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Land Empires Qing and Ottoman Empires in the Age of Imperialism 1800-1870

“Land Empires”: Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

c. 1800

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: dates to 14th century

- grew up around land trade (caravan) moving between Asia, Africa, Europe

- most famous ‘silk route’

- 1453 conquered Constantinople (capital of Byzantium – former ‘Eastern Roman Empire’)

- large quarter European merchants: most remained or returned soon after conquest

- also: access to Mediterranean Sea, controlled black sea (trade from Russia)

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism By 16th century: integral part European trade networks

- meant Europeans represented at Ottoman court: ‘Suleiman the Magnificent’ widely known and respected

- developed army ‘Janissaries’ feared throughout Europe

- by end of century Ottomans controlled most North Africa, Balkans, Eastern Europe, parts southern Russia, Iraq, ‘Holy Lands’, Persian Gulf, Black Sea, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea


1683


C. 1800: considerable territory lost in Europe, Russia

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 “[1]…defeats and territorial withdrawals characterized

this long eighteenth century…[2]The political structure

continued to evolve… in a process that should be

seen as transformation…. Central rule continued in a

new and more disguised fashion as negotiation more

frequently than command…[3]Important changes

occurred in the Ottoman economy… the world

economy came to play an ever-larger role in the everyday lives of Ottoman subjects.” [numbers inserted by me] [Quataert, The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922, p.37]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798

- 1683: withdrawal from siege of Vienna marked beginning loss territories Europe

- 1686-1700: Russian-Ottoman War [“Great Turkish War”]

- Russia joined alliance of Austria, Poland, Venice: organized campaigns into Crimea (1687, 1689, 1695-6)

- Treaty of Constantinople 1700: 30 yr truce

- Crimea basically autonomous


Fortresses ceded to Russia 1700: Azov most important


- 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz: loss of European territories

-- gave up Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Transylvania, Aegean Islands, Southern Ukraine

- humiliating failure: acknowledged by Ottomans and Europeans


- For Europe: beginning of “Eastern Question” (Text)- long before 19th c.

- Treaty fundamentally changed political relations with Ottomans: but what would large regions of disputed control mean for Europe?

- what would clearly ‘weakened’ Ottoman empire mean for geo-political strategies – especially containment of Russia?


- for Ottomans: moment of ‘crisis’, generated debates about government

- political transformations: decentralization- building up strength of provincial administrations

-created new bureaucracy with civil servants and military loyal to Sultan


- simultaneously reducing powers of ‘traditional’ elites with invested (personal) interests: Religious clerics (ulama), Janissaries


- 1699-1774: wars with Russia

- Russia seeking direct access to

Mediterranean

through Black Sea,

Bosphorus Straits

and Dardanelles


- 1774:Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca - final “humiliating blow”

- Russia acquired two important Crimean ports: Azov (fought over since 1700), Kerch

- monopoly of north shore Black Sea: access it had long sought

- Plus: passage through Dardanelles

- full independence Crimea Khanate recognized: Russia annexed 1784


Independent 1774; Annexed by Russia 1784 for reasons of ‘defense’

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century 1683 – 1798

- 1798: Napoleon’s invasion Egypt (Ottoman Province) (Text)

- ‘conquest’ short-lived: Sultan sent Mohammed Ali with contingent Albanian soldiers

- Napoleon returned to France to seize power 1799 [recall lectures on ‘Revolutions in Atlantic

World’ – this was pivotal moment]

- provided Mohammed Ali with opportunity to create semi-autonomous province


- (Text) exaggerates importance re: French influence as consequence of Napoleon

- 18th century French influence already very strong in Empire [see below]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Selim III (1789-1807):

- recognized superiority European military

- ‘New World’ European wealth had been invested in standing armies, new technology, extended training

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807):

- Selim supported program to re-organize military and administration

- European officers brought to Istanbul to train modern army in rapid-fire artillery units

- Grand Admiral also charged with modernize navy


- established ‘New Order’ 1792-93: restructuring administration – new bureaus (e.g. Important Affairs, Chief of Secretaries)

- recognized importance of language: learning French new priority for young Ottomans [see point above about this NOT being result of French

presence in Egypt]


- established permanent diplomatic representatives in European capitals: ‘windows’ for importation of European

ideas – all ideas philosophical, political….

- also created embassy in Washington, US: beginning of close relations with America

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism New Administrative Bureaus: continued to be developed into 19th C.

- Bureau of Private Property Registration

- culmination of evolution taxation: shift to

local families becoming dynasties

- granting of formerly ‘public’ land (belonging to state) as ‘private’ to new elites in provinces

- de facto privatization by end 18th C.

NOT ‘imposition by or imitation of West!

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): also faced economic problems

- no agreed- upon analysis contemporary commentators:

- some criticized investment in modernizing army – among them those of ‘traditional’ military, social elite

- some blamed ‘Europe’ – saw Ottomans as behind in economic (as well as) military development – needed better relations with West

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Recent Argument [Quataert]: consequences of developments in Global Economy more than any single decision on part of Ottoman government

- development mercantilism (vis-à-vis colonies)

- banking systems, insurance, investment companies: tied to emerging capitalism in Europe Ottomans little to no opportunity to develop export industry processed or manufactured goods

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism “A clever Ottoman businessman might make much money, but he did not recycle it into the businesses of others, especially not into new methods of manufacturing. The limited capitalism of the Ottoman Empire was extremely conservative.” [McCarthy, The Ottomans…]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Second Issue Trade:

- extensive with Europe, Asia (especially India) but problem with nature : export raw materials, importation more expensive manufactured goods

Large part trade from Crimea and North/Horn Africa: slaves

- majority for domestic, harem use not economic growth [opposite to what we saw in

Americas]


Slave Trades into Ottoman

Empire: sources, routes


First-Hand Observer, 1785:

“…. the commerce of the Turks with Europe and India, is more detrimental than advantageous. For the articles exported being raw unwrought materials, the empire deprives itself of all the advantages to be derived from the labour of its own subjects. . . .


. . . On the other hand, the commodities being imported from Europe and India, being articles of pure luxury, only serve to increase the dissipation of the rich and the servants of government, whilst, perhaps they aggravate the wretched condition of

the people , and the class of cultivators.” [from Comte de Volney, French, first-hand observer 1782-85, Egypt,

Lebanon, Syria, Palestine]


French ambassador in Constantinople expressed the same conclusion in 1788:

- referred to Ottoman Empire as

"one of the richest colonies of France".

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Additional Issue: Education, Knowledge ‘outside world’ : - To whatever extent we determine that relations with Europe and/or the larger ‘global economy’ were central to defining ‘long 18th c.’, important to note that…

‘Ottomans (both state and people) were largely

ignorant of Europe -- its People, its Economy and

its Intellectual Development’

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Mahmud II (1808-39) built on earlier reforms:

- ministries established with set duties, regular salaries

- “Translation Bureau” 1821: European languages (especially French) taught

- attention to translating foreign materials, documents-- reducing reliance on Greeks, Armenians

- became ‘starting point’ for ambitious young civil servants

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism - Muslim, and non-Muslim students accepted: all part of creating yet another ‘new elite’ loyal to state

- reflected in growth of bureaucracy:

- c.1800: 2,000

- 1908: 35,000

- needed for growing control by state of public works, health, education, changing economy

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Difficult to implement Reforms:

- too few trained men

- ‘older’ administrators (part of pasha/vizier ‘elite’) publicly associated ‘changes’ with ‘Europe’ in order to generate resistance

- protecting own vested interests

- result : where reforms were successfully implemented usually led by young men with European education

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Concern with lack of performance of military, increasing rebelliousness had led to earlier attempts to limit power of Janissaries

- Selim III had attempted major overhaul

- established ‘new army’: European trained, fought like Europeans - seen as threat by Janissaries

- 1807: revolted, had Selim deposed, policies rescinded

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Mahmud II (successor): resolved to ‘deal with’ Janissaries but knew to tread more carefully

- build up special army, artillery corps among janissaries loyal and owing him for their positions

- 1826 New Army formed from ‘best of Janissaries’

- the rest of the Janissaries revolted


- street mobs loyal to sultan forced Janissaries in Istanbul back to their barracks

- they were then surrounded and attacked by Mahmud's artillery who set fire to barracks, killing janissaries trapped inside

- loyal troops carefully distributed: all those associated with Janissaries killed or banished

Fall of the Janissaries beginning of radical reform of Empire

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Abdul Mejid (1839-61): initiated Tanzimat Reforms

- 1839: gathered the Notables of Empire

- foreign minister read statement known as “Rose Chamber Decree”

- 1856: another statement issued -- “Imperial Rescript“

Together, comprised significant political reorganization--“Tanzimat”[see ‘Add’l Rdgs’]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Tanzimat: responding to BOTH internal and external pressures - a "palace revolution" strengthening bureaucrats in power and rising in power

- attempting to incorporate ideas about individual liberty and equality, within framework of autocratic government

- contained ‘germ’ of constitutional monarchy

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Rescript 1856:

- specifically dealt with equalizing Muslims and non-Muslims

- extended rights, privileges and responsibilities of Muslims to non-Muslims

- reforms to taxation, military conscription (for both Muslims, non-Muslims), education

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Reforms provoked criticism within society.

Either they went too far:

- “un-Islamic”

- undercutting traditional social relations (threatening)

Or they did not go far enough:

- western-educated elite, new civil service wanted greater popular participation in government [at least for their class]

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Led to emergence ‘Young Ottomans’ 1865:

- secretly formed ‘Patriotic Alliance’ (Young Ottoman Society) in Istanbul

- wanted more than ‘Tanzimat’ reform

- wanted ‘Ottoman Nation’: constitution, democracy

- strongly influenced by European - especially French- ideals of ‘democracy’

- also tied to closely to ‘conservative’ Islam

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Established newspaper ‘ Hurriyet’ (freedom, liberation):

- published articles, editorials on the ‘Muslim Ottoman’

- identified with non-ethnic based notion of ‘state’ (Ottoman) that was ‘Islamic’

- understood that this would alienate non- Muslims in the ‘empire’ but . . .


“The Young Ottomans were perhaps the first ideologists of Islam in modern times who tried to take the ‘ best of the West’ and graft it onto Islam.”

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Succeeded in having ministers appointed, influential journalists, some clerics:

- helped bring Abdul Hamid II to power 1876

- critical moment : ‘Eyes of Europe’ in Istanbul to discuss future of Balkans - used opportunity to push through first Ottoman Constitution

- Sultan gave appearance as ‘western’, ‘modern’

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Abdul Hamid II: astute politician -put constitution in place when it served his purpose (1876)

- revoked it when it did not (1878)

- Young Ottomans divided: stay OR go into exile (Europe, Egypt)

- By 1878: movement lost influence

- Young Ottomans’ writings influenced next generation ‘Young Turks’ Real change awaited their Revolution in 1908.

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