la succession d'etats: la codification ä l'epreuve des ... · human rights 108 para. 6....

ACADEMIE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL DE LA HAYEHAGUE ACADEMY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

La succession d'Etats:la codification ä l'epreuve

des faits

State Succession:Codification Tested against

the Facts

PUBLlfi SOUS LA DIRECTION DE EDITED BY

Pierre Michel EISEMANNMartti KOSKENNIEMI

2000

MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERSThe Hague/Boston/London

TABLE DES MATIERES

CONTENTS

Avant-propos — Foreword XXXIII

Introduction generaleLes rapports 1

General IntroductionThe Reports 1

Chapitre 1 — Chapter 1

RAPPORT DU DIRECTEUR D'ETUDES DE LA SECTION DE LANGUE FRANCAISEDU CENTRE 3

Section 1. Introduction 3Section 2. Les 616ments du cadre juridique de re'ference 10

Par. 1. Les Conventions de 1978 et de 1983 11A. La Convention de 1978 sur la succession d'Etats en matiere de

traites 11B. La Convention de 1983 sur la succession d'Etats en matiere

de biens, archives et dettes d'Etat 16Par. 2. Les avis de la Commission Badinter 21

A. La nature de la Commission 22B. La «jurisprudence » de la Commission 27

Section 3. Les enseignements de la pratique contemporaine 32Par. 1. Le primat du politique 33

A. L'affirmation d'une rupture 34B. L'effacement de la rupture 38C. La gestion de la rupture 42

Par. 2. L'evanescence du droit de la succession d'Etats 47A. L'indetermination de la norme en matiere de succession aux

traites 48B. La dilution de la norme en matiere de succession aux biens et

dettes 55

XIV TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

C. Le recours aux regimes juridiques particuliers 57Section 4. Remarques conclusives: juridisme contre pragmatisme ? . . 62


REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF STUDIES OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING SECTION OFTHE CENTRE 6 5

Section 1. Introduction 65Section 2. Treaty succession: from substance to procedure 69

Para. 1. Multilateral treaties 72Para. 2. Bilateral treaties 81

Section 3. Succession in respect of property and debts 90Section 4. State succession and related legal doctrines 96

Para. 1. Sovereignty and State succession 97Para. 2. Uti possidetis, self-determination and State succession . . . 102Para. 3. Law of treaties 103Para. 4. Private rights 106Para. 5. Human rights 108Para. 6. Nationality 112Para. 7. Membership in international organizations 113

Section 5. Concluding reflections 119Para. 1. Succession, continuity and identity: the Utility of Status . . 119Para. 2. The dilemma of codification: between hard rules and soft

Standards 125

Premiere partieEtudes generales 133

PartIGeneral Studies 133

A. Equite et succession d'Etats 135Equity and State Succession 135


LE RÖLE DE L'EQUITE DANS LE DROIT DE LA SUCCESSION D'ETATS 137

Section 1. Introduction 137Section 2. L'identification de l'equite dans le droit de la succession

d'Etats 143Par. 1. L'impossibilite de definir a priori des regles de fond substan-

tielles 143A. Les caracteres des operations de succession 144

i) La rarete, l'imprevisibile et la gravitö du phenomene . . . 144ii) La diversite des situations 145

B. L'echec relatif de la codification 145C. Les fonctions assignees ä l'equite 147

i) Une fonction de concretisation du droit de la successiond'Etats 147

ii) Une fonction de repartition des droits et obligations del'Etat predecesseur 149

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XV

Par. 2. L'equite comme «cache-misere» 152A. L'obligation de solution equitable comme «norme fondamen-

tale» ou le degre zero de la normativite 152B. La place de l'equite dans les Conventions de Vienne 156

i) La repartition des biens 1571) L'equite comme principe d'interpretation et d'applica-

tion des regles posees 1582) L'e'quite comme contenu materiel des regles posees . 160

ii) La repartition des dettes 162Section 3. L'utilisation de l'equite dans les situations de succession

d'Etats 164Par. 1. Une reference constante ä l'equite 164

A. L'equite et le cadre du reglement 164i) L'equite dans le reglement entre Etats 165

ii) L'equit6 et l'intervention des tiers 166B. L'equite et la methode du reglement 168

i) La phase preparatoire: l'identification des Clements defait 168

ii) La phase decisoire: la determination des criteres perti-nents 169

iii) La phase confirmatoire: la verification du caractere equi-table de la solution 173

Par. 2. Un «cache-misere» peu efficace . . 174A. Irr&luctible equite? 175

i) L'equivalence et la proportionnalite 176ii) Le raisonnable 178

B. Subjective equite ? 179C. Secondaire equite? 180

Section 4. Conclusion 183B. Succession d'Etats et organisations internationales 185

State Succession and International Organizations 185


STATE SUCCESSION, IDENTITY/CONTINUrrY AND MEMBERSHIP IN THE UNITEDNATIONS 187

Section 1. Introduction 187Section 2. The starting point and preliminary observations 188

Para. 1. The starting point: the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succes-sion of States in Respect of Treaties and the traditional axiom:"Membership in international organizations cannot be obtained byState succession" 188

Para. 2. Preliminary observations: State succession, identity andcontinuity 191A. How should we define "State succession" ? 191B. The classical theories of identity and continuity — a brief

critical analysis 193Section 3. Practice concerning membership before 1978 201

Para. 1. The Philippines — independence in 1946 201

XVI TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

A. The international Status of the Philippines before 1946 . . . . 201B. Independence of the Philippines on 4 July 1946 and its impli-

cations for United Nations membership 202Para. 2. India and Pakistan — independence of "British India" in 1947 203

A. The international Status of "British India" between 1920 and1947 203

B. Independence of "British India" on 15 August 1947 and itsimplications for membership of India and Pakistan in interna-tional organizations 204(i) United Nations 205

(ii) Other international organizations 207Para. 3. Syria and Egypt — the United Arab Republic (UAR) 1958-

1961 210A. The formation of the UAR in 1958 and its implications for

membership in international organizations 210(i) United Nations 210

(ii) Other international organizations 211B. The disintegration of the UAR in 1961 and its implications for

Syria's membership in international organizations 212(i) United Nations 213

(ii) Other international organizations 213Para. 4. Mali and Senegal — the dissolution of the Federation of Mali

in 1960 214Para. 5. Tanganyika and Zanzibar — the formation of the United

Republic of Tanzania in 1964 215A. The formation of the United Republic of Tanzania in 1964 and

its implications for membership in international organizations 215(i) United Nations 215

(ii) Other international organizations 216Para. 6. Critical analysis and preliminary conclusions 217

A. Acquisition of sovereign statehood of a Member "State" . . . 217B. "Division" of a Member State 218C. Uniting of two Member States 221D. Dissolution of a union of two former Member States 226

Section 4. Practice concerning membership after 1978 227Para. 1. The Yemen Arab Republic (Northern Yemen) and the

People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Southern Yemen) — theunification of the Republic of Yemen in 1990 227A. The unification of the Republic of Yemen in 1990 and its

implications for membership in international organizations . . 227(i) United Nations 228

(ii) Other international organizations 229B. Critical analysis 231

Para. 2. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the GermanDemocratic Republic (GDR) — the unification of Germany in 1990 233A. The unification of Germany and its implications for member-

ship in international organizations 233(i) United Nations 235


TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XVII

Para. 3. The Soviet Union (USSR) and the Russian Federation (RF) :identity/continuity or State succession ? 249A. The dissolution of the USSR in 1991 and Russia's take-over

of USSR membership in international organizations 249(i) United Nations 251


(i) Continuity/identity or State succession ? 255(ii) Russia's continued United Nations membership 263

Para. 4. Ukraine and Belarus after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 267A. The international Status of Ukraine and Byelorussia (Belarus)

before 1991 267B. The acquisition of independent statehood of Ukraine and

Belarus (Byelorussia) and its implications for membershipin international organizations 268(i) United Nations 269

(ii) Other international organizations 269C. Critical analysis 270

Para. 5. The Baltic States and the other former Soviet Republics . . 271A. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania — the Special position of the

Baltic States 271B. The position of the other former Soviet Republics after the

dissolution of the USSR in 1991 273Para. 6. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslayia (SFRY) and

the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY): identity/continuity orsuccession? 274A. The process of dissolution of Yugoslavia 274B. The claim of the FRY to identity/continuity with the SFRY . 278C. The question of membership of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Mon-

tenegro) in international organizations 280(i) United Nations 280

(ii) The legal and practical effects of Security Council reso-lution 777 and General Assembly resolution 47/1: thedivergent views among the Member States and the LegalOffice of the United Nations Secretariat 285

(iii) Other international organizations 295D. Recent developments — the practice of recognition of the

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and agreements concludedbetween former Yugoslav Republics 301

E. The Judgment of the International Court of Justice on pre-liminary objections in the Genocide case 304

F. Critical analysis 306Para. 7. The Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic — the dis-

membennent of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR) . 315A. The dismemberment of the CSFR and its implications for

membership in international organizations 315(i) United Nations 316


Section 5. Conclusions 321

XVIII TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS


STATE SUCCESSION AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL ORGANIZATIONS 327

Section 1. International financial organizations and problems arisingout of a succession of States 327

Para. 1. The principal financial organizations 327

Para. 2. Questions raised by a succession of States 330

Section 2. Cases of partial succession 335

Para. 1. Cases of succession in respect of part of territory 335Para. 2. Cases of secession or decolonization giving birth to new

States 339

Section 3. Cases of total succession 345

Para. 1. Cases of uniting of States 346Para. 2. Cases of dissolution of a State: the available options . . . . 348Para. 3. The Solutions adopted within the IMF 355Para. 4. The Solutions adopted within the World Bank group . . . . 363Para. 5. The Solutions adopted within regional organizations . . . . 371

Section 4. Conclusions: codification tested against the facts 375Para. 1. Succession and membership 377Para. 2. Succession and assets and liabilities 380

C. Succession d'Etats et traites 385State Succession and Treaties 385


CURRENT QUESTIONS OF STATE SUCCESSION RELATING TO MULTILATERALTREATIES 387

Section 1. Introduction 387Section 2. Functions and actions of depositaries 391

Para. 1. The depositary practice of the Secretary-General of theUnited Nations 391

Para. 2. Third States as depositaries: principles and practice . . . . 393Para. 3. Successor States as depositaries: the cases of the former

USSR, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia 398

Section 3. Establishing treaty relations through succession 401

Para. 1. Two recent cases of unification of States: the Republic ofYemen and Germany 401

Para. 2. Divergence of situations in the break-up of federal States inEurope 406

A. The Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic as the successorStates of the former Czechoslovakia 406

B. Belarus and Ukraine: two Special cases of successor States ofthe Soviet Union 411

C. Other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States:diversity of situations 414

D. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the FormerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia: the successor States of theformer Yugoslavia 419

Section 4. Establishing treaty relations in the case of continuity . . . . 424

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XIX

Para. 1. Continuity of the Baltic States in treaties made before1940 424

Para. 2. The Russian Federation: the continuing State of the SovietUnion 427

Para. 3. Continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in multi-lateral treaties 431

Section 5. Conclusion 434


iDENTITfi ET SUCCESSION D'ETATS AUX INSTRUMENTS CONVENTIONNELSRELATIFS AU DESARMEMENT ET Ä LA MAlTRISE DES ARMEMENTS 4 3 7

Section 1. Introduction 437Section 2. Les traites multilateraux 439

Par. 1. Le Traite de non-proliferation 439Par. 2. Les autres accords multilateraux 447Par. 3. Evaluation critique de la pratique 448

Section 3. La multilateralisation des traite's bilateraux conclus parl'Union sovietique 451Par. 1. Les traites ABM et INF 451Par. 2. Evaluation critique de la pratique 455

Section 4. Les traites non encore en vigueur au moment de la Sepa-ration d'Etats 456Par. 1. Le Traite CFE 456Par. 2. Le Traite START 458Par. 3. Evaluation critique de la pratique 460

Section 5. Conclusion: Y a-t-il une specificite de la succession d'Etatsaux traites de desarmement et maitrise des armements ? 462


SUCCESSION AUX TRAITES ET DROITS DE L'HOMME: VERS LA RECONNAIS-SANCE D'UNE PROTECTION ININTERROMPUE DES INDIVIDUS 4 6 5

Section 1. Introduction 465Section 2. Les justifications d'une continuite des obligations assumee

par l'Etat 466Par. 1. Des droits reconnus au benefice des individus 467Par. 2. Des droits dont le respect interesse l'ensemble de la Com-

munaute internationale 468Section 3. Les indices d'une continuite des obligations imposee ä

l'Etat 471Par. 1. La codification de la regle de la succession automatique . . 471Par. 2. Les indications concordantes des organes des Nations

Unies 473Section 4. Les manifestations d'une continuite des obligations accep-

tee par l'Etat 476Par. 1. La multiplication des declarations d'Intention des Etats . . . 476Par. 2. La mise en ceuvre des obligations conventionnelles 479

A. La non-interruption des obligations de l'Etat continuateur . . 479B. La retroactivite des obligations des Etats successeurs 483C. La responsabilite assumee par les Etats qui ont adhere . . . . 487


XX TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

D. Succession d'Etats et questions territoriales . . 491S t a t e S u c c e s s i o n a n d T e r r i t o r i a l Q u e s t i o n s . . . 4 9 1


REGIMES DE FRONTIERES ET AUTRES REGIMES TERRITORIAUX FACE Ä LA SUC-CESSION D'ETATS 493

Section 1. Introduction 493Section 2. La theorie juridique: les regles codifiees 495

Par. 1. Frontieres et regimes de frontiere en cas de succession d'Etats:l'article 11 de la Convention de Vienne sur la succession d'Etats enmatiere de traites 495A. Introduction 495B. Signification de l'article 11 496

i) Bref apercu historique: doctrine et pratique anciennes re-latives ä la continuite des frontieres et des regimes defrontiere 4971) La doctrine 4972) La pratique internationale 500

ii) Les travaux preparatoires sur les « r£gimes de frontiere ». 5051) Les travaux de la CDI 5052) Les travaux de la Conference de Vienne 508

iii) Observations sur la portee de l'article 11 5081) Concernant la formulation 5082) Concernant la base juridique 510

Par. 2. Les autres r6gimes territoriaux: l'article 12 de la Conventionde Vienne sur la succession d'Etats en matiere de traites 511A. Introduction 511B. Signification de l'article 12 de la Convention de Vienne de

1978 513i) Bref apercu historique: doctrine et pratique anciennes sur

les regimes territoriaux 5141) La doctrine 514

a) Servitudes internationales 515b) Traites creant une Situation objective 517c) Traites relatifs aux Communications internationales 520d) Obligations derivees de traites localisSs 522

2) La pratique internationale 523ii) Les travaux preparatoires sur les «autres regimes territo-

riaux» 5281) Les travaux de la CDI 5282) Les travaux de la Conference de Vienne 537

iii) Observations sur la portee de l'article 12 5391) Concernant la formulation 5392) Concernant la base juridique 541

Par. 3. Raison d'etre de la continuite des regimes de frontiere et desautres regimes territoriaux 541A. Introduction 541B. Stabilitg des relations internationales 542

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXI

C. Effets erga omnes des situations objectives 543D. Limitations ä la competence territoriale d'un Etat 544

Section 3. Lesfaits: la pratique internationale recente 545Par. 1. Concernant les frontieres et les regimes de frontieres . . . . 545

A. Introduction 545B. La jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de Justice 545

i) L'affaire Burkina Faso/Republique du Mali 545ii) L'affaire Libye/Tchad 548

C. La pratique r6cente des Etats 549i) L'Allemagne . . . .- 549

ii) L'ex-URSS 550iii) L'ex-Yougoslavie 554iv) L'ex-Tchecoslovaquie 556v) La Namibie 558

vi) L'Erythree 559vii) Le Yemen 560

Par. 2. Concernant les autres regimes territoriaux 561A. Introduction 561B. La jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de Justice 561

i) L'affaire du Differend frontalier, terrestre, insulaire etmaritime (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua (interve-nant)) 561

C. La pratique recente des Etats 562i) La Convention sur le Danube 562

ii) L'affaire des lies d Aland 565iii) Le Traite sur la riviere Oder 568iv) Obligations conventionnelles prevoyant l'e'tablissement

de bases militaires 569v) Le condominium sur les Nouvelles-Hebrides 572

Section 4. La theorie ä l'epreuve desfaits: les normes codifiöes face äla pratique internationale r6cente 572Par. 1. La continuitö des frontieres et des regimes de frontiere, un

principe de droit international general 572A. Une pratique dominante mais pas unanime 572B. Rapports avec le principe de Vuti possidetis 573C. Quid du principe d'autodetermination ? 576

Par. 2. La continuite des autres regimes territoriaux, une tendancegenerale sans fondement uniforme 577


LES PROBLEMES DE SUCCESSION D'ETATS DANS L'AFFAIRE DE LA DETER-MINATION DE LA FRONTIERE MARITIME ENTRE LA GUINEE-BISSAU ET LESENEGAL 579

Section 1. Introduction 579Section 2. Les pretendues exceptions ä l'article 11 de la Convention de

Vienne du 8 avril 1978 liees au phgnomene de la decolonisation . . 583Par. 1. Les accords conclus pendant la periode dite suspecte . . . . 583

A. Le probleme de l'existence en droit international de la normequi rend inopposables ä l'Etat successeur les accords concluspendant la peYiode suspecte 584

XXII TABLE DES MATIERES — CONTENTS

B. Le probleme du fondement de l'inopposabilite ä l'Etat succes-seur des traites conclus au cours de la periode dite suspecte . 587

Par. 2. Les accords conclus en violation du principe de la souverai-nete permanente sur les richesses et ressources naturelles 588A. Les accords conclus en violation de la souverainete perma-

nente de l'Etat sur ses richesses et ressources naturelles . . . 590B. Les accords conclus en violation de la souverainete perma-

nente du peuple sur ses ressources et richesses naturelles . . . 591Par. 3. Les accords non publies 593

A. Le defaut de publication proprement dite 593B. L'assimilation de l'accord non publie ä un accord secret . . . 596

Section 3. Les pretendues exceptions ä l'article 11 de la Convention deVienne de 1978 liees au particularisme des accords de delimitationsmaritimes 597Par. 1. Le probleme de l'applicabilite aux delimitations maritimes du

principe de la succession automatique aux traites de frontiere . . 597A. Au plan du principe 598B. Au plan de la logique 602

Par. 2. L'equite, une condition de la succession aux accords de deli-mitations maritimes ? 603A. Le recours ä l'equite commande par les donnees de l'espece . 603B. L'absence d'une condition d'equite dans le droit de la succes-

sion aux traites 604Section 4. Conclusion 606

E. Succession d'Etats et droits des personnes . . . 609State Succession and Private Rights 609


STATE SUCCESSION AND THE NATIONALITY OF NATURAL PERSONS : FACTS ANDPOSSIBLE CODIFICATION 6 1 1

Section 1. Introduction 611Section 2. Possible criteria for the successor States to take into con-

sideration when determining the nationality of natural persons . . . 615Para. 1. State succession, nationality and the uniting of States . . . 615

A. State practice before 1990 616B. Recent State practice: the cases of Germany and Yemen . . . 617

(i) Reunification of Germany in 1990 617(ii) Unification of the two Yemenite States in 1990 618

C. Conclusion 618Para. 2. Succession in respect of part of territory through transfer of

territory 619A. An overview of the development of State practice 619B. Recent State practice in transfers of territory 621

(i) Transfer of Walvis Bay 621(ii) Hong Kong and Macao 622

C. Conclusion 623Para. 3. Separation of parts of a State to form one or more States

while the predecessor State continues to exist 624

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXIII

A. State practice until 1990 624B. Recent State practice 627

(i) Independence of Namibia 627(ii) Dissolution of the Soviet Union 627

(1) Practice of the Russian Federation 627(2) Belarus 629(3) Georgia 630(4) Kazakhstan 630(5) Kyrgyzstan 630(6) Moldova 630(7) Turkmenistan 631(8) Ukraine 631(9) Uzbekistan 632

(iii) Independence of Eritrea 1994 632C. Conclusion 632

Para. 4. Dissolution of a State, whereby part or parts of the territoryof a State separate to form one or more States and the predecessorState ceases to exist 633A. Dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . 634

(i) General questions 634(ii) Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro)

(FRY) 635(iii) Bosnia-Herzegovina 636(iv) Croatia 637(v) Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 638

(vi) Slovenia 639B. Dissolution of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR) 640

(i) Slovak Republic 640(ii) Czech Republic 640

C. Conclusion 641Section 3. The Obligation to avoid statelessness in the cases of State

succession 642Para. 1. Do the successor States have a general Obligation to avoid

causing statelessness ? 642Para. 2. Possible further obligations of continuing States 644Para. 3. The avoidance of statelessness and the duty to negotiate . . 644Para. 4. State succession, statelessness and the prohibition of dis-

crimination 646A. Introduction 646B. Convention on the Prohibition of All Forms of Racial Dis-

crimination 647C. United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms

of Discrimination against Women 648D. United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights . . . . 649E. European Convention on Human Rights 650

Section 4. The Obligation to grant a right of Option in cases of Statesuccession: is it yet part of customary international law ? 651Para. 1. Definition of the notion of "option" 651Para. 2. State practice until 1990 653Para. 3. The practice in the recent cases of State succession . . . . 654

A. Dismemberment of the USSR 654B. Dissolution of the former Yugoslavia 655

XXIV TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

C. Dissolution of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR) 656D. Independence of Namibia 657E. Independence of Eritrea, transfers of Hong Kong and Macao

to China and transfer of Walvis Bay to Namibia 657Para. 4. Conclusion 657

Section 5. Overall conclusions and possible Solutions de lege ferenda 659


RIGHTS OF PRIVATE PERSONS ON STATE SUCCESSION: AN APPROACH TO THEMOST RECENT CASES 663

Section 1. The relevance of this topic and the absence of codifica-tion 663Para. 1. Preliminary questions 663Para. 2. Codification tested against the facts: rights of private per-

sons that can be affected by State succession 665A. Obligations concerning rights of private persons imposed by

international law independently of a treaty 665B. Obligations concerning rights of private persons contained

in human rights treaties 671C. Other Conventions setting up rights of private persons . . . . 675D. Other rights 677

(i) Rights related to the personal Status 679(1) Prevention of statelessness versus the right to a

nationality 682(2) The right of Option for an alternative nationality . . 692

(ii) Rights with economic repercussions 696(1) Debts 697(2) Private property and rights derived from it 699(3) Concessionary rights, contracts, pensions and indem-

nities 707(iii) Unsettled judicial questions 712

E. Final remarks 714Section 2. Should this topic be codified by the International Law

Commission? 715

Deuxieme partieEtudes nationales 719

Part IINational Studies 719

A. Le cas de Vex-Union des Republiques socialistessovietiques 721The Case of the Former Soviet Union 721


THE DISSOLUTION OF THE SOVIET UNION IN THE LIGHT OF THE 1978 VIENNACONVENTION ON SUCCESSION OF STATES IN RESPECT OF TREATIES 7 2 3

Section 1. Introduction 723Section 2. Summary of facts 726

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXV

Para. 1. The creation of fifteen independent States on the territoryof the former Soviet Union 726

Para. 2. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 728Section 3. Preliminary positions of the fifteen independent States

formed on the territory of the former USSR 728Para. 1. Establishment of Russia's continuity 728Para. 2. Restoration of the pre-1940 identities of the Baltic States . 730Para. 3. The twelve "genuine" successor States 733

A. Ukraine and Belarus 733B. The "peripheral" States 734

Section 4. State succession and treaties of the predecessor State . . . 736Para. 1. State succession defined 736Para. 2. The 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in

Respect of Treaties 737A. Succession of States in cases of Separation of a part or parts of

a State 739B. Multilateral treaties of the former USSR, some examples of

practice 742(i) Arms control and disarmament 743

(1) The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 745(2) The Strategie Arms Reduction Treaty 746(3) The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe 748(4) The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 748

(ii) Human rights and humanitarian law treaties 749(1) The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punish-

ment of the Crime of Genocide 751(2) The 1965 International Convention on the Elimina-

tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 752(3) The 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Poli-

tical Rights 753(4) The 1966 International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights 754(5) The four 1949 Geneva Conventions for the Protec-

tion of War Victims 754(iii) Other treaties 755

(1) Vienna Convention on Diplomatie Relations . . . . 756(2) Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 756(3) The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transbound-

ary Air Pollution 757(4) The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the

Ozone Layer 757(5) The 1961 Convention Abolishing the Requirement

of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents . . . 758C. Boundary regimes and other territorial rögimes 758

(i) Boundary regimes 759(1) The Estonian-Russian border 761(2) The Sino-Russian border 762

(ii) Other territorial rögimes: the neutralization and demili-tarization of the Aland islands 765

Para. 3. Bilateral relations 768A. Austria and the former Soviet Republics 768

XXVI TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

B. Finland and the former Soviet Republics 770C. Poland and the former Soviet Republics 772

Section 5. Conclusions 774Para. 1. Indeterminacy and relativity of concepts 774Para. 2. State succession and international values 774Para. 3. No automatic succession 775

Section 6. Epilogue 775Chapitre 2 — Chapter 2

THE DIVISION OF STATE PROPERTY IN THE CASE OF STATE SUCCESSION IN THEFORMER SOVIET UNION 781

Section 1. Introduction 781Section 2. The division of State property in the Vienna Convention on

Succession of States in Respect of State Property 782Para. 1. Category of State property 782Para. 2. Notion of the division of State property 783Para. 3. Applicable law 784Para. 4. Date of the passing of State property 784Para. 5. Property rights in case of State succession 784Para. 6. Compensation 785Para. 7. Proviso on bilateral agreements and decisions 785Para. 8. The division of State property: Special categories of State

succession 786Section 3. The division of State property after dissolution of the

USSR: domestic laws and agreements 787Para. 1. The Soviet legal theory and law on the issues of State

property 787Para. 2. Different Status of the former Soviet Republics 789Para. 3. Pre-succession developments and agreements 793Para. 4. The Alma Ata declaration 796Para. 5. Post-Alma Ata agreements and practice 796

Section 4. Case studies 798Para. 1. Military State property 798

A. Nuclear weapons 798B. The division of non-nuclear military forces 803C. The ownership of the Black Sea fleet 805

Para. 2. Case studies of non-military State property 810A. Property abroad 810B. Property of the COMECON 812C. USSR's assets in conjunction with debts: relations with the

IMF, the World Bank, the EBRD and the "Paris Club" . . . . 813D. Leasing of cosmodrome Baikonur 815E. Cultural property 817F. Railroad transport 819G. Oil and gas pipelines 819

Section 5. The division of State property: codification tested againstthe facts 821Para. 1. Parameters for comparison 821Para. 2. Codification by the Vienna Convention: what could work . 821Para. 3. The division of State property in practice 822Para. 4. Contradictions between codification and the facts: what

could not work 824

TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS XXVII

B. Le cas de l'ex-Republique socialiste federative deYougoslavie 827The Case ofthe Former Yugoslavia 827


A PROPOS DE TROIS QUESTIONS RECURRENTES EN MATIERE DE SUCCESSIOND'ETATS: APPLICATION AU CAS YOUGOSLAVE 8 2 9

Section 1. Avant-propos 829Section 2. Introduction: L'arlequin yougoslave, condense des fractures

de l'Europe 831Par. 1. Les multiples visages 831

A. Une collection de peuples 831B. Une intrication de peuples 832

Par. 2. Le voile communiste 833A. Incoherence et complexit6 833B. Puissance et prospente" 834

Par. 3. Le masque du tragique 835A. De la prison au printemps des peuples 835B. Armee rouge, berets noirs et casques bleus 836

Section 3. Succession et autodetermination des peuples: les droits desentites constitutives d'Etats existants 837Par. 1. La meconnaissance du droit ä 1'autodetermination 838

A. La revendication d'un principe d'autodetermination destruc-teur des Etats 838

B. La consecration d'un principe d'autodetermination protecteurdes Etats 842

Par. 2. La reconnaissance du fait d'independance 845A. Les criteres du fait d'independance 845B. La date du fait d'independance 847

Section 4. Succession et identite d'Etat: les droits de l'Etat demembreresiduel 852Par. 1. La pretention de continuite et son inopposabilite 852

A. La creation de la RFY et sa pretendue identite juridique aveclaRSFY 852

B. Le jugement des membres de la communaute internationale etla subjectivite de leur decision 854

Par. 2. Le choix de la dissolution/discontinuite et la pratique contra-dictoire 858A. De la proclamation de l'inexistence d'un Etat au maintien de

son appartenance aux Nations Unies 858B. De la pratique surrealiste du membre fantöme ä la resurrection

d'une personnalite juridique? 861Section 5. Succession et constitution territoriale et politique: les droits

des nouveaux Etats 868Par. 1. La consecration dangereuse de Yuti possidetis juris 868

A. \Juti possidetis juris ä la veille d'une consecration gene-rale? 869

B. Uuti possidetis juris ä l'origine de la guerre en Yougoslavie . 871Par. 2. La promotion trompeuse d'un modele politique 874

XXVIII TABLE DES MATTERES — CONTENTS

A. Les lignes directrices de reconnaissance et leur non-respectdiscriminatoire 874

B. L'anonyme ARYM et l'appropriation grecque du terme «Ma-cedoine» 879



THE BURSTING OF YUGOSLAVIA: AN APPROACH TO PRACTICE REGARDINGSTATE SUCCESSION 8 8 9

Section 1. A brief chronology of facts relevant to State succession . . 889Section 2. Legal appreciation of the facts: continuity or succession ? . 892

Para. 1. The Standpoint of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia(Serbia-Montenegro) 893

Para. 2. The opinion of the other constituent republics as to the con-tinuity of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 894

Para. 3. The points of view of the international Community 896Section 3. The legal framework in the two Vienna Conventions on

State Succession 901Para. 1. The 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in

Respect of Treaties 901Para. 2. The 1983 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in

Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts 902Section 4. State practice relating to matters of State succession in the

Yugoslav case 902Para. 1. The question of succession in respect of treaties 903

A. Tbe position of the former Republics of the SFRY 903(i) Slovenia 903

(ii) Croatia . 906(iii) Bosnia-Herzegovina 906(iv) The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 908(v) Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 909

B. The point of view of the international Community and thirdStates 910(i) The views of the international Community 910

(ii) Third State actions 913Para. 2. Practice relating to State succession in respect of State

property, archives and debts 916Section 5. Some tentative conclusions: codification tested against the

facts 924

Bibliographie selective 927Selected Bibliography 927

Tables 969Indexes 969