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Labour law
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Labour law concerns theinequality of bargaining powerbetween employers and workers.
Labour law (also called labor law oremployment law) is the body oflaws, administrativerulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on,working peopleand
their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship betweentrade unions,
employers and employees. In Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are
differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no suchdistinction is made. However, there are two broad categories of labour law. First, collectivelabour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer and union. Second,individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work and through thecontractfor work.Thelabour movementhas been instrumental in the enacting of laws protectinglabour rightsin
the 19th and 20th centuries. Labour rights have been integral to the social and economic
development since theIndustrial Revolution.Employment standards are social norms (in somecases also technicalstandards) for the minimum socially acceptable conditions under which
employees or contractors will work. Government agencies (such as the former U.S.Employment
Standards Administration) enforce employment standards codified by labour law (legislative,regulatory, or judicial).
[editMain article:History of labour law
Labour law arose due to the demands for workers for better conditions, the right to organize, or,alternatively, the right to work without joining a labour union, and the simultaneous demands of
employers to restrict the powers of workers' many organizations and to keep labour costs low.
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Employers' costs can increase due to workers organizing to win higher wages, or by laws
imposing costly requirements, such as health and safety or restrictions on their free choice of
whom to hire. Workers' organizations, such astrade unions, can also transcend purely industrialdisputes, and gain political power. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the
product of, and a component of, struggles between different interests in society.
[edit] Individual labour law
[edit] Contract of employment
Main articles:Employment contractandAt-will employment
The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of theworker and the employer between one another are mediated through thecontractof employmentbetween the two. This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism and is the core reality of
modern economic relations. Many terms and conditions of the contract are however implied by
legislation or common law, in such a way as to restrict the freedom of people to agree to certainthings to protect employees, and facilitate a fluid labour market. In the U.S. for example,
majority of state laws allow for employment to be "at will", meaning the employer can terminate
an employee from a position for any reason, so long as the reason is not an illegal reason,including a termination in violation of public policy.
[1]
One example in many countries[2]
is the duty to provide written particulars of employment withtheessentialia negotii(Latinfor essential terms) to an employee. This aims to allow the
employee to know concretely what to expect and is expected; in terms of wages, holiday rights,
notice in the event of dismissal, job description and so on. An employer may not legally offer a
contract in which the employer pays the worker less than a minimum wage. An employee may
not for instance agree to a contract which allows an employer to dismiss them unfairly. There arecertain categories that people may simply not agree to because they are deemed categorically
unfair. However, this depends entirely on the particular legislation of the country in which thework is.
[3]
[edit] Minimum wage
Main article:Minimum wage
There may be law stating the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour. Australia,Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, Korea,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain,Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Vietnam and others have laws of this kind. Theminimum wage is usually different from the lowest wage determined by the forces ofsupply and
demandin afree market, and therefore acts as aprice floor. Each country sets its ownminimum
wage lawsand regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimumwage, many developing countries have not.
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1. Minimum wages are regulated and stipulated also in some countries that lack specificlaws. In Sweden, for instance, minimum wages are negotiated between the labour market
parties (unions and employer organisations) throughcollective agreementsthat also covernon-union workers and non-organised employers.
Minimum wage laws were first introduced nationally in the United States in 1938,
[4]
Brazil in1940[5]
India in 1948, France in 1950,[6]
and in the United Kingdom in 1998.[7]
In theEuropean
Union, 18 out of 25 member states currently have national minimum wages.[8]
[edit] Working time
See also:Eight-hour day
Before theIndustrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours. With the growth
ofindustrialismand the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, with
1415 hours being the norm, and 16 not at all uncommon. Use ofchild labourwas
commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of personsworking in the new water-powered textile factories were children.
[9]Theeight-hour movement's
struggle finally led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England,limiting miners to 12 hours, and children to 8 hours. The 10-hour day was established in 1848,
and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter. The 1802Factory Act
was the first labour law in the UK.
After England, Germany was the first European country to pass labour laws; Chancellor
Bismarck's main goal being to undermine theSocial Democratic Party of Germany(SPD). In1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists
continued gaining seats in theReichstag. The Chancellor, then, adopted a different approach to
tacklingsocialism. To appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic socialreforms, which became the first type ofsocial security. The year 1883 saw the passage of theHealth Insurance Act, which entitled workers to health insurance; the worker paid two-thirds,
and the employer one-third, of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while
old age pensions and disability insurance were established in 1889. Other laws restricted theemployment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the
working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government.
In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841. However, it limited only under-age miners'
hours, and it was not until theThird Republicthat labour law was effectively enforced, in
particular afterWaldeck-Rousseau1884 law legalizingtrade unions. With theMatignon
Accords, thePopular Front(1936
38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each yearofpaid vacationsfor workers and the law limiting to 40 hours the workweek (outside of
overtime).
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), a notorious, and now defunct case by theUSSupreme Courtthat regulation of working time (for bakeries) to limit workers to a 10-
hour day.
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[edit] Health and safety
Main article:Occupational safety and health
Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers. The earliest Englishfactorylaw was
drafted in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health ofchildtextileworkers.
[edit] Anti-discrimination
Main article:Anti-discrimination law
This clause means thatdiscriminationagainst employees is morally unacceptable and illegal, on
a variety of grounds, in particularracial discriminationorsexist discrimination.
[edit] Unfair dismissal
Main articles:Unfair dismissal,Wrongful dismissal, andAt-will employment
Convention no. 158of theInternational Labour Organizationstates that an employee "can't befired without any legitimate motive" and "before offering him the possibility to defend himself".
Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the FrenchFirst Employment Contract
(CPE), theLongjumeau(Essonne)conseil des prud'hommes (labour law court) judged theNewEmployment Contract(CNE) contrary tointernational law, and therefore "illegitimate" and
"without any juridical value". The court considered that the two-years period of "fire at will"
(without any legal motive) was "unreasonable", and contrary to convention no. 158, ratified by
France.[10][11]
[edit] Child labour
Main article:Child labour
Two girls wearing banners in Yiddish and English with the slogan "Abolish child slavery!!" at
the 1909May Dayparade in New York City
Child labour is theemploymentof children under an age determined by law or custom. Thispractice is consideredexploitativeby many countries and international organizations. Child
labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only becoming a disputed issue
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ipedia.org/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-will_employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrongful_dismissalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfair_dismissalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labour_law&action=edit§ion=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discriminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-discrimination_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labour_law&action=edit§ion=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labour_law&action=edit§ion=6 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with the beginning of universalschoolingand the concepts oflabourers'andchildren's rights.
Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents'
business, having one's ownsmall business(for example selling food), or doing odd jobs. Somechildren work as guides fortourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops
andrestaurants(where they may also work as waiters). Other children are forced to do tedious
and repetitive jobs such as assembling boxes, or polishing shoes. However, rather than infactories andsweatshops, most child labour occurs in the informal sector, "selling on the street,at work inagricultureorhidden away in housesfar from the reach of official inspectors and
from media scrutiny."[12]
[edit] Collective labour law
Collective labour law concerns the tripartite relationship between employer, employee andtrade
unions. Trade unions, sometimes called "labour unions"
[edit] Trade unions
Main article:Trade union
Some countries require unions to follow particular procedures before taking certain actions. Forexample, some countries require that unions ballot the membership to approve a strike or to
approve using members' dues for political projects. Laws may guarantee the right to join a union
(banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect. Some legal codes may allowunions to place a set of obligations on their members, including the requirement to follow a
majority decision in a strike vote. Some restrict this, such as the 'right to work' legislation in
some of the United States.
[edit] Strikes
Main article:Strike action
Strikers gathering in Tyldesley in the 1926General Strikein the U.K.
Strike actionis the weapon of the workers most associated with industrial disputes, and certainlyamong the most powerful. In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of
conditions. Among them may be that:
The strike is decided on by a prescribed democratic process. (Wildcat strikesare illegal).
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Sympathy strikes, against a company by which workers are not directly employed, maybe prohibited.
General strikesmay be forbidden by apublic order. Certain categories of person may be forbidden to strike (airport personnel, health
personnel, teachers, police or firemen, etc.)
Aboycottis a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business who is
generally believed by the participants in the boycott to be doing something morally wrong.
Throughout history, workers have used tactics such as thego-slow,sabotage, or just not turningup en-masse to gain more control over the workplace environment, or simply have to work less
[1]. Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it.
[edit] Pickets
Main article:Picketing (protest)
Picketingis a tactic which is often used by workers during strikes. They may congregate outsidethe business they are striking against to make their presence felt, increase worker participation,
and dissuade (or prevent)strike breakersfrom entering the workplace. In many countries, thisactivity is restricted by labour law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or sometimes
by injunctions on particular pickets. For example, labour law may restrictsecondary picketing
(picketing a business not directly connected with the dispute, such as a supplier of materials), orflying pickets(mobile strikers who travel to join a picket). There may be laws against obstructing
others from going about their lawful business (scabbing, for example, is lawful); making
obstructive pickets illegal, and, in some countries, such as Britain, there may be court orders
made from time to time against pickets being in particular places or behaving in particular ways(shouting abuse, for example).
[edit] Workplace involvement
Main article:Industrial democracy
Workplace consolation statutes exist in many countries, requiring that employers consult theirworkers on issues that concern their place in the company. Industrial democracy refers to the
same idea, but taken much further. Not only that workers should have a voice to be listened to,but that workers have a vote to be counted.
[edit] Co-determination
Main articles:Co-determinationandIndustrial democracy
Originating in Germany, some form of co-determination (orMitbestimmung) procedure ispractised in countries across continental Europe, such as Holland and the Czech Republic, as
well as Scandinavian countries (e.g. Sweden). This involves the rights of workers to be
represented on the boards of companies for whom they work. The German model involves halfthe board of directors being appointed by the company trade union. However, German company
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law uses a split board system, with a 'supervisory board' (Aufsichtsrat) which appoints an
'executive board' (Vorstand). Shareholders and unions elect the supervisory board in equal
number, except that the head of the supervisory board is, under co-determination law, ashareholder representative. While not gaining complete parity, there has been solid political
consensus since theHelmut Schmidtsocial democratgovernment introduced the measure in
1976.
In the United Kingdom, the similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced
named theBullock Report (Industrial democracy). This was released in 1977 by theJamesCallaghanLabour government. This proposal involved a similar split on the board, but its effect
would have been even more radical. Because British company law requires no split in the boards
of directors, unions would have directly elected the management of the company. Furthermore,
rather than giving shareholders the slight upper hand as happened in Germany, a debated'independent' element would be added to the board, reaching the formula 2x + y. However, no
action was ever taken as the UK slid into thewinter of discontent. This tied into the European
Commission's proposals for worker participation in the 'fifth company law directive', which was
also never implemented.
In Sweden, this is regulated through the 'Law on board representation' (Lagen omstyrelserepresentation). The law covers all private companies with 25 or more employees. In
these companies, workers (usually through unions) have a right to appoint two board members
and two substitutes. If the company has more than 1,000 employees, three members and three
substitutes are appointed by workers/unions. It is common practice that seats are divided betweenrepresentatives from the major union coalitions.
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