong Kil-tong chon strongly opposes the ruling class' discrimination of childrenborn of the union between a yangban and a concubine. Itshows a high level of social concern and criticizes the absurdaspects of the everyday reality of the times.

In the late Choson period, the p'ansori fiction (p'ansori gye sosol ) emerged, based on the orally transmitted art form.P'ansori fictions like Ch'unhyangjon (Tale of Ch'un-hyang),Shimch'oongjon (Tale of Shimch'yong), and Hungbujon (Tale ofHungbu) do not deal with superhuman characters, but make

use of human stereotypes of the period. Most of these fictionscenter around casual relationships from real-life experience,rather than coincidence. In addition to being a mixture of verseand prose, the writing style also combines refined classicallanguage and the vigorous slang and witticisms of the commonpeople. Throughout these works, we are given a broad pictureof the social life of the late Choson period. In addition to theseworks, other Choson period fictions record the private affairs ofthe court, such as Inhyon Wanghujon (Tale of Queen Inhyon)and Hanjungnok (Record of Leisurely Feelings).

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The Modern Literature of Korea

The Literature of the Enlightenment Period

Korean modern literature was formed against the backgroundof the crumbling feudalistic society of the Choson Dynasty, theimportation of new ideas from the West, and the new politicalreality of rising Japanese imperial power in East Asia. The firststage in the establishment of Korea's modern literature extendsfrom the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, and is

designated as the literature of the Enlightenment (kaehwa kyemong ) period.

The change from traditional to modern literature during theEnlightenment period was largely due to the effects of the NewEducation and the Korean Language and Literature movement.After the Kabo Reforms of 1894, a new brand of education wasenforced, new Western-style schools were established, andnew textbooks for teaching Western knowledge were published.The literature of the Enlightenment Period secured its socialbase through newly emerged media like newspapers. Mostnewspapers, including the Tongnip Shinmun (TheIndependent), Hwangsong Shinmun (The Imperial CityNewspaper), Taehan maeil Shinbo (Korean Daily News),Cheguk Shinmun (Imperial Newspaper), Mansebo (TheForever Report), Taehan minbo (The Korean People's Report)all published serial novels, as well as shijo , and kasa . It was at


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this time that a class of professional writers also began to form.Commercial publishing of literary works became possible withthe introduction of new printing techniques and the emergenceof publishing companies.

In this period, the ch'angga (new type of song) and theshinch'eshi (new poetry) were hailed as the new poetic forms.They contributed greatly to the formation of the modernchayushi (free verse poem). Receiving their influence from freeverse poetry, the shinch'eshi abandoned the fixed meter of

traditional poetry, thus making new genres possible in poemslike Ch'oe Nam-son's Hae egeso sonyon ege (From the Sea tothe Youth) (1908), Kkot tugo (Laying Down the Flowers) andT'aebaeksan shi (Poems of Mt. T'aebaeksan). But despite thenovelty of the new forms, there were also many instanceswhere the poetic voice was politicized, a sharp contrast to thelyric poetry of old, which gave primary expression to individualsentiment and feeling.

This period also saw the emergence of many biographicalworks based on enlightenment tastes, designed to cultivatepatriotism and awaken the national consciousness.Representative works include, Aeguk puinjon (Tale of the

Patriotic Lady) (Chang Ji-yon, 1907) and Elchi Mundok (ShinCh'ae-ho, 1908). The biographies presented images of the kindof hero called for by the realities of the period. An Kuk-son'sKumsu hoeuirok (Notes From the Meeting of the Birds andBeasts) (1908) is the representative of this kind of work: itcenters around the orations of animals who criticize the humanworld's moral depravity.

While a professional class of writers began to be formed bymen like Yi In-jik, Yi Hae-cho, Ch'oe Ch'an-shik and Kim Ko-je,a new literary form called the shinsosol (new novel) secured apopular readership base. Yi In-jik's Hyoluinu (Tears of Blood)

(1906) and Ensegye (The Silver World) (1908), were followedby Yi Hae-cho's Kumagom (The Demon-Ousting Sword) andChayujong (The Freedom Bell). Ch'oe Ch'an-shik'sCh'uwolsaek (The Color of the Autumn Moon) (1912) is also awell-known work. The shinsosol , all written in Han-gul ,achieved mass popularity. These novels portrayedEnlightenment ideals against the background of the realities ofcontemporary life, and the unrealistic, transcendental worlds ofold are not found in their plots. It was in the shinsosol that "timereversal" was first applied as a structural technique. Theauthors also adopted a vernacular prose style that broughtthem closer to the form of the modern novel. However, in thewake of the Japanese takeover of Korea in 1910, the characterof the shinsosol began to change. The later works gave moreweight to the fates of individual characters, and commonplacelove-struggles became more prominent.

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Literature of the Japanese Colonial Period

Korea suffered a great deal under Japanese colonial rule(1910-1945). Coercing the Korean government to conclude theKorean-Japanese Annexation Treaty, Japan then installed a

Governor-General in Korea and enforced military rule.Restrictions governing speech and publications were especiallysevere. As a result, Korea's spirit of self-reliance andindependence, together with its will to proceed with theEnlightenment ideals, no longer could find expression in its


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literature.

The Korean literature of the Japanese colonial period beganwith the March First Independence Movement of 1919. It wasduring this period that the Korean people began to exhibit amore positive attitude in coping with their national situation.Strengthened by feelings of national self-awakening which hadbeen stirred up by the March First Independence Movement of1919, the literature of that period began to show an interest inthemes of self-discovery and individual expression, as well as

an increased interest in concrete reality. Literary coteriemagazines emerged, like Ch'angjo (Creation) (1919), P'yeho (The Ruins) (1920), and Paekcho (White Tide) (1922), andliterary circles formed. With the publication of magazines likeKaebyok (The Opening) (1920), creative literary efforts alsobegan to become more actively developed. In particular, thepublication of national newspapers, like the Dong-A Ilbo andthe Chosun Ilbo , contributed toward establishing a broad baseof support for artistic endeavors.

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In the early 1920s, the base support for Korea's modern

literature began to expand as people experienced a renewedself-awakening and recognition of their national predicamentsin the wake of the March 1919 uprising. The novels of thisperiod describe the sufferings of the intellectual who driftsthrough reality, and expose the pathetic lives of the laborersand farmers. Yi Kwang-su's short story Sonyonui piae (TheSorrow of Youth) in which he writes of the inner pain of theindividual, was followed by his full-length novel Mujong (Heartlessness) (1917), the success of which placed him at thecenter of Korean letters. Mujong was not thoroughgoing in itsapprehension of colonial period reality, but as a novelcombining the fatalistic life of the individual with the Zeitgeist of

the period, it is recognized as being modern in character. WithPaettaragi (Following the Boat) (1921) and Kamja (Potatoes)(1925), Kim Tong-in also contributed greatly to the short-storygenre. In it, he minutely describes in realistic detail the shiftingfates of man. Hyon Chin-gon's Unsu choun nal (The LuckyDay) (1924) is also a work which employs superb technique indescribing people coping with the pain of their reality. YomSang-sop's P'yobonshilui ch'nonggaeguri (Green Frog in theSpecimen Gallery) (1921) deals again with the wanderings andfrustrations of the intellectual; and in Mansejon (The Tale ofForever) (1924), Yom gives expression to the colonial realitiesof a devastated Korea.

The poetry of this period also established a new and modernKorean poetry as it borrowed from the French techniques ofvers libre . Both the free verse of Chu Yo-han's Pullori (Fireworks) (1919) and Kim So-wol's poetry collectionChindallae kkot (Azaleas) (1925) made enormous contributionstoward establishing the foundations of modern Korean poetry.Kim reconstructed the meter of the traditional folk ballad,successfully giving poetic shape to a world of sentiment. YiSang-hwa, in his works entitled Madonna (Madonna) andPpaeatkin Turedo pomun onun-ga (Does Spring Come toThose Who Have Been Plundered?), attempted to come toterms with the suffering of the age and the agony of the

individual, through the poetic recognition of the realities ofcolonialism. Based on Buddhist thought, Han Yong-un, in hisNimui ch'immuk (Thy Silence) (1926) sang of "Thou" as anabsolute existence, and tragically compared the reality ofKoreans' loss of their nation to that of the loss suffered by a


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woman who must endure the separation of her loved one orhusband.

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In the mid-1920s, Korean literature was divided into nationaland class literatures, in accordance with the democratic andsocialist ideals that were popular that time. By 1925 the classliterature movement began to solidify with the organization ofthe Korea Proletarian Artist's Federation (KAPF). Theproletarian literature movement, by expanding its organizationand targeting the elevation of class consciousness throughliterature, sought to strengthen class ideology in society. Inorder to achieve mass support from the farmers and laborers, itpoured its energies into the creation of a "labor literature" and a"farmer literature." Most notable of this kind of novel includeCh'oe So-hae's T'alch'ulgi (Record of an Escape) (1925), ChoMyong-hui's Naktonggang (The Naktonggang river) (1927), YiKi-yong's Kohyang (Hometown) (1934), and Han Sol-ya'sHwanghon (Twilight). These works are for the most part basedin class consciousness and emphasize the struggles againstcolonialism, with farmers and laborers playing the centralprotagonists in that struggle. In the case of poetry, Pak Se-

yong, Im Hwa and Kim Ch'ang-sul all took aim at the classcontradictions under colonialism and published many "tendencypoems" (kyonghyangshi ) emphasizing the consciousness ofclass struggle.

During the 1930s, Korean literature underwent importantchanges as Japanese militarism was strengthened andideological coercion began to be applied to literature. Pursuit ofthe communal ideology, which until that point had formed thecourse of Korean literature, became a thing of the past. Newand various literary trends began to emerge.

Many novels written during this period experimented with newstyles and techniques. In Nalgae (Wings) and Chongsaenggi (Record of the End of a Life), for example, Yi Sang used thetechnique of dissociation of the self from the world around him.Yi Hyo-sok's Memilkkot p'il muryop (When the BuckwheatFlowers Bloom) and Kim Yu-jong's Tongbaek kkot (CamelliaBlossoms) are counted as masterful works of this genre. Also,Pak T'ae-won's Sosolga Kubossiui Iril (Days of Kubo theNovelist) (1934) and Yi T'ae-jun's Kkamagwi (The Crow) (1936)opened up new vistas for the novel with their new stylisticsensibilities. In these novels, novelistic space grows from withinthe interior of the self. By contrast, the full length novels of YomSang-sop's Samdae (The Three Generations) (1931), PakT'ae-won's Ch'eonbyon p'unggyong (Views by the Riverside)(1937), Ch'ae Man-shik's T'angnyu (The Muddy Stream)(1938), and Hong Myong-hui's Im Kkok-chong chon (Tale of ImKkok-chong) (1939), all narrate the story of the lives of theircharacters against the backdrop of Korea's tumultuous history.

The modernism movement is the most impressive feature ofthe poetry of this period. It emerged as sunsushi (pure poetry).The pioneering poems of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Yong-nangembody poetic lyricism through intricate linguistic sensibilityand refined technique. Yi Sang, in particular, played a centralrole in the development of this new kind of experimental poetry.

Also, aligned with this movement was the so-calledSaengmyongp'a (the life poets) movement which includedwriters like So Chong-ju and Yu Ch'i-hwan. Another significanttrend during this period was the nature-poems of Pak Tu-jinand Pak Mok-wol, among others. The poetry of Yi Yuk-sa and


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Yun Dong-ju was also important in that it captured the emotionof the people in their resistance to Japanese imperialism.

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Literature of the Period of National Division

After the liberation from the Japanese in 1945, Korea becameembroiled in the political maneuvers of the World Powers, andthe division into South and North became unavoidable. Thisdivision in political thought also made a significant impact onthe literary world, as the factionalism and struggles began tooccur between Southern and Northern literatures. The KoreanWar(1950-1953) was a tragic interim which solidified Korea'sdivision into South and North. Postwar Korean society'semergence from the wounds and chaos of that war had aconsiderable impact on the development of Korean literature.

For the most part, the postwar novel in South Korea deals withthe struggles of the Korean people to achieve deliverance fromtheir national pain and anguish. The writings of Kim Tong-ri andHwang Sun-won are representatives of this new type of

literature. Also included in this genre is An Su-kil, whose novelPukkando (1959) portrays the pioneering fortitude andsteadfast spiritual power of Koreans who migrate to Manchuria.In addition, many of the postwar generation writers took astheir predominant theme the collapse of the traditional socio-moral value systems, as seen in Oh Sang-won's Moban (Revolt) (1957) and Son Ch'ang-sop's Injo in-gan (ArtificialMan) (1958). Pak Kyong-ri's Pulshin shida e (The Age ofMistrust) (1957), Chong Kwang-yong's Kkoppittan Li (CaptainLee) (1962) and Yi Bom-son's Obalt'an (A Bullet Misfired), inparticular, deal squarely with the chaos and moral collapse ofpostwar society. Yi Ho-ch'iol's Nasang (The Nude Portrait)

(1957) and Ch'oe Sang-gyu's P'oint'du (Point) (1956) describepeople living their lives in a veritable pit of bleak reality.

The search for a new poetic spirit and technique was also asignificant feature of Korea's postwar poetry. Among thepostwar trends was the Chont'ongp'a (traditionalists),movement, marked by a style rooted in traditional rhythms andfolk sentiment. The centrality of individual sentiment andsensibility in the Chont'ongp'a , combined with the traditionalrhythmic base, brought a broad, folkish sentiment into therealm of poetry. In addition to Pak Jae-sam, whose P'iri (Flute)and Ulum i t'anun kang (The Saddened River) was inspired bythe world of traditional sentiment and folk feeling, Ku Ja-un, YiTong-ju and Chong Han-mo were also significant contributorsto this movement. Another trend in postwar poetry was theShilhomp'a (experientialists) who, while venturing to bring newexperiences to poetic language and form, concentrated onchanging the tradition. Kim Kyong-rin, Pak In-hwan, Kim Kyu-dong, Kim Ch'a-yong and Yi Pong-rae, as well as a coterie ofwriters called the Huban-gi (The Later Years), were central tothis new postwar modernist movement. In particular, Pak Pong-u and Chon Pong-gon, brought critical recognition and asatirical approach to social conditions through poetry.

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At the close of the 1950s, writers like Kim Sung-ok, Pak T'ae-sun, So Jong-in, Yi Ch'song-jun, Hong Song-won and Ch'oeIn-hun made their literary debut. Ch'oe In-hun's Kwangjang (The Square), for example, gave expression to the agony,


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wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual using a uniquenovelistic structure. Kim Sung-ok, in his Seoul 1964, Kyoul (Seoul, 1964, Winter), wrote about the life of the petitbourgeois.

Shortly after the April 19th Revolution of 1960, poetic trendsalso changed. Poets like Shin Tong-yop and Kim Su-yongemphatically rejected the sentimental escapism of the postwarperiod and began to advocate the necessity to engage itsreadership with the political reality of the times. Kim Su-yong's

Tallara Cui changnan (The Prank of the Moonland) (1959) andShin Tong-yop's long poem Kumgang (The Kumgang river)(1967) for example, both express this new realistic sensibilityby advocating the view that poetry become a significant meansfor political expression.

During the 1970s, Korean society found itself in the throes ofrapid industrialization in which the gap between the rich and thepoor, as well as regional disparities in industrial development,became markedly visible. As the political angst among thepeople increased, a new anti-establishment literary movementexploded onto the scene. The most important characteristic ofthe Korean novel during this period was its positive concern for

various social problems which began to appear during theindustrialization process. Yi Mun-gu's Kwanch'on sup'il (Kwanch'on Essays) (1977), for example, portrays the actualconditions of farmers who were neglected and becameimpoverished in the midst of the industrial development of thenation. The lifestyles of Seoul's "border citizens" (those living inthe outskirts of the city) and the labor scene were also vividlyportrayed in Hwang Sok-yong's Kaekchi (The Strange Land)(1970) and Samp'o kanun kil (The Road to Samp'o) and ChoSe-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (Small BallThrown by a Dwarf) (1978). Clearly, these novels opened upnew possibilities for the "labor" novel as they gave new

expression to the depravities and sufferings borne by the livesof the laborers in Korea during this period in history. YiCh'Song-jun's Tangshindul Cui ch'ion-guk (Your Heaven)(1976), Chaninhan toshi (The Cruel City) (1978) and O jong-hui's Yunyon Cui ttul (The Garden of Childhood) (1981), allexamine the theme of human isolation and alienation whichmarked these laborers' experiences of industrial development.The social satire apparent throughtout Pak Wan-so'sHwich'aonggorinun ohu (The Reeling Afternoon) (1977) andCh'oe Il-lam's T'aryong (The Tune) (1977) are representative ofimportant tendencies in the novel of this period.

There also emerged during this period what has been referredto as the "division novel" (pundansosol ) which brought to thefore a critical examination of national division. Kim Won-il'sNoul (Sunset)(1978), Chon Sang-guk's Abeui kajok (Abe'sFamily) (1980) and Cho Jong-rae's T'aebaeksanmaek (TheT'aebaeksan Mountains) are representative of this new type ofnovel. Also noteworthy is the roman-fleuve, like Pak Kyong-ri'sT'oji (The Land), judged to be one of the most importantachievements of modern Korean literature.

In the realm of poetry, the works which centered around theexperiences of the minjung (roughly translated "oppressedpeople" or "oppressed masses") most clearly defined the poetic

trends of the times. Shin Kyong-rim's Nongmu (Farmer'sDance) (1973) and Ko EUn's Munui maule kaso (Going toMunui Village) (1974), for example, both clearly demonstratethis concern for the lives of the minjung (people). Kim Chi-ha'sT'anun mongmarum uro (Towards a Thirst) (1982), in particular,


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gave expression to the fighting spirit of the minjung in itsstruggle against industrial exploitation.

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The Translation of Korean Literature in ForeignLanguages

Korean literature was largely unknown to the world until the

1980s, when translations of Korean literary works began toappear in foreign countries. Since then, the types of worksselected for translation have become increasingly diverse, andthe quality of the translations themselves have improvedsteadily. Furthermore, as the translations principally are beingpublished by overseas publishers, the translations havebecame available to a wider reading public.

Since the 1980s, Korean literature in English translation hasspread widely in the English-speaking countries. Anthologies ofKorean modern short stories such as Flowers of Fire (Peter H.Lee, University of Hawaii Press, 1974); and Land of Exile (Marshall R. Pihl and Bruce Fulton, New York: M.E.Sharpe,

1993) are widely used as textbooks in universities all acrossthe English-speaking world.

The Korean novelists whose works have been most widelytranslated are Hwang Sun-won and Kim Tong-ri. Hwang'snovel Umjiginun song (The Moving Castle) was translated inthe United States by Bruce Fulton. Other works, includingCollected Short Stories by Hwang Sun-won translated byEdward Poitras, and another similar collection by ProfessorHolman, have also been available in English. Important worksby Kim Tong-ri such as Elhwa (Eulhwa, The ShamanSorceress), Munyodo (The Portrait of the Shaman) have been

translated and published. Poetry selections by Han Yong-un(Your Silence ), So chong-ju(Winter Sky ) and Hwang Dong-gyu(Wind Berial ) can also be found in English translation.

In francophone countries, the scope of literary translationactivities from Korean is limited compared to those in English-speaking countries; but in these countries too, projects areactively underway. Yi Mun-yol has had their greatest overseasexposure through French translations. Translated works by YiMun-yol include Uridurui ilgurojin yongung (Notre HerosDefigure) and Shiin (Le Poete) . Other Korean novels availablein French are Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (La petite Balle Lancee par un Nain). Translations of poetry byindividual authors include those of Han Yong-un and Gu Sang.Such translation projects will continue in the future in anongoing effort to introduce Korean literature to readersthroughout the world

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