language ecology and language planning · language ecology and language planning ... (the strategic...
TRANSCRIPT
LANGUAGE ECOLOGY AND LANGUAGE PLANNING
IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE, THAILAND
Simmee Oupra
B.A. (English) Chiang Mai University, Thailand
M.Ed. (TEFL) Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Dip. (Research in Education) Edith Cowan University, Australia
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In Linguistics
Department of Linguistics
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
University of Adelaide, Australia
January, 2009
REFERENCES Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Section 30 (1997). Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand, Section 30 (2007). Abnett, W. B., & Cassidy, R. B. (2002). China's WTO accession: the road to implementation. (No.
3 NBR special Report). Seattle Washington: The National Bureau of Asian Research.
Abraham, C. (2007). West knows best. NewScientist, 35-37. Akha Foundation. (2004). Annual report 2004 (Annual Report). Chiang Rai, Thailand: Akha
Foundation. Albrecht, G., Freeman, S., & Higginbotham, N. (1998). Complexity and human health: the
case for a transdisciplinary paradigm. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 22, 55-92. Amery, R. (2000). Warrabarna Kaurna!: reclaiming an Australian language. Lisse, The
Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. Anatole-Roger, P., & Ritpen., S. (1997). Chiang Tung: its way of life. Chiang Mai; Thailand:
Dao computer Graphic. Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism.
London: Verso. Anderson, B. (1998). The spectre of comparison: nationalism, Southeast Asia and the World. New
York: Verso. Andressen, C. (1995). A social geographic overview of ethnic minorities in Southeast Asia.
In D. Myers (Ed.), The Politics of Multiculturalism in the Asia/Pacific. (pp. 21-40). Darwin; Australia: Northern Territory University Press.
Anonymous. (2006a, 13 February). Jeen naai “nikom ut Chiang Khong” dern krueng erd
baai nah ha ti 20 000 rai jow long toon nai sor por por Lao (China fed up with sluggish “Chiang Khong industrial estate” in search of 20 000 Rai land for investment in Laos). Matichon, www.matichon.co.th/prachachart/prachachart_detail.php?s_tag=02phu01130249&day=01132006/01130202/01130213. Viewed 13 May, 2007.
Anonymous. (2006b, 27 July). Phraraatchadumrut somdet phrathep nueng nai wun pasa
thai haeng chaat (Her highness Princess Sirindhorn's speech on the occasion of Thai National Language Day). Matichon, www.matichon.co.th/matichon/matichon_detail.php. Viewed 30 July, 2007
Anonymous. (2006c, 5 January). Prachao lan tue in Chiang Saen. Siang Seri Paap
(Independence News), p. 2.
392
Antaseeda, P. (2002, 1 December). Blasting the mighty mekong. Bangkok Post, www.earthisland.org/map/ltfrn_108.html. Viewed 15 July, 2007.
Archavanitkul, K. (2006, 14 May). Kwam samkun khong punha kwam pen thai tit taang
mai haeng jintanagarn (2), (The significance of ‘the problem of being Thai’: a new perspective (2)). Isra Institute, Thai Press Development Foundation. Isranews, http://www.isranews.org/cms/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=855&Itemid=47&lang=. Viewed 27 February, 2008.
Archavanitkul, K., Wajanasara, K., & Siangdung, H. (2007, November 2005). Kwam
runrang lae kwam taai pai tai nayobaai rath: goranee saam jungwat chai daen paak tai (The violence and death under the government policy: the case of the southern three provinces). http://www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/content/home/ConferenceII/Article/Article12.htm. Viewed 9 March, 2007.
Arya, G. (2005a, 10 May). Bilingual education: key to goal of unified South. The Nation, p.
2. Arya, G. (2005b, 4 May). Gothom: language remains a crucial issue for deep South. The
Nation, p. 2. Arya, G. (2005c, 11 August). Unity in diversity: cultural identity in the South. The
Nation, http://www.nationamultimedia.com. Viewed 4 October, 2005. Arya, G. (2005d, 18 May). Unity in diversity: education to suit local needs in the South. The
Nation, p. 2. Asian Centre for Human Rights. (2005, 29 August - 2 September). Beyond gender: illegal laws,
ethnicity, armed conflicts and trafficking. Paper presented at the 13th workshop of the Framework on regional cooperation for the promotion and protection of human rights in the Asia Pacific region., Beijing, Peoples Republic of China.
Assawayingtaworn, S. (2002). A study on Thai and Aq Kaq Cultural Integration Process of Aq
Kaq Students in Elementary School: A Case Study of Aq Kaq Students at Pamee Village, Maesai District, Chiang Rai Province. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.
Baer, H. A. (1990). Biocultural approaches in medical anthropology: a critical medical
anthropology commentary. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 4(3), 344-348. Baker, C., & Phongpaichit, P. (2005). A History of Thailand. Singapore: Cambridge
University Press. Balasegaram, M. (2001, 29 August). Analysis: South-East Asia's Chinese. BBC
News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1514916.stm. Viewed 14 November, 2006.
Barlow, J. J. (2006, 30 September). Chiang Rai
Guide. http://www.chiangraiprovince.com/guide/. Viewed 30 September, 2006.
393
Belcher, T. (1999). Australia joins disease surveillance network. ANU Reporter, 30(3), 1. Bell, R. T. (1976). Sociolinguistics: Goals, Approaches and Problems. London: Batsford. Bellwood, P. (1999). South East Asia before history. In N. Tarling (Ed.), The Cambridge
history of South East Asia (Vol. 1, pp. 55-136). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benedict, P. K. (1975). Austro-Thai: Language and Culture with a Glossary of Roots. New Haven,
Connecticut: HRAF Press. Blanchard, W. (1958). Thailand: Its People Its Society Its Culture. New Haven, Connecticut:
HRAF Press. Boonkamyueng, S. (Ed.). (2006). Karn kah chai dan jeen Thai ton tai (Border trade between
southern China and Thailand), in ekkasarn prakorb karn fuek obrom chut tee 1: settagit karn muang lae sang khom wattanatham jeen (Articles on "China's Economics, Politics, and Culture" from different sources collected as readers for seminar participants who were executives administrators at Chiang Rai Rajabhat University). Chiang Rai, Thailand: Photocopy prints.
Boonmuang, P. (2003). Luk Pasa Lanna (Lanna Grammar) (1st ed.). Chiang Rai, Thailand:
Siam kosana lae garnpim. Bowtell, B. (1996, 31 July). AIDS conspiracy theory misses mark. The Australian, p. 10. Bradley, D. (1989). Identity: the persistence of minority groups. In J. McKinnon & W.
Bhruksasri (Eds.), Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Bradley, D. (1996a). Southwestern Dai as a lingua franca. In S. A. Wurm, P. Mühlhäusler &
D. T. Tryon (Eds.), Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. (Vol. 2, pp. 779-781). Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bradley, D. (1996b). Yunnanese Chinese. In S. A. Wurm, P. Mülhäusler & D. T. Tryon
(Eds.), Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. (Vol. 2, pp.785-786). Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bradley, D. (2007). Languages of mainland South-East Asia. In O. Miyaoka, O. Sakiyama
& M. E. Krauss (Eds.), The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim (pp. 302-336). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brewer, J. D. (2000). Ethnography. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Briggs, L. P. (1949). The appearance and historical usage of the terms Tai, Thai, Siamese
and Lao. Journal of American Oriental Society., 69(2), 60-73. Buderi, R., & Huang, T. G. (2007). Guanxi: Microsoft, China and Bill Gates' Plan to the Road
Ahead. London: Arrow books. Bun, C. K., & Kiong, T. C. (1993). Rethinking assimilation and ethnicity: the Chinese in
394
Thailand. International Migration Review, 27(1), 140-168. Burutpat, S., Sujaritluck, D., & Srijumpa, S. (1997). Ngarn wijai paasasart nai prathet Thai
(Linguistics Research in Thailand). Bangkok: Thailand National Research Committee. Callen, M. (1990). AIDS: the linguistic battlefield. In C. Ricks & L. Michaels (Eds.), The
State of the Language. London: Faber and Faber. Cameron, D. (2002). Language: diversity in danger. Critical Quaterly, 44(4), 135-139. Cameron, D., Frazer, E., Harvey, P., Rampton, B., & Richardson, K. (1993). Ethics,
advocacy and empowerment: issues of method in researching language. Language & Communication, 13(2), 81-94.
Campbell, R. (1986). Teak-Wallah: The Adventures of a Young Englishman in Thailand in the
1920s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Capra, F. (1992). The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and
Eastern Mysticism. (3rd ed.). London: Flamingo. Carbaugh, D. (1989). Fifty terms for talk: a cross-cultural study. In S. T. Toomey & F.
Korzenny (Eds.), Language, Communication, and Culture. California: Sage. Casino Jr., V. J. D. (2004). (Re)placing health and health care: mapping the competing
discourses and practices of “traditional” and “modern” Thai medicine. Health & Place, 10, 59-73.
Charoenma, N. (1982). The phonologies of a Lampang Lamet and Wiang Papao Lua. The
Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 11, 35-45. Charoenmuang, T. (1995). When the young cannot speak their own mother tongue:
explaining a legacy of cultural domination in Lan Na. In V. Grabosky (Ed.), Regions and National Integration in Thailand, 1892-1992. (pp. 82-93). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz.
Charoenmuang, T. (2006, 1 December). Puwa CEO: jaak wun wan tueng wun nii (The
CEO Governor: from yesterday to today). Matichon Sudsupda (Matichon Weekly), 27, 33-36.
Chiang Khong District Office. (2005). Amphoe Chiang Khong, changwat Chiang Rai: ekkasarn
banyaai saroop sapaab thua pai amphoe Chiang Khong nueng nai okaat karn dern taang ma truaj yiam amphoe Chiang Khong khorng phuwarajakarn changwat Chiang Rai nai Worakiat Somsroi. (Chiang Khong district, Chiang Rai province: A Summary of Chiang Khong District Prepared for Mr. Worakiat Somsroi, the Governor of Chiang Rai’s Visit). Chiang Khong, Chiang Rai: Photocopy prints.
Chiang Rai Education Office Area 3. (2005). Paen yuttasart yok radub kwaam samart nai garn
chai pasa angkrit khorng prachakorn Thai (The Strategic Plan in Upgrading the English Language Capabilities of Thai Population.). www.cr3.go.th/sornor/English/about01.html. Viewed 14 November, 2007.
395
Chiang Rai Global AIDS Program Office. (2008). Sathanakaan AIDS (AIDS
Situation). http://cro.moph.go.th/gapchiangrai/Indexmap.aspx. Viewed 4 March, 2008.
Chiang Rai National Statistical Office. (2005). Provincial Statistical Report: 2005. Chiang Rai: National statistical Office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology.
Chiang Rai Provincial Office. (2005a). Chiang Rai
Province. www.chiangrai.go.th/CrCoGov/chiangrai_english.htm. Viewed 24 March, 2005.
Chiang Rai Provincial Office. (2005b). Chiang Rai Strategies. www.chiangrai.go.th. Viewed 1
November, 2005. Chuamsakul, S. (2006). Education and Hmong Culture Change: A study of Two Hmong Villages in
Northern Thailand. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
Chupaka, S. (2000, June 12-18). Academic authors struggle to get into print. The
Nation. http://www.nationmultimedia.com/edu/_back/june2012_2018/academia2001.html. Viewed 19 March, 2004.
Chupinit, K. (1994). Dubious development concepts in the Thai highlands: the chaokao in
transition. Law and Society Review, 28(3), 673-687. CIA. (2006). The World
Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html Viewed 7 September, 2006.
Clarke, M. (2002). Achieving behaviour change: three generations of HIV/AIDS
programming and jargon in Thailand. Development in Practice, 12(5), 625-636. Colquhoun, A. (1885). Amongst the Shans. London. Connors, M. K. (2003). Democracy and National Identity in Thailand. Oxon: RoutledgeCurzon. Conver, L. C. (1999). A sketch of the phonology of a Lamet dialect. The Mon-Khmer Studies
Journal, 29, 35-56. Cox, P. A. (1996). Will tribal knowledge survive the millennium? Science, 287, 44-45. Cribb, J. (1993, 22 December). Research fails to nail AIDS virus. The Australian, p. 16. Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Crystal, D. (2000). Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Csordas, T. J. (1988). The conceptual status of hegemony and critique in Medical
Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 2(4, Gramsci, Marxism and
396
Phenomenology: Essays for the Development of Critical Medical Anthropology), 416-421.
Daily News Newspaper. (2000, 11 September). Akha nuea khun kao kaew klang dong
kanaan tae (Akha: The Gem in the Hills). Daily News.(Vol. 18569). Dalby, A. (2002). Language in Danger. London: Penguin Books. Davis, S. (2003). Premodern flows in postmodern China: globalization and the
Sipsonpanna Tais. Modern China, 29(2), 176-203. Deal, T. E. (1985). The symbolism of effective schools. In A. Westoby (Ed.), Culture and
Power in Educational Organizations. Buckingham: Open University Press. Dearden, P. (1991). Tourism and sustainable development in Northern Thailand.
Geographical Review., 81(4), 400-414. DeFrancis, J. (1984). Digraphia. WORD Journal of the International Linguistics Association,
35(1), 59-66. Delang, C. O. (2002). Deforestation in northern Thailand: the result of Hmong farming
practices or Thai development strategies? Society and Natural Resources, 15, 83-501. Denscombe, M. (1995). Teachers as an audience for research: the acceptability of
ethnographic approaches to classroom research. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice., 1(2), 173-191.
Department for the Control of AIDS and Venereal Diseases, Public Health Office Chiang
Rai. (2002). The AIDS situation in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand: Data Gathered from June 1988 to 25th May 2002. http://www.depdc.org/assets/eng/reference/statistics_hiv_aids_in_chiangrai.pdf. Viewed 4 March, 2008.
Department of Foreign Trade. (2006). Border Trade Report for February
2007. http://www.dft.moc.go.th/chiangrai/index.asp. Viewed 2 May, 2007. Department of Provincial Administration. (2008). Ken karn jud tang moo baan (Village
Registration Criteria). http://www.dopa.go.th/web_pages/m03100000/vil_adm.html. Viewed 30 April, 2008.
Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative Data Analysis: A User Friendly Guide for Social Scientists. London:
Routledge. Dhammawimolmolee, P. (2005). 100 pi kabot Ngiaew nai Lanna nai pi 2448 (A century of Shan
Riots in Lanna in 1905) (2nd ed.). Phayao, Thailand: Nakorn News Publishing. Downer, G. (1989-1990). The Tai element in Khmu? Mon-Khmer Studies, 18-19, 44-51. Duangnate, L. (n.d.-a). Prawat morh Briggs (Dr. Briggs’ Biography). No editors’ names
(Ed.), 100 pee ongpayabaan Overbooks (Commemoration of Overbrooks Hospital's
397
Centenary). Chiang Rai. Duangnate, L. (n.d.-b). Prawat rongpayabaan Overbrooks (The history of Overbrooks
Hospital.). In 100 pee rongpayabaan Overbooks (Commemoration of Overbrooks Hospital's Centenary). Chiang Rai.
Duranti, A. (1997). Linguistics Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Estroff, S. E. (1988). Whose hegemony? A critical commentary on critical Medical
Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 2(4), 421-426. Ethnologue. (2004a). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. http://www.ethnologue.com.
Viewed 5 March, 2004. Ethnologue. (2004b). Lü. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=khb.
Viewed 30 September, 2008. Faingold, E. D. (2004). Language rights and language justice in the constitutions of the
world. Language Problems and Language Planning, 28(1), 11-24. Ferguson, C. A. (1959). Diglossia. WORD Journal of the International Linguistics Association, 15,
325-340. Ferguson, C. A. (1972). C.A. Ferguson (1959) Diglossia. In P. P. Giglioli (Ed.), Language
and Social Context: Selected Readings. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books. Fill, A. (2001). Ecolinguistics: the state of the art 1998. In A. Fill & P. Mühlhäusler (Eds.),
The Ecolinguistics Reader: Language, Ecology and Environment. (pp. 43-53). London: Continuum.
Fill, A., & Mühlhäusler, P. (Eds.). (2001). The Ecolinguistics Reader: Language, Ecology and
Environment. London: Continuum. Finkelstein, J. L. (1990). Biomedicine and technocratic power. The Hastings Centre Report,
20(4), 13-16. Fishman, J. (1967). Bilingualism with and without diglossia: diglossia with and without
bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23(2), 29-38. Fishman, J. (1996). Maintaining language: what works? What doesn't? In G. Cantoni (Ed.),
Stabilising Indigenous Languages (Online). http://www.ncela.guw.edu/miscpubs/stabilize/conclusion.html. Viewed 12 March, 2004. Flagstaff: Centre for excellence in education, Northern Arizona University.
Friedman, T. (2006). The World is Flat: The Globalised World in the Twenty-First Century. New
York: Penguin books. FTA Watch. (2005, 7 March). Pud muang mai chai dan rub settagit chai dan (New city
emerged for border zone trade) Article from a Thai newspaper compiled by the FTA watch organization site. Thai Post, http://www.ftawatch.org. Viewed 7 March,
398
2005. Ganjanapan, A. (2000). Local Control of Land and Forest: Cultural Dimensions of Resources
Management in Northern Thailand. RSCD Regional Centre for Social Science and Sustainable Development. Bangkok, Thailand: Amarin.
Ganjanapan, A. (2005). Tidsadee lae witee vittaya khong garn vijai wattanatham (Theory and
Methodology in Culture Research). Bangkok, Thailand: Amarin. Garfinkel, H. (1974). The origins of the term ethnomethodology. In R. Turner (Ed.),
Ethnomethodology. Middlesex, England: Penguins Education. Garfinkel, H. (1984). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Garnier, F. (1996a). Further Travels in Laos and in Yunnan: The Mekong Exploration
CommissionReport (1866-1868) - Volume 2 (W. E. J. Tips, Trans. Original Publication in 1885 in F. Garnier, Voyage d'Exploration en Indo-Chine, Hatchette & Cie, Paris. ed. Vol. 2). Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press.
Garnier, F. (1996b). Travels in Cambodia and Part of Laos: The Mekong Exploration Commission
Report (1866-1868) Volume 1 (W. E. J. Tips, Trans. Original Publication in 1885 in F. Garnier, Voyage d'Exploration en Indo-Chine, Hatchette & Cie, Paris. ed. Vol. 1). Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press.
Gliangglao, L. (2007). Attaluk ti mee kwamsumkun yaangying khon khon ti ni kue kwam pen
malayu sung mai mee puen ti nai kwam pen chart thai (The Identity of the People here is Melayu, This Identity Has No Space in Thai Nation). http://www.tjanews.org/cms/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1775&Itemid=56&lang. Viewed 8 March, 2007.
Greenfeld, L. (1992). Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. London: Harvard University
Press. Grover, J. Z. (1990). AIDS: Keyword. In C. Ricks & L. Michaels (Eds.), The State of
Language (pp. 142-162). London: Faber and Faber. Gunn, G. (1995). The politics of literacy and multiculturalism in Southeast Asia. In D.
Myers (Ed.), The Politics of Multiculturalism in the Asia/Pacific. (pp. 14-20). Darwin, Australia: Northern Territory University Press.
Haas, M. R. (1951). Interlingual word taboo. American Anthropologist, 53(3), 338-344. Hahn, R. A., & Kleinman, A. (1983). Biomedical practice and anthropological theory:
frameworks and directions. Annual Review of Anthropology, 12, 305-333. Haugen, E. (2001). The ecology of language. In A. Fill & P. Mühlhäusler (Eds.), The
Ecolinguistics Reader (pp. 57-66). London: Continuum. Heikkila-Horn, M.-L. (2002, 17 October). Many hidden language assets in Thailand. The
Nation. http://www.nationmultimedia.com Viewed 4 October, 2004.
399
Heller, M. (2003). Globalization, the new economy, and the commodification of language and identity. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 473-492.
Hodgkinson, N. (1992, 26 April). AIDS: can we be positive? The Sunday Times, pp. 12-13. Huai Saw Sub-district Local Administration Office. (2004). Household Statistics in Huay Saw
Sub-district. Huai Saw Sub-district, Chiang Khong, Chiang Rai: Photocopy prints. Hudson, R. A. (1980). Sociolinguistics: Sydney: Cambridge University Press. Human Rights Watch. (2007). Thailand: Internal Security Act Threatens Democracy and Human
Rights. Government Proposes Draconian Steps to Institutionalize Military Control. http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/11/05/thaila17239.htm Viewed 23 December, 2007.
Ida, J. (2005). Karn song serm karn nuad phaen Thai nai moo baan thaang phaak nueah
khorng Thai: karn patibat khorng khon thong thin lae amnaj watakum “poompanya Thai”. (Thai massage support in northern Thailand villages: local practices and power of “Thai wisdom” discourse). In D. Inmuean (Ed.), Poompanya sukapaab: patibat karn tor rong khorng kwaam roo thong thin. (Health Wisdom: The Negotiation of Local Wisdom). (Vol. 1, pp. 15-54). Sirinthorn Anthropological Centre, Bangkok: O.S. Printing.
Inthorn, A. (2006). Tong tiew Chiang Rai tong chai gateway hai gerd prayoj soong sud
(Tourism in Chiang Rai must make maximal use of the gateway.). Chiang Rai Update, 1(1), 5-6.
Izikowitz, K. G. (1979). Lamet: Hill Peasants in French Indochina. (A Reprint of the 1951 ed.).
New York: AMS Press. Jacobson, D. (1991). Reading Ethnography. Albany: State University of New York Press. Jaichalard, P. (2004a, 24 July). Many ethnic minority languages facing extinction. The
Nation, http://www.nationmultimedia.com. Viewed 4 October, 2005. Jaichalard, P. (2004b, 16 July). UN report: diversity key to development. The
Nation, http://www.nationmultimedia.com. Viewed 4 October, 2005. Jamjit, C. (2005a). Anijja Paasa Lanna (Alas! Lanna language). Chainarai, 28(12), 24. Jamjit, C. (2005b). Baeb hud aan khian (Reading and hand-writing exercise). Chinarai,
28(12), 36. Jamjit, C. (2006). Roo juk tua muang rueng pariwat (Knowing northern Thai script and
transformation). Hirunnakorn, 1(5), 50. Jernudd, B. H. (1995). Personal names and human rights. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas, R.
Phillipson & M. Rannut (Eds.), Linguistic Human Rights: Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination (pp. 121-134). Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Jiamteerasakul, S. (2004, 1 June). Prathet Thai aayu krob 65: kor moon mai kiew kub garn
400
plian chue prathet pi 2482 (Thailand’s 65th
anniversary: new information on the change of the its name in 1939). Arts and Culture, 25, 76-97.
Jirathiwat, S. (2005, 25 November). Kwamsampan taang settagit Thai-Jeen: pajjubun lae anakot (Sino- Thai Economic Relationship: Present and Future). Paper presented at the 30 pi kwam sampaun Thai-Jeen/ 600 pi Sam Po Kong/Zheng He kab Ayuthaya lae usakaney (30 years Sino-Thai Relationship/600 years Sam Po Kong/Zheng He and Ayuthaya and South East Asia), Navy Conference Centre, Bangkok.
Jumsai, S. (2005, 21 November). The South: a question of history. The Nation, p. 8A. Kachru, Y., & Nelson, C. L. (2006). World Englishes in Asian Contexts. Hong Kong: Hong
Kong University Press. Kampe, K. (1997). Introduction: indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia. In D. McCaskill &
K. Kampe (Eds.), Development or Domestication? Indigenous Peoples of Southeast Asia (pp. 1-25). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.
Kaosa-ard, M. (2005). Natural resources and the environment. In P. Warr (Ed.), Thailand
Beyond the Crisis. London: Routledge. Kaosod Newspaper. (2005, 14 September). Sor por thor wang krob chai paasa malayu nai
Thai. Kaosod, http://www.matichon.co.th/khaosod/khaosod_detail.php?s_tag=03edu02140948&day=02142005/02140909/02140914. Viewed 12 November, 2007.
Kaosod Newspaper. (2006, 16 May). Loei obrom garn rianroo pasathai rongrian tor chor
daw (Loei Province organises workshop in Thai language learning for border patrol police schools). Kaosod, www.matichon.co.th/kaosod. Viewed 12 November, 2007.
Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B. (1997). Language Planning: From Practice to Theory. Cleaveland,
UK: Multilingual Matters. Kasetsiri, C. (2005). Jaak sayaam pen thai nun sumkun chanai (From Siam to Thailand: What Is
Important in a Name?) (1st ed.). Bangkok: Matichon. Kasetsiri, C. (2006a, 27 February - 1 March 2006). Hetgarn kwam mai sa-ngob nai changwat
chaidaen paak tai gub prawatsart baad prae (The Turmoil in the Southern Provinces and a Scared History.). Paper presented at the understanding of neighbouring countries for administrators: Economics, politics and culture of China. Chiang Rai Rajabhat University, Chiang Rai, Thailand.
Kasetsiri, C. (2006b). Prawattisart, garnsuksalaorian, babrian-sue-singpim: Thai gub prathet
puenbaan nai usakaney/ASEAN (History, Education, Textbooks, Media and Publications: Thai and Is Neighbouring Countries in South East Asia/ASEAN). Powerpoint presentation in the seminar at Chiang Rai Rajabhat University for participants who were executives administrators. Unpublished manuscript, Chiang Rai, Thailand.
Keay, J. (2005). Mad About the Mekong: Exploration and Empire in South East Asia. London:
Harper Perennial.
401
Khaosod Newspaper. (2007, 18 July). Chi pasa tai klai soon pun nae tong poom jai nai ekkaluck (Southern Thai is endangered and a suggestion made is to be proud of this unique identity). Khaosod, http://www.matichon.co.th/khaosod/khaosod_detail.php?s_tag=03raj02180750&day=02182007/02180707/02180718§ionid=02180331. Viewed 18 July, 2007.
Khongcharoen, I.-O. (2003). Prawatsart Tai Muang Kiang (The History of Muang Kiang Tai).
Thailand: Thailand Research Foundation. Kiatpreecha, P. (2001). Bab rian paasa Lanna (Lanna Language Course Book). Chiangrai,
Thailand. Kim, C. S. (2002). One Anthropologist, Two Worlds: Three Decades of Reflexive Fieldwork in North
America and Asia. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. Kingkham, W. (2004). Paasa Thai tin (Thai Dialects) (2nd ed.). Bangkok: Kasetsart
University. Kingsman, A. (1992). AIDS: a challenge for biotechnology. Oxford Innovation News(7), 3-7. Klaysuwan, S. (2006). Paasa Thai khrai kid wah mai samkan (Thai! Who said it is not
important?). Fa Nueah Journal of Humanities, 1(1), 28-34. Knecht, B. G. (1994). Thais that bind. National Review, 46(22), 58-58. Koestenbaum, W. (1990). Speaking in the shadows of AIDS. In C. Ricks & L. Michaels
(Eds.), The State of the Language (pp. 164-170). London: Faber and Faber. Kruethai, P. (2002). Aksorn Thai Nithet (Thai Nithet Alphabet). Chiang Mai, Thailand. Kruewiwatkul, S. (2006). Garn rian garn sorn pasaa jeen nai prathet thai (Learning and
teaching Chinese in Thailand). Fa Nueah Journal of Humanities, 1(1 March), 1-4. Krungthepthurakit Newspaper. (2005, 4 November). Sor tor prub luksoot wicha pasathai
dekthai on-air long (The Ministry of Education revises Thai language curriculum as Thai kids are weak). Krungthep Thurakit, www.bangkokbiznews.com/2005/2011/2004/news_19060694.php?news. Viewed 15 January, 2007.
Lasimbang, R., Miller, C., & Otigil, F. (1992). Language competence and use among
coastal Kadazan children. In W. Fase, Jaspaert, Koen, & Kroon, Sjaak (Ed.), Maintainance and Loss of Minority Language. (pp. 333-355). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Leech, G. (1993, 22 December). Theory of HIV as culprit under the microscope. The
Australian, p. 17. Leepreecha, P. (1997). Jungle tours: a government policy in need of review. In D.
McCaskill & K. Kampe (Eds.), In Development or Domestication? (pp. 268-288). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm books.
402
Leesueng, T., & Thongchai, U. (1988). Prawattisart Lanna Thai samai rajawong Mangrai jaak
ekasarn jeen (Lanna Thai History During the Mangrai Dynasty From Chinese Documents). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Chiang Mai University.
Lekawatana, P. (2003). The role of language in national unity and individual identity.
Thoughts: Journal of the Department of English, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University.(The Celebration of The Royal Princess Maha Chakri Sirindorn’s Fourth Cycle Birthday Anniversary), 31-42.
Leuangaramsri, P. (2003). Ethnicity and the politics of ethnic classification in Thailand. In
C. Mackerras (Ed.), Ethnicity in Asia. (pp. 157-173). London: RoutledgeCurzon. Li, F. K. (Ed.). (1966). The Relationship Between Tones and Initials in Tai. The Hague: Mouton
& Co. Li, P. S. (2001). The Economics of minority language identity. Canadian Ethnic Studies,
33(3), 134. Liando, N. V. F. (1999). Foreign Language Learning in Primary Schools with Special Reference to
Indonesia, Thailand and Australia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia.
Luengthongkham, T. (2002). Paasa Thai laak laai sum niang: khwaam roo tee poo kamnod
nayobaai lae panpasa khong chat khuan picharana. (Dialectal Thai: Knowledge that Language Planners Should Consider). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.
Lyttleton, C. (1994). Knowledge and Meaning: The AIDS Education Campaign in Rural
Northeast Thailand. Soc.Sci.Med., 38(1), 135-146. Madison, D. S. (2005). Critical Ethnography: Methods, Ethics, and Performance. Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage Publications. Maesai Sub-district Local Administration Office. (2005). Phaen 3 pi or bor tor Maesai. (Three
Years Plan of Maesai Sub-district). Official Report, Maesai, Chiang Rai. Maffi, L. (2001a). Introduction: On the Interdependence of Biological and Cultural
Diversity. In L. Maffi (Ed.), On Biocultural Diversity: Linking Language, Knowledge and the Environment. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Maffi, L. (Ed.). (2001b). On Biocultural Diversity: Linking Language, Knowledge, and the
Environment. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Manager Online Newspaper. (2007a, 22 February). Sor tor hai kru daen mungkorn obrom
maepim sorn paasajeen (The Ministry of Education approved of Chinese language teachers from China to run a Chinese language teaching workshop). Manager Online, www.manager.co.th. Viewed 22 February, 2007.
Manager Online Newspaper. (2007b, 26 May). Wor wachiramethi nae tid pik hai panya kae
sangkhom Thai (Wor Wachiramethi suggested Thais to attach wings to brains to enhance wisdom). Manager, www.manager.co.th. Viewed 28 May, 2007.
403
Mani, A. (1993). Indians in Thailand. In K. S. Sandhu & A. Mani (Eds.), Indian Communities
in Southeast Asia (pp. 911-950). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore: Times Academic Press.
Maniratanavongsiri, C. (1997). Religion and social change: ethnic continuity and change
among the Karen in Thailand. In D. McCaskill & K. Kampe (Eds.), In Development or Domestication? (pp. 237-267). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm books.
Marcus, G. E. (1998). Ethnography Through Thick and Thin. Princeton: Princeton University
Press. Marker, M. (2003). Indigenous voice, community, and epistemic violence: the
ethnographer's “interests” and what “interests” the ethnographer. Qualitative Studies in Education, 16(3), 361-375.
Massey, A. (1998, 7-8 September). “The Way We Do Things Around Here”: The Culture of
Ethnography. Paper presented at the Ethnography and Education Conference, Oxford University Department of Educational Studies (OUDES).
Matichon Newspaper. (2007a, 27 July). Nai luang song huang pasathai plianpai mai pueng
prasong (The King deeply worried about Thai language, undesirably changed). Matichon, www.matichon.co.th. Viewed 27 July, 2007.
Matichon Newspaper. (2007b, 30 August). Ror mor tor wattanatham sanong phra
borommarachowaat reng kae punha pasa Thai pian. (The Culture Ministry carry out the King's idea on solving the problem of diverted Thai). Matichon, www.matichon.co.th/news_detail.php?id=2975&catid=2003. Viewed 22 November, 2007.
Matisoff, J. A. (1989). Linguistic diversity and language contact. In J. McKinnon & W.
Bhruksasri (Eds.), Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. Matisoff, J. A. (1991). Endangered languages of mainland Southeast Asia. In R. H. Robins
& E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered Languages. New York: St. Martin’s Press. McCarthy, J. (1994). Surveying and Exploring in Siam, With Descriptions of Laos Dependencies and
of Battles Against the Chinese Haw (Reprinted of the original publication in 1900 ed.) Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Press.
McCaskill, D. (1997). From tribal peoples to ethnic minorities; the transformation of
indigenous peoples: a theoretical discussion. In D. McCaskill & K. Kampe (Eds.), Development or Domestication? Indigenous Peoples of Southeast Asia (pp. 26-60). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm books.
McKinnon, J., & Bhruksasri, W. (Eds.). (1989). Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur:
Oxford University Press. Mead, K. K. (2004). The Rise and Decline of Thai Absolutism. Oxfordshire: RoutledgeCurzon. Mehrotra, R. R. (1986). Sociolinguistics in Hindi Contexts. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.
404
Micollier, E. (1998). Asian societies confronted by AIDS. IIAS Newsletter, 18. Ministry of Education. (1996). Educational Reform. The board of investment of Thailand,
Royal Thai Government. Ministry of Education. (2005, 7-9 November). Garn jud garn suksa rabob sorng paasa sumrub
gloom chartipan: gloom wattanathum chaporh (Bilingual Education for Ethnic Groups). Paper presented at the garn jud garn suksa rabob sorng paasa sumrub gloom chartipan: gloom wattanathum chaporh (Bilingual education for ethnic group), S.D. Avenue Hotel, Bangkok.
Moondi, S. (2004). Bru Language Revival in Dong Saen Kaew village and Dong Sam Raan Village.
Chiang Mai: The Thailand Research Fund Regional Office. Mühlhäusler, P. (1992). Preserving languages or language ecologies? A top-down approach
to language survival. Oceanic Linguistics, 31(2), 163-180. Mühlhäusler, P. (1995). The interdependence of linguistic and biological diversity. In D.
Myers (Ed.), The Politics of Multiculturalism in Asia/Pacific. (pp. 154-161). Darwin: Northern Territory University Press.
Mühlhäusler, P. (1996). Linguistic Ecology: Language Change and Linguistic Imperialism in the
Pacific Region. London: Routledge. Mühlhäusler, P. (1998). Layers upon layers of languages. Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, 13(1), 151-158. Mühlhäusler, P. (2003). Language of environment: environment of language. A course in Ecolinguistics.
London: Battlebridge. Mühlhäusler, P. (2006). Naming languages, drawing language boundaries and maintaining
languages with special reference to the linguistic situation in Papua New Guinea. In D. Cunningham, D. E. Ingram & K. Sumbuk (Eds.), Language Diversity in the Pacific: Endangerment and Survival. (pp. 24-39). UK: Multilingual Matters.
Mühlhäusler, P., Schwarz, S., Rigney, I., Amery, R., Winefield, J., & Wilson, G. (2004).
Ecological Issues in Language Revival. Adelaide, South Australia: Department of Education and Children's Services (DECS) Publishing.
Mungthaisong, S. (2003). Constructing EFL Literacy Practices: A Qualitative Investigation in
Intertextual Talk in Thai University Language Classes. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Adelaide, Adelaide.
Mutembei, A. K., Emmelin, M. A. C., Lugalla, J. L. P., & Dahlgren, L. G. (2002).
Communicating about AIDS-changes in understanding and coping with help of language in urban Kagera, Tanzania. JAAS, 37(1), 1-16.
Muula, A. S. (2005). What should HIV/AIDS be called in Malawi? Nursing Ethics, 12(2),
188-196.
405
Myers, D. (1995a). With Piira Sudham and the Lao-speaking people of Burirum, NE Thailand. An Esarn village called Napo (1). In D. Myers (Ed.), The Politics of Multiculturalism in the Asia/Pacific (pp. 96-105). Darwin: Northern Territory University Press.
Myers, D. (Ed.). (1995b). The Politics of Multiculturalism in the Asia/Pacific. Darwin: Northern
Territory University Press. Nakashima, D., Prott, L., & Bridgewater, P. (2000). Tapping into the world’s wisdom.
UNESCO Sources, July/Aug (125), 11-12. http://www.search.epnet.com/direct.asp Viewed 14 June, 2004.
Nakavachara, N. (1993). Indian communities in Bangkok: Pahurat and Ban-Kaek. In K. S.
Sandhu & A. Mani (Eds.), Indian Communities in Southeast Asia (pp. 951- 975). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore: Times Academic Press.
Nantapan, K. (2003, 1 April). Phra Maha Muen Wuthiyano: the Lanna scholar. Art and
Culture, 24, http://www.matichon.co.th/art/art.php. Viewed 23 July, 2005. Nation Newspaper. (2002, 10 November). Editorial: a quick way to train the trainers. The
Nation, p. 2. Nation Newspaper. (2003, 7 January). Thai coming together. The
Nation, http://www.nationmultimedia.com. Viewed 7 October, 2005. Nation Newspaper. (2005a, 8 October). Editorial: Chinese for all? Well, may be not. The
Nation, www.nationmultimedia.com/2005/2010/2008/opinion/index.php?news=opinion. Viewed 20 October, 2005.
Nation Newspaper. (2005b, 9 July). Mixed test results on students. The
Nation, www.nationmultimedia.com/search/page.arcview.php?clid=3&id=1181. Viewed 7 October, 2007.
Nation Newspaper. (2007, 21 July). Barr them if they can sing it right: Chinnakorn. The
Nation, www.nationmultimedia.com/search/page.news.php?clid=30042596. Viewed 21 July, 2007.
National Thai Language Project. (n.d.). Krong garn jud tang wan pasathai haeng chart (National
Thai Language Project). http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th~boonnart/thaiproj.html. Viewed 20 November, 2007.
Nettle, D. (1999). Linguistic Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nettle, D., & Romaine, S. (2000). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nhwe, T. (2007). Carabao dang in an email communication on 16 March 2007. Nichols, J. (1992). Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.
406
Nimmanhemin, P. (2004a). Mong paasa: mong paasa thongtin lae paasa nai wannakum thongtin (Looking at Languages: Looking at Regional Languages and Languages in Regional Literature). Bangkok: Mae Kam Paang.
Nimmanhemin, P. (2004b). Naew taang nai gaan sueb saan paasa wannagam lae poom
panya tong tin (Guidelines in maintaining language, literature and local knowledge). In Mong paasa: mong paasa thongtin lae paasa nai wannakum thongtin (Looking at Languages: Looking at Regional Languages and Languages in Regional Literature) (pp. 15-22). Bangkok: Mae Kham Paang.
Nimmanhemin, P. (2004c). Paasa Thai paak klaang (Central Thai). In Mong Paasa: mong
paasa thongtin lae paasa nai wannakum thongtin (Looking at Languages: Looking at Regional Languages and Languages in Regional Iiterature) (pp. 39-50). Bangkok: Mae Kham Paang.
Norgaard, R. B. (2001). Possibilities after progress. In L. Maffi (Ed.), On Biocultural
Diversity: Linking Language, Knowledge, and the Environment. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Nyunt, K. M. (2006, 16-18 February). Micro, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Selected
Border Town in Thailand Engaging in the GMS Trade. Paper presented at the Strengthening partnership among academic and development institutions: new dimensions of social, cultural and economic cooperation in the upper greater mekong sub-region, Rimkok Resort, Chiang Rai, Thailand.
Office of the Official Information Commission. (2007). Phraratchabunyut pasi pai por sor
2510 (The Shop Sign Act Buddhist Era 2510). http://www.oic.thaigov.go.th. Viewed 7 May, 2007.
Official letter informing of National Thai language day. (n.d.). Nungsue jaeng anumat rueng
wan paasa thai haeng chart (The Official Letter Informing of National Thai Language Day). http://pioneer.netserve.chula.ac.th/~boonnart/thaiproj.html. Viewed 20 November, 2007.
Ongsakul, S. (2001). Prawattisat Lanna (History of Lanna). (3rd ed.). Bangkok: Amarin. Osathanukroah, P. (2005). Thammai muangthai thueg rai martrathan thang phasaa tang chart (Why
Thailand Has No Standard in Foreign Languages?). Bangkok: Amarin. Osborne, M. (2000). The Mekong: Turbulent past, Uncertain Future. St. Leonard, N.S.W.,
Australia: Allen & Unwin. Oupra, R. (2004). Indigenous Knowledge of Pakeryor in Using Local Herbs, Mae Hae Noi Village,
Mae Chaem District, Chiang Mai Province. Unpublished MSc. Thesis, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai.
Oupra, S. (2008, 23-24 June). Not in Our Language, Not in Our World: The complexity of
Communication and the space in-between Among Healthcare Profession and Ethnic Cultures in Maesai, Chiang Saen and Chiang Khong, Chiang Rai Province. Paper presented at the
407
Knowledge networks and regional development in the Greater Mekong Sub-region and Asia - Pacific, Kunming, Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China.
Owen, N. G. (1999). Economic and social change. In N. Tarling (Ed.), The Cambridge
History of South East Asia (Vol. 4, pp. 139-198). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pakdee, N. (2001). Tueng-Nong: Traditional Music of Lanna, A Case Study in Chiangmai and
Lumphon Region. Unpublished MA thesis, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. Panichsart, A. (2006). Mong Jeen Mong Thai (Looking at China and Thailand). Bangkok: Nation
Multimedia Group. Panyakote, U. (2004). A Proposed Model of Education for Transmission of Akha Culture.
Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. Patamanan, U. (2005). What have we learnt from the violence in the south? Matichon
Weekly, 25, http://www.matichon.co.th/weekly. Viewed 7 October, 2005. Patience, A. (1995). Authoritarian regimes and multiculturalism in Southeast Asia: An
Australian perspective. In D. Myers (Ed.), The Politics and Multiculturalism in the Asia/Pacific. (pp. 1-13). Darwin, Australia: Northern Territory University Press.
Pawley, A. (2001). Some problems of describing linguistic and ecological knowledge. In L.
Maffi (Ed.), On Biocultural Diversity: Linking Language, Knowledge and the Environment. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Peat, D. (2008). Trapped in a worldview. NewScientist (No. 2637), 42-43. Pelto, P. J. (1988). A note on critical medical anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly,
2(4), 435-437. Penth, H. (1985, 28-31 January). The Wat Kan Thom Inscriptions and the Development of Thai
Letters. Paper presented at a seminar on Lanna history and archaeology entitled Lanna kadee suksa: prawatisaat lae boraankadee, Chiang Mai.
Perrin, A. (2002, 19 December). AIDS in Asia: Thailand overwhelmed by runaway AIDS
cuts in prevention programs followed nation’s initial success. The San Francisco Chronicles, pp. A-18. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=chronicle/archive/2002/2012/2019. Viewed 12 April, 2008.
Phataramawik, P. (2007, 28 July). Culture sphere: the ‘abbaew’ effect on the Thai language.
The Nation, www.nationmultimedia.com/search/page.news.php?clid=2011&id=30042797. Viewed 2 August, 2007.
Phongpaichit, P., & Baker, C. (1996). Thailand: Economy and Politics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Pitsuwan, S. (1988). The Lotus and the crescent: clashes of religious symbolisms in
Southern Thailand. In K. M. d. Silva, P. Duke, E. S. Goldberg & N. Katz (Eds.),
408
Ethnic Conflict in Buddhist Societies: Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma. London: Pinter. Plenderleith, K. (Ed.). (2002). Kayapo Ethnoecology and Culture. London: Routledge. Prachachartthurakit Newspaper. (2007, 22 February). Tamnaan nungsuepim jeen nai
sayaamprathet jaak udomgarn su kao panit (Chinese newspapers in Siam: from ideology to business news.). Prachachartthurakit, www.prachart.com/prachachartthurakit/page51. Viewed 27 May, 2007.
Prachatai Newspaper. (2007, 30 October). Wittayu Chiang Mai woon ko or ror mor nor
haam chai paasa tin ork aakaat (Chiang Mai radio station in havoc: minority language forbidden on community radio). Prachatai, www.prachatai.com/05web/th/home. Viewed 30 October, 2007.
Premsrirat, S. (1987). Papers in South-East Asian linguistics No. 10: Khmu, a minority
language of Thailand. Pacific Linguistics (Series A - No. 75), 1-187. Premsrirat, S. (1992). The Khmu colour system and its elaborations. The Mon-Khmer Studies
Journal, 21, pp.131-142. Premsrirat, S. (1999). Phonological variations and change in the Khmu dialects of northern
Thailand. The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 29, 57-69. Premsrirat, S. (2001). Tonogenesis in Khmu dialects of SEA. The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal,
31, 47-56. Premsrirat, S. (2002). Appropriateness in Khmu culture. The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 32,
117-129. Premsrirat, S. (2004). Register complex and tonogenesis in Khmu dialects. The Mon-Khmer
Studies Journal, 34, 1-17. Premsrirat, S., Deepadung, S., Buasruang, A., Srijumpa, S., Taweesak, A., Suwannakes, E.,
et al. (2004). Paen ti pasa khong klum chartipun tang tang nai prathet Thai (Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand). Bangkok, Thailand: Kurusapa.
Proschan, F. (1997). “We are all Kmhmu, just the same”: ethnonyms, ethnic identities, and
ethnic groups. American Ethnologist, 24(1), 91-113. Proschan, F. (2001). People of the gourd: imagined ethnicities in highland Southeast Asia.
The Journal of Asian Studies,, 60(4), 999-1032. Puangporn, A. (2006). Sarup kormool karn jud karn Rrian karn sorn paasa jeen nai sathaan suksa,
sum nuk ngarn ket puenti karn suksa Chiang Rai ket 1 ( A Summary of the Teaching and Learning of Chinese in Education Institutions in Chiang Rai, the Office of Basic Education Area 1.). Manuscript, Chiang Rai.
Public Welfare Department. (1998). Tham niab choomchon bon phuen ti soong 20 changwat nai
prathet thai pi por sor 2540 (Records of Highland Communities in 20 Provinces in Thailand in 1997). Bangkok, Thailand: Public Welfare Department.
409
Pukdeekum, S. (2003, 1 March). Khamen Thai nai baebrian prawatisart kampucha (Khmer
and Thais in Cambodian History). Arts and Culture, 24, http://www.matichon.co.th/art/art.php?srctag=0603010346&srcday=0603012007/0603010302/0603010301&search=no. Viewed 3 May, 2008.
Rangsipanuruk, B. (2007, 23 February). Homerong, rattaniyom, jompol Por Pibulsongkram
prawattisart ti mai tong bid buean (Introduction ,State Preference and General Por Pibulsongkram: The Unbiased History). www.taharn.net. Viewed 10 March, 2007.
Renard, R., D. (1994). Monk, Hmong, forest, cabbage, fire and water: incongruities in
northern Thailand opium replacement. Law and Society Review, 28(3), 657-664. Rhum, M. R. (1996). Modernity and tradition in Thailand. Modern Asian Studies, 30(2), 325-
355. Richardson, N., & Ragg, M. (1994, 21 June). HIV-AIDS: what they can’t tell us. The Bulletin
(with Newsweek), 30-34. Robert, G. L., & Robert, C. S. (2004). External Evaluation: The AKHA Foundation 1955-
2004. Chiang Rai: The AKHA foundation. Roberts, P. (2005). Identity, reflection and justification. In B. Haddock & P. Sutch (Eds.),
Multiculturalism, Identity and Rights. (pp. 142-157). London; New York: Routledge. Rosetta Project, T. (2004). The Rosetta Project: the 1,000 Language
Archive. http://www.rosettaproject.org . Viewed 5 March, 2004. Royal Institute of Thailand. (2008). Transcription of Thai into Roman
alphabet. http://www.royin.go.th . Viewed 29 February, 2008. Rujanaseree, P. (2005). sattapasata nai praputtasasana lae karnmuang (Conversation about
Buddhism and Politics) (1st ed.). Chiang Saen Buddha image for the four countries association, Chiang Saen district, Chiang Rai, Thailand.
Rungruengsri, U. (1984). Rabob garn kiean aksorn Lanna (Lanna Writing System) (1st ed.).
Bangkok: Mitnara Garnpim. Saccardo, N. (2007). China Targeted for In-bound FDI. http://www.business-in-
asia.com/china_fdi_in_thailand.html Viewed 1 May, 2007. Sandhu, K. S., & Mani, A. (Eds.). (1993). Indian Communities in Southeast Asia. Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore: Times Academic Press. Sangermono, V. (1995). The Burmese Empire a Hundred Years Ago. (reprinted ed.). Bangkok:
White Orchid Press. Santasombat, Y. (2003). Biodiversity, Local Knowledge and Sustainable Development. Chiangmai,
Thailand: Regional Centre for Social Science and Sustainable Development. Sattayanuruk, S. (2006). Wikrit Manusayasart (Humanities
410
crisis), http://www.midnightuniv.org/midnight2544/0009999873.html viewed 12 December, 2007.
Singer, P. (2006). One World: The Ethics of Globalization. (reprinted ed.). Melbourne: Text
Publishing. Singhanetra-Renard, A., Chongsatitmun, C., & Aggleton, P. (2001). Care and support for
people living with HIV/AIDS in northern Thailand: findings from an in-depth qualitative study. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 3(2), 167-182.
Sinthusorn, A. (2006). Don taen: goh prissana haeng Chiang Saen (Don Taen: A Puzzling
Island of Chiang Saen). Hirunnakorn, 1(5), 27-30, 43. Siriwattananawin, W. (2001). Garn suksa garn tung chue khong khon Thai (The Study of Thai
Naming Practices.). Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Silapakorn University, Nakornpathom, Thailand.
Sittichodoke, K. (2006). Aq Kaq Dawq (Akha Language teaching Manual). Unpublished
manuscript, Chiang Rai. Sittisantikul, K. (Ed.). (2003). Pachong Language Project: Reviving Ethnic Ways through Classroom.
Field Research Experience. (The Pachong Language Revival Project). Chiang Mai: Wanida Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistics human rights and teachers of English. In J. K.
Hall & W. G. Eggingtong (Eds.), The Sociopolitics of English Language Teaching. (pp. 22-44). UK: Multilingual Matters.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., Phillipson, R., & Runnut, M. (Eds.). (1995). Linguistic Human Rights:
Overcoming Linguistic Discrimination. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter. Smalley, W. A. (1956). Outline of Khmu Structure. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University
of Michigan. Smalley, W. A. (1961). Outline of Khmu Structure: New Haven: American Oriental Society. Smalley, W. A. (1973). Bibliography of Khmu? The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 4, 23-32. Smalley, W. A. (Ed.). (1976). Phonemes and Orthography: Language Planning in Ten Minority
Languages of Thailand. Canberra: Australian National University. Smalley, W. A. (1994). Linguistics Diversity and National Unity: Language Ecology in Thailand.
Chicago and London: The University of Chicago press. Solomon, R. L. (1970). Boundary concepts and practices in Southeast Asia. World Politics,
23(1), 1-23. Sop Ruak Village Committee. (2003). Phaen maebot karn pattana choomchon baan Sop Ruak Pi
2547-2549 (The Master Plan for Sop Ruak Community Development from 2004-2006). Chiang Rai, Thailand.
411
Special Education Office. (2006, 6-8 January). Garn jud garn suksa baeb sorng paasa ti amphoe Omkoi changwat Chiang Mai (Bilingual education Management at Omkoi district, Chiang Mai Province). Paper presented at the Garn jud garn suksa baeb sorng paasa ti amphoe Omkoi changwat Chiang Mai, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Spindler, G., & Spindler, L. (1992). Cultural Process and Ethnography: An Anthropological
Perspective. The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education. London: Academic Press. Stange, P. (1999). Religious change in contemporary South East Asia. In N. Tarling (Ed.),
The Cambridge History of South East Asia (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 201-253). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stross, B. (1974). Speaking of speaking: Tenejapa Tzeltal metalinguistics. In R. Bauman &
J. Sherzer (Eds.), Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking (pp. 213-239). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sukamolson, S. (1998). English language policy in Thailand. Asian Englishes, 10(1), 21-36. Surlan, L. (n.d.). History of Khmu Huay Kok Village. Unpublished manuscript, Chiang Khong,
Chiang Rai. Suzuki, D., & Knudtson, P. (1992). Wisdom of the Elders. Sydney: Bantam Books. Suzuki, D., McConnell, A., & Mason, A. (2008). The Sacred Balance: Rediscovering Our Place in
Nature (updated & expanded ed.). Crows Nest, NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin. Talawat, S., Dore, G. J., Coeur, S. L., & Lallemant, M. (2002). Infant feeding practice and
attitudes among women with HIV infection in northern Thailand. AIDS Care, 14(5), 625-631.
Tan Kim Yong, U. (1997). The Karen culture: a co-existence of two forest conservation
systems. In D. McCaskill & K. Kampe (Eds.), In development or domestication? (pp. 219-236). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.
Taoprasert, Y. (2004). Traditional medicine. Chiang Rai, Thailand. Tapp, N. (2000). A new stage in Tai regional studies: the challenge of local histories. In A.
Turton (Ed.), Civility and Savagery: Social Identity in Tai States. (pp.351-359). Curzon. Tarling, N. (1998). Nations and States in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. Tayanin, D. (1994). Being Kammu: My Village, My Life. Ithaca, New York.: Cornell
University. Tayanin, D., & Lindell, K. (1993). The Khmu cycles of 60 days and 60 years. The Mon-
Khmer Studies Journal, 23, 103-118. Taylor, K. W. (1999). The early kingdoms. In N. Tarling (Ed.), The Cambridge History of
South East Asia (Vol. 1, pp. 137-181). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
412
Thai subdistricts office. (2005). Thai Subdistricts Information. http://www.thaitambon.com/tambon/tamplist.asp?ID=57. Viewed 20 June, 2005.
Thonglor, K. (1970). Luk Paasa Thai (Thai Grammar). Bangkok: Ruamsarn. Thurgood, G. (1994). Tai-Kadai and Austronesian: the nature of historical relationship.
Oceanic Linguistics, 33(2), 345-368. Tienwiharn, N. (2004). Attaluck, puenti taang sungkhom, kub krabuan garn sang ong
kwam roo (Identity, social space and the process of knowledge construction). In P. Intumaan (Ed.), Kwaam roo tong tin, garn jud garn kwaam roo su garn jud garn taang sung khom. (Local Wisdom, Knowledge Management for Social Management). (pp. 17-48). Wittayalai garn jud garn sang khom (school for social management), Bangkok: Klet Thai.
Tollefson, J. W. (1983). Language policy and the meaning of diglossia. WORD Journal of the
International Linguistics Association, 34(1), 1-10. Trakarnsupakorn, P. (1997). The wisdom of Karen in natural resource conversation. In D.
McCaskill & K. Kampe (Eds.), In Development or Domestication? (pp. 183-204). Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.
Trakullertsathien, C., & Chaijitvanit, S. (2005, 14 May). Keeping the old ways alive.
Bangkok Post, p. 1 Outlook section. Treichler, P. A. (1993). AIDS, gender, and biomedical discourse: current contests for
meaning. In L. S. Kauffman (Ed.), American Feminist Thought at Century’s End: A Reader. (pp. 281-354). Oxford: Blackwell.
Trelstad, R. L. (1996). AIDS and anti-science. The Scientist, 10(1), 12. Tripathi, M. (2003, 30 March). Vision quest. The
Nation, http://www.nationmultimedia.com. Viewed 4 October, 2005. Trudgen, R. I. (2000). Why Warriors Lie Down and Die. Adelaide, Australia: Openbook Print. Tsuji, L. S. J. (1990). Loss of Cree traditional ecological knowledge in the Western James
Bay Region of Northern Ontario, Canada: a case study of the Sharp-tailed Grouse, Tympanuchus Phasianellus Phasianellus. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 16(2), 283-292.
Tsunekawa, K., Moolphate, S., Yanai, H., Yamada, N., Summanapan, S., &
Ngamvithayapong, J. (2004). Care for people living with HIV/AIDS: an assessment of day care centres in northern Thailand. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 18(5), 305-315?
UNESCO. (2007). Endangered Languages. http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=8270&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Viewed 8 October, 2007.
413
UNICEF and Social Development and Welfare, Department. (2002). Highland Communities Within 20 Provinces of Thailand, 2002. Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, Bangkok.
Unprasert, W. (2000). Lisu Traditional Knowledge and Medical Practices: The Cultural Dimension of
Biological Resource Management. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai.
Van, D. N. (1993). The flood myth and the origin of ethnic groups in Southeast Asia. The
Journal of American Folklore., 106(421), 304-337. Vichitsorasatra, N., & Paisalpichitsodsai, J. (2002, 7 August 2002). English proficiency:
TOEFL score shocker. The Nation, http://www.nationmultimedia.com/search/page.arcview.php?clid=2&id=6371. Viewed 4 January, 2008.
Vila, P. (Ed.). (2003). Ethnography at the Border. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. Walford, G. (Ed.). (1991). Doing Educational Research. London: Routledge. Walker, A. (1999). The Legend of the Golden Boat: Regulation, Trade and Traders in the Borderlands
of Laos, Thailand, China and Burma. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Warr, P. (Ed.). (2005). Thailand Beyond Crisis. London: Routledge. Watchanaprasith, P. (2008).
Phoomtaksa. http://www.thaibabyname.com/astrology_mahataksa.asp. Viewed 10 April, 2008.
Watney, S. (1989). AIDS, language and the third world. In E. Carter & S. Watney (Eds.),
Taking Liberties (pp. 183-192). London: Serpent’s Tail. Wiang Phaang Khum Sub-district Local Administration. (2005). Phaen phattana saam pi (The
three years plan). Maesai, Chiang Rai: Wiang Phaang Khum Sub-district, Maesai district, Chiang Rai.
Wiang Sub-district Office. (2005). Population and Households Statistics in Wiang Sub-district.
Unpublished manuscript, Chiang Khong District, Chiang Rai. Wichasilp, R. (2006, 13-14 January). Ittipol aksorn dham nai khet wattanatham 2 lum nam (The
Influences of dhamma Script in the Culture Zone of Two River Basins). Paper presented at the Studies and maintenance in Lanna issues: status, roles and functions of local art and culture at present. In commemoration of Professor Udom Rungruengsri's 60th anniversary), Lotus Pang Suan Kaew Hotel, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Wieland, D., & Baer, H. A. (1986). More thoughts on the fragmentation of Medical
Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(4), 99-100. Wikipedia. (2008, 2 October). Thai Kedmanee Keyboard Layout Image:800px-KB Thai
Kedmanee.png. rom http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:800px-KB_Thai_Kedmanee.png. Viewed 28 October, 2008.
414
Winichakul, T. (2000). The others within: travel and ethno-spatial differentiation of
Siamese subjects 1885-1910. In A. Turton (Ed.), Civility and Savagery: Social Identity in Tai States. City. (pp. 38-62). London: Curzon Press.
Winichakul, T. (2005). Trying to locate Southeast Asia from its naval: where is the
southeast Asian studies in Thailand? In P. H. Kratoska, R. Raben & H. S. Nordholt (Eds.), Locating Southeast Asia (pp. 113-132). Singapore: Singapore University Press.
Wittayasakphan, S. (2006, 13-14 January). Garn yoo rod khong aksorn tong tin: bot baat nahtee
khong aksorn thai nai pajjubun (Survival of Local Alphabet: Roles and Functions of Tai Alphabet Today). Paper presented at the studies and maintenance in Lanna issues: status, roles and functions of local art and culture at present. In commemoration of Professor Udom Rungruengsri's 60th anniversary, Lotus Pang Suan Kaew Hotel, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Wongthes, S. (2005). Aksorn Thai maa jaak nai. (Where Did the Thai Script Come From?) (1st
ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Matichon. Wongthes, S. (2006a). Khon Thai ma jaak nai. (Where Did the Thais Come From?) (Special ed.).
Bangkok, Thailand: Matichon. Wongthes, S. (2006b). Suwannaphum: ton krasae prawatsart Thai (Suwannaphum: The Origin of
Thai History). Bangkok, Thailand: Matichon. Woods, P. (1994). Collaborating in historical ethnography: researching critical events in
education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 7(4), 309-321. Wurm, S. A. (1986). Language death and disappearance: causes and circumstances. In R.
H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered Languages (pp. 1-18). New York: St. Martin Press.
Wyss, P. (1976). Akha. In W. A. Smalley (Ed.), Phonemes and Orthography: Language Planning in
Ten Minority Languages of Thailand. (pp. 149-186). Canberra, Australia: Australian National University.
Yonok, M. (2007). Riuanglao - chonpao (Stories told - hilltribes). Prachatai Online
Newspaper, http://blogazine.prachatai.com/user/yonok/post/210. Viewed 3 October, 2007.
415
REFERENCED INTERVIEWS
Dentist Aree. (2006, 3 March). Chiang Khong District Hospital, Chiang Rai. Nurse. (2006, 3 March). Chiang Khong District Hospital, Chiang Rai. Head of Academic Unit. (2006, 12 February). Mengrai Maharaj Military Hospital, Chiang Rai. Jairakbanna,K. (2006, 27 April). Head of Wiang Mok village. Chiang Khong, Chiang Rai. Jamjit, C. (2006, 30 January). Owner of publishing house and local cultural magazine, and
local linguist. Chiang Rai. Katapunyo, T. (2006, 23 February). Monk at Tai Yai temple, Sop Ruak village, Chiang Saen
district, Chiang Rai. Kietpreecha, P. (2006, 28 January). Lecturer in Kammuang or northern Thai script. Muang
district, Chiang Rai. Meesat, Y. (2006, 20 February). Director of Provincial Cultural Office. Muang district,
Chiang Rai. Mungthaisong, S. (2006, 5 January). Dean of the Faculty of Humanities. Chiang Rai
Rajabhat University. Chiang Rai. Nattaya, A. (2006, 24 January). Head of Foreign Languages, Provincial Office of Basic
Education, Chiang Rai. Puangporn, A. (2006, 8 February). Secretary and coordinator of Chinese language,
Provincial Office of Basic Education. Chiang Rai. Rungtaweepithaya, C. (2006, 17 May). Head of Phamee Village, Maesai district, Chiang Rai. Shangyu, W. (2006, 15 March). Principal of Chinese Ethnic School at Wiang Mok village.
Chiang Khong district, Chiang Rai. Sittichodoke, K. (2006, 7 March). Director of Akha Cultural and Education Association.
Chiang Rai.
416
Sittisombat, P. (2006, 31 January). Chairman of Chiang Rai Chambers of Commerce. Muang district, Chiang Rai.
Suphan, P. (2006, 12 February). Head of Sop Ruak village. Chiang Saen district, Chiang
Rai, Thailand. Taoprasert, Y. (2006, 27 January). Dean, School of Traditional and Alternative Medicine,
Chiang Rai Rajabhat University, Muang District, Chiang Rai. Wongsa, T., & Duangdee, I. (2006, 11 February). Head of Tai Lü Association and a Tai Lü
elder. Payang Chum Tai Lü village, Maesai district, Chiang Rai. Wongtheptian, C. (2006, 15 February). Manager, Sriburin Hospital. Muang District, Chiang
Rai.
417
418
Interview Database Item No. Date Interviewees Position 1 5-Jan-06 Asst. Prof. Dr. Sornchai Mungthaisong Dean of Humanities, Chiang Rai Rajabhat University (CRU). 2 5-Jan-06 Mr. Atithep Wongthong Northern Thai language expert and lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, CRU. 3 6-Jan-06 Mr. Seksan Pansueb Director of Language Institute, CRU. 4 6-Jan-06 Assist. Prof. Sriwan Chaiyasook Director of Biodiversity Centre, CRU. 5 9-Jan-06 Mr. Sombat Boonkamyueng Director of Inter-ethnic Studies Centre, CRU 6 9-Jan-06 Miss Nalae Jaha Researcher at Inter-Ethnic Centre, CRU. 7 9-Jan-06 Miss Nang Female student 8 9-Jan-06 Mr. Krissada Male student 9 24-Jan-06 Miss Anchan Suwannapha Officer and teacher, Provincial Labour Office, Chiang Rai 10 24-Jan-06 Mr. Chaiyos kookaewkasem Chairman of Akha Outreach Services, Chiang Rai 11 24-Jan-06 Ajarn Nattaya Head of Foreign Languages, Provincial Office of Basic Education, Chiang Rai. 12 27-Jan-06 Assist. Prof. Dr. Yingyong Taoprasert Dean, School of Alternative and Traditional medicine, CRU. 13 31-Jan-06 Mr. Pattana Sittisombat Chairman, Chiang Rai Chambers of Commerce. 14 30-Jan-06 Mr. Charin Jamjit Owner of publishing house, Owner of local cultural magazine, and local linguist. 15 3-Feb-06 Mrs. Amporn Saengklab Teacher and Head of Foreign languages Department, Samakkhee Wittayakhom School, Chiang Rai. 16 8-Feb-06 Ajarn Puangporn Secretary and coordinator of Chinese language, Provincial Office of Basic Education, Chiang Rai. 17 10-Feb-06 Villagers in a village noodle stall Villagers of Santhaat village, Chiang Saen district, Chiang Rai. 18 11-Feb-06 Mr. Kaew Chanthorn (Focus group) Head of Tai Lü Community in Payang Chum village, Maesai district.
Mr. In-kaew duangdee Elders of the Tai Lü Community Mr. Sant and other villagers Villagers of Payang Chum village.
19 12-Feb-06 Prasith Suphan Head of Sop Ruak village, Chiang Saen district. 20 15-Feb-06 Ms. Chamrian Wongtheptian Manager, Sriburin Hospital, Chiang Rai. 21 20-Feb-06 Mr. Yongrat Meesat Provincial Cultural Centre, Chiang Rai. 22 21-Feb-06 Mrs. Supajari Muangsuriya Nurse and Head of Academic Unit, Chiang Saen district hospital. 23 23-Feb-06 Phra Thanakorn Katapunyo (Monk) Monk at Wat Sop Ruak temple, Sop Ruak village, Chiang Saen district. 24 3-Mar-06 Dentist Aree and Nurse Tui Dentist and Nurse at Chiang Khong district hospital, Chiang Rai. 25 6-Mar-06 Two representatives from the military Academic and Civil Activity Unit of Mengrai Maharaj Military Barrack, Chiang Rai. 26 7-Mar-06 Mr.Kraisith Sitthichodoke Director of Akha Association, Chiang Rai. 27 11-Mar-06 Mr. Led Surlan Head of Huai Kok village, Chiang Khong district.
419
28 11-Mar-06 Mrs. Kaew Surlan The headman's wife, Huai Kok village, Chiang Khong district. 29 12-Mar-06 Mr. Saen Boonjerng An ethnic Lamet living in an ethnic Kammu village at Huai Kok village, Chiang Khong district. 30 15-Mar-06 Mrs. Wilaiporn Shangyu Principal of Chinese ethnic school in Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 31 26-Mar-06 Dr. Surachet Arunothong Doctor at Mae Chan district hospital. 32 27-Apr-06 Mr. Assaman Masaw Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 33 27-Apr-06 Mrs. Kan-ha Jairukbanna Head of Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 34 28-Apr-06 A Lisu grandmother Wilaiporn Shangyu’s aunt, a villager in Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 35 15-May-06 Mr. Choochart Kaewdondu Head of Santhaat village, Chiang Saen district. 36 17-May-06 Mr. Chanyut Rungtaweepithaya Head of Phamee village, Maesai district.
420
Personal communication database
Item No. Date Name Position
1 10-Dec-05 Mr. Chalentorn Kalayanamitra A Local historian and expert in Lanna (northern Thai) culture, Chiang Rai. 2 15-Dec-05 Mr. Pisan Chantarasilp Academic officer, Provincial Cultural Centre, Chiang Rai. 3 5-Jan-06 Miss Oranuj Taoprasert Lecturer, School of Alternative and Traditional Medicine, CRU. 4 6-Jan-06 Mr. Preecha Kiatpreecha Lecturer in Kammuang or northern Thai script. Chiang Rai. 5 10-Jan-06 Ms. Por Jai Noodle shop owner, “Porjai”, in Chiang Rai city. 6 19-Feb-06 Ms. Krissana Naamwong Deputy Head of Local Administration for Yonok sub-district, Chiang Saen district. 7 9-Mar-06 Mr. Boonnorm Panyoyai A teacher at Wiang Mok School, Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 8 26-Mar-06 Mr. Surachet Arunothong Doctor at Mae Chan district hospital. 9 23-Apr-06 Dr. Wichai Panich Retired (early) doctor and owns a clinic in Chiang Rai. 10 23-Apr-06 Mrs. Mae Muay Chinese language teacher in a Chiang Rai Vocational College. 11 23-Apr-06 Mr. Por Muay A Chinese speaker and a local resident of Chiang Rai 12 25-Apr-06 Ms. Sahatta Sittiwiset Chinese language lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, CRU. 13 26-Apr-06 Mr. Kitti and other members A former teacher of the Chinese ethnic school in Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong. 14 27-Apr-06 Mr. Kitti and the Abbot The Abbot of the Taiwanese temple and orphanage in Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong. 15 27-Apr-06 Mr. Sompong Sae-Ngi Motorbike-taxi driver in Wiang Mok village. 16 28-Apr-06 Mr. C. Jaang A Chinese native speaker and lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, CRU. 17 28-Apr-06 Miss C. Yue A Chinese native speaker and lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, CRU. 18 2-May-06 Miss Nam Phueng A Thai Language lecturer, Faculty of Humanities, CRU. 19 Dec 05-Jan 06 Mr. Patipan Uttayanukul A Thai Language lecturer, Language Institute, CRU. 20 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Wiang Mok village, Chiang Khong district. 21 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Huai Kok village, Chiang Khong district. 22 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Santhaat village, Chiang Saen district. 23 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Sop Ruak village, Chiang Saen district. 24 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Payang Chum village, Maesai district. 25 Dec 05-Jun 06 Villagers Villagers in Phamee village, Maesai district. 26 16-Dec-06 Bongkoj Chunpongsri Academic Officer, Tax and Revenue Department, Chiang Rai Municipal Office. (Email conversation)
APPENDICES
422
Appendix A
Three tiered quotes Chapter 1: Introduction
No quotes Chapter 2: Language Ecology and language planning 2.1 from pages 30-31
“ทงนเนองจากผลการวจยในระดบชาตพบวา ความสามารถในการใชภาษาไทยของนกเรยนอยในเกณฑตา
ทงทเปนภาษาประจาชาตและเปนรากแกวแหงศลปวฒนธรรม และวถคดของคนไทยเปนศกดศรของชาต
และเปนกลไกในการสอสาร จงจาเปนอยางยงทจะตองรบแกไขปญหา โดยเนนทครและนกเรยนไดตระหนกถงภาษาไทย”
“ tang ni nueng jark phol vijai nai radub chart pob wah kwaamsamart nai garn chai pasathai khong
nukrian yoo nai gain tum tangti pen pasa prajumchart lae pen rakgaew haeng silpawattanathum lae witee kid khong khon Thai pen saksri khong chart lae pen golgai nai garn suesarn jung jumpen yaangying ti ja tong reeb gae khai punha doi nen ti kru lae numrian dai tranuk tueng pasathai.” “This is because the national research found that Thai students’ ability in Thai language is below standard even though Thai is the national language, the roots of our arts and culture, roots of our thought process, our heritage and pride and also the mechanics of communication. Therefore, there is an urgent need to fix this problem with emphasis on the teachers and students’ awareness of Thai language”.
2.2 from page 31 “เสยงโทกลายเปนเสยงตร เสยงตรกลายเปนเสยงจตวา เลยทาใหดแปลก” “siang toe glai pen siang tri siang tri glai pen siang jattawa loei tum hai doo plaek” “High tone becomes rising tone and rising tone becomes falling tone which sounds strange”.
2.3 from page 33 “แสนสงสารครภาษาไทยในอนาคต คลายจะหมดความหมายใหคดถง...ไมมทอยใหครภาษาไทยแลว”
“saen songsarn khru paasa Thai nai anakot klai ja mode khwaam mai hai kid thueng…mai me ti yoo hai kru paasa Thai laew”
“It’s a pity that in the future Thai teachers will be out of jobs and there would not be any value or place for Thai language teachers anymore”.
Chapter 3: Nationalism in Thailand 3.1 from page 51
“หลกหมดของประเทศจนอยบนหลงของคนจน” “luk mud khorng prathet jeen yoo bon lung khorng khon jeen” “The Chinese territorial border is fixed on the back of all the Chinese people”.
3.2 from page 57 “…เดกเชยงใหมเดนอยบนซากอฐซากปนทพระเจาตโลกราชสรางไว ไมมใครรจกพระเจาตรโลกราชเลย
รจกแตพระเจาบรมไตรโลกนาถ ซงพระเจาบรมไตรโลกนาถรบแพพระเจาตรโลกราชดวย เดกเชยงใหมไมรจก…”
423
“dek Chiang Mai dern yoo bon saak it saak poon thi phra chao Trilokaraj saang wai mai mi khrai roo juk phra chao Trilokaraj loei roo juk tae phra chao Boromatrilokanath soeng phra chao Boromatrilokanath rob phae phra chao Trilokaraj duai dek Chiang Mai mai roo juk…”
“…Chiang Mai kids didn’t even know who was King Trilokaraj [Chiang Mai King] even though they are standing on top of the ruins of his ancient kingdom. They only know of King Boromatrilokanath [central Thai King]. They didn’t even know the fact that King Boromatrilokanath was defeated by King Trilokaraj”.
3.3 from page 59
“เชดชนกสผยงใหญคนไทยผยงยง คาราบาวแดง” “Cherd choo nuk sue phu ying yai khon thai phu ying yong carabao dang” “Honouring the great warrior and the mighty Thai people, carabao dang”
Chapter 4: Thai names: What is in a name?
No quotes
Chapter 5: Language families in Thailand and Chiang Rai 5.1 from page 115
“...ลอทขนมาอยทเชยงรายเปนลอทอพยพมาจากเมองยองทเชยงตง,พมา, ทเอาไปไวทเชยงใหม และลาพนได 1-2 ชวคนแลว
ลอทเฮาฮองเขาวาเปนลอนะ ถกตงชอใหมเปนชาวยอง เพราะฉะนนชนเผายองมนไมม
กเปนลอทมาจากเมองยองแลวไปอยเชยงใหมกบลาพน เปนเมองยองทไปตงในลาพนในเมองลาพนมเวยงยอง
ลอเวยงยองเลยกลายเปนชาวยองเขากเลยมาเขยนในเอกสารเขาวาชาวเวยงยองหรอไทยยองความจรงภาษาตองขนนาสกหมด ย เปน ย” “ Lü thi kun ma yoo ti Chiang Rai pen Lü ti oppayop ma jark Muan Yong ti Chiang Tung, Pamah, ti
ao pai wai ti Chiang Mai lae Lumpoon dai 1-2 chua knon laew. Lü ti hao hong kao wah pen Lü na, tuk tung chue mai pen chao Yong praw chanun chon pao Yong mum mai mi. gor pen Lü ti ma jark muang Yong laew pai yoo Chiang mai gub Lampoon, pen Muang yong ti pai tung nai Lampoon. Nai Muang Lampoon mi wiang yong, Lü wiang yong loei glai pen chao yong. Kao gor loei ma kian nai ekkasarn kao wah chao wiang yong rue Thai Yong. Kwam jing pasa tong kun nasik mod “ย” pen “ ย”.” “Lü who migrated from the Yong town of Keng Tung in Myanmar about 1-2 generations back. This Lü group was then called Yong. Therefore, the Yong ethnic group never existed. They were the Lü from Yong city who also migrated to Chiang Mai and Lampoon provinces and established a community called Muang Yong (Yong town) in Lampoon. There is a Yong town or Yong community in Lampoon also known as Lü Wiang Yong (Lü of Young town) and this was later shorten into Chao Yong (Yong people). Thus in later articles and documents the Lü people of this origin was then called Chao Wiang Yong (the Yong town people) or the Thai Yong. The sound “y” in the word Yong is indeed a nasalized sound, or a ñ ”.
5.2 from page 122
“...มสาเนยงพมา [จน กลาวไวในบทสมภาษณกอนหนาน] ไทย ลาว
แตไมไดหมายความวาลาวจะตางกนมากนะครบแตกออกนะคลายๆกน แตทนรองเพลงมาแลวตางกนเลย
ถารองเพลงมาเนยผมฟงดจากอาขาลาวนะครบ เหมอนกบการสวดพธกรรมของผหญง
คออาขานจะมหมอทรงเจานะครบเวลาคนเจบคนไขทาพธสวดแลวกขนไป
ตรงนทประเทศไทยเรากใชทานองเสยงนเวลาทไปทลานหมบานหรอทหลายๆคนเขาใจวาเปนลานสาวกอด...”
424
“mee samniang pama [jeen klao wai nai bot sampaat gorn nah ni] thai lao tae mai dai maikwam wah lao ja tang kun mark na krub tae gor ork klai klai gun tae ti ni rong pleng ma laew tang gun loei ta rong pleng ma niah pom fung do jark akha lao na krub muan gub garn suad pi ti gum khong pu ying kua akha ni ja mee morh song jao na krub wela khon jeb khon kai tum piti suad laew gor kun pai trong ni ti prateht thai rao gor chai thamnorng siang ni wela ti pai ti laan moo baan ru ti laai laai khon kao jai wah pen Laan Sao Gord…”
“[we] …have Burmese, [Chinese – mentioned elsewhere in the interview], Thai and Laotian accents. But this does not mean that Laotian is very different, it still is very similar but if songs are sung then it is really different. If they sing, from what I have heard the Laotian Akha, it sounded like women singing in the rituals. Akha has shamans. When there are sick or ill people, the songs are sung (chanted). Here in Thailand, we use the same singing/chanting style when we go to the village ground or known as Laan Sao Gord…1
”
5.3 from page 122
“เยาวชนชาวอาขาเรมไมยอมพดกนดวยภาษาอาขา และมความขดแยงกบพอแมในเรองของความเชอ
เพราะไปโรงเรยนไดรบคาสอนไมใหเชอพธกรรมตางๆทไมสามารถพสจนทางวทยาศาสตรได
เมอพอแมจะทาพธบางอยางทเคยปฏบตมาลกกไมยอม ...พอแมกเสยใจ ไมสบายใจ
ทเปนเชนนอาจเปนเพราะเดกรนใหมของเรา ไมมความรความเขาใจในวฒนธรรมประเพณของชนเผาตนเอง
เพราะไมไดรบการอธบายใหรความหมาย หรอคณคาทแทจรง เนองจากผเฒาผแกกอธบายไมถก หรออธบายไมเปน
บางคนกไมตองการอธบาย”
“Yaowachon Akha rerm mai yorm pood gun duai pasa Akha lae mi kwam kad yaeng kub por mae nai ruiang khong kwam chiua prao pai rong rian dai rub kum sorn mai hai chua pi ti gum tang tang ti mai samart pisoot tang wittayasart mua por mae ja tum pi ti bang yang ti koei patibut ma look gor mai yom… por mae gor sia jai mai sabaaai jai ti pen chen ni aad pen praw dek roon mai khong rao mai mi kwaam ru kwam kao jai nai wattanatham prapeni khong chon pao ton eng praw mai dai rub garn atibaai hai roo kwam mai rue kunkah ti tae jing niuang jaark pu tao pu gae gor atibaai mai took rue atibaai mai pen bang khon gor mai tong garn atibaai”
“ The young generation of Akhas nowadays have refused to speak Akha language and they also run into conflicts with their parents regarding the beliefs system. This is due to they were taught in schools not to believe in the ceremonies that cannot be proven by scientific methods. When the parents wanted to do any ceremonies which have long been practiced, the kids would not allow that to happen and that disheartened their parents deeply. This may also be because of our young generations do not know or do not understand the culture of their own tribe. They were not given or equipped with the explanation of the meaning and value of their culture and ceremonies. This may also be because the elders does not know how to explain or cannot explain the importance or the meaning of the ceremonies, and some simply just do not want to explain it.”
5.4 from 123 “กลมลาวหลม ไทยเลย ลาวครง หรอมชอเดยวกนแตเจาของภาษามความรสกวาแตกตางกน เชน ชอง (จนทบร) ชอง
(ตราด) งาน วจยดานภาษาศาสตรจะชวยใหความสบสนในเรองชอเกดความชดเจนขนไดวาเปนกลมเดยวกนหรอคนละกลม”
“gloom laolom thai-loei laokrang rue mi chue diew gun tae chao khong pasa mi kwam ru suek wah taek tang gun chen Chong (Chantaburi), Chong (Traad) ngarn vijai daan pasasart ja chuai hai kwam subson nai rueng chue gird kwam chud jen khuen dai wah pen gloom diaew gun rue khon la gloom”
1 Larn Sao Gord is a cultural space where cultural songs and dance are performed for the purpose of entertainment and it is the place where the young people, both male and female, get to meet, talk and spend time together.
425
“The Lao Lom, Thai Loei and Law Krang group all had the same name but the language speakers felt that they were different for example the Chong of Chantaburi province and Chong of Traad Province. Linguistics research will reduce the confusion of names and will therefore shed light on it whether they belong to the same group or different group.”
Chapter 6: Research methodology 6.1 from page 141
0T“...พระมหาวฒชยยงแสดงความเปนหวงสภาพ "ววลมตน" ของเดกไทยในทกวนนวาเดกไทยจากหลายๆ
ภาคอายทจะพดภาษาตนเอง เพราะลมรากเหงา เมอมาอยกรงเทพกรสกวาภาษาถนของตวเองเปนปมดอย กลมบานเกด
พอเรยนภาษาองกฤษ รสกวามนอนเทรนด รสกมนโกเกกวาภาษาไทย เลยทงภาษาของตนเอง พอไปเรยนเมองนอก
กละเลยลมจนทงประเทศไทย เหลานเหนวาเราขาดผนาทางจตวญญาณ ขาดหลกการใหยดเหนยว ขาดรากเหงา...”0T
“Phra Maha Wutthichai Yung sadaeng kwaam pen huang sapaab “wua luem teen” khorng dek Thai nai thook wan ni wah dek thai jaak laai lai phak aai thi ja phood paasa tone eng phraw luem raak ngao muea ma yoo krungthep gor ru suek wa paasaa thin khorng tua eng pen pom doi kor luem baan kird phor rian paasa angkrit roo suek wa mun in trend roo suek mun goh geh kwa paasa thai loei thing paasa khorng tone eng phor pai rian muang nork kor la loei luem jon thing prathet that lao ni he wa rao kaad phoo num thang jit winyaan khaad lukkarn hai yued niao khaad raak ngao”
“Phra Maha Wutthichai expressed his concerns over the issue of “wua luem teen”P1F
2P of the Thai youth
today. Thai youth from the regions are embarrassed to speak their own language because they have forgotten their origin. When they came to live in Bangkok they feel that their regional language became inferior therefore they tend to forget their homeland. When they study English, they felt that its “in trend” and “goh geh”P2 F
3P than the Thai language itself. Therefore, they abandon their own
language. When they go to foreign countries for their studies, they tend to forget their language and the country. All these tells us that we lack the spiritual leader, philosophy and origin to hang on to….”
6.2 from pages 146-147
“ผมคดวาอตลกษณทมความสาคญอยางยงของคนทนคอความเปนมลายซงไมมพนทในความเปนชาตไทย เพราะฉะนนจงเปนการยากมากทคนทเปนทงมลายและเปนมสลมจะไปเรยกรองอะไรจากรฐไทยโดยไมกระทบโครงสรางเลย
…” “pom kid wah attaluk ti mi kwam sumkun yaangying sumrub khon tini kue kwam pen Melayu sung mai mi nai puen ti kwam pen chart Thai prow chanun jung pen garn yark mark ti kon ti pen tang Melayu lae pen muslim ja pai riak rong aria jark rut Thai doi mai kratob krongsang loei”.
“…I think the most important identity for the people here is being Melayu and being Muslim which has no social space in the Thai nation, therefore, it is very difficult for the Melayu and the Muslims to ask for anything from the Thai states without having an impact on the state structure. …” (Gliangglao, 2007).
Chapter 7: Language ecology of Chiang Rai city 7.1 from page 165-166
2 Wua Leum Teen or “cow forgot feet” a Thai proverb which means a person who forgets his/her roots or origins. 3 The expression “Goh Geh” means looks better and gives the image of being better than the others, a sort of in an elevated status and modern.
426
“...เขาพดคาเมองชดเจน ทาเอาขาพเจาแปลกใจไมนอย พนองชนเผาทขาพเจารจก
ถนดมากกวาในการใชภาษาไทยแบบกรงเทพ ในการสอสารกบคนนอกเผา…” “khao phood kummuang chudjen tham aow khaphajao plaekjai mai noi phi nong chonphao thi khaphajao roojuk thanud maak kuaa nai karn chai paasa thai baeb krungthep nai karn suesarn kub khon nok phao”
“He spoke clear northern Thai and that is what amazes me. Hilltribes people that I know were more
comfortable with using standard Thai when communicating to non-tribal members. ..”. 7.2 from pages 170-171
“รสกเปนคนเดยวกน4
รสกเหมอนลกเหมอนหลาน เชน เราแทนตวผปวยวา อย หรอ ลง มนเปนภาษาทสนทสนม
และถาหากใชภาษาไทยจะรสกเกรง”
“roo suek pen khon diew gun, roo suek muen look muen laan chen rao taen tua phu puai wah ooi rue long mun pen pasa ti sanit sanom lae tah hark chai pasathai ja roo suek greng”.
“It felt like we were the same people, like ones’ own sons, daughters, nieces and nephews, for example when we address the patients as “อย - ooi” [grandparents] or “ลง – loong” [uncle]. It is a familiar language and if Thai is used, it feels tensed”.
Chapter 8: Language use in hospitals and health centres 8.1 from page 178
“เขาอภาษานนๆทบานเขา ภาษาทองถนของเขาและพอมาอนนกจะเปนภาษาไทยเลยแนะ เขาบวกมาหาภาษาเมองเลย
เขาจะอภาษากลางเลย คลายๆกบเปนทางลดเลย ...แลวครทโรงเรยนกสอนภาษากลางเลย” “Khao oo phasa nan nan thi baan khao, phasa thongthin khorng khao lae phor ma an ni kor cha pen phasa Thai loei nae. khao bor wok ma ha phasa muang loei khao cha oo phasa klang loei khlai khlai kub cha pen thaang lad loei…laew khru thi rong rian kor sorn phasa klang loei.” “They speak their own language at home, their local language, and when they came here, the language was then switched into standard Thai. They do not speak Muang [northern Thai]. They would speak standard Thai and it is like taking a short cut… and the teacher in schools also taught Thai.”
8.2 from pages 178-179
“....ถาไปออกหนวยทาฟนทโรงเรยนเฮาจะตองให ป.6 ป.5 มาชวยดแล ถาสมมตวาเปนป.1 กยงอบคอยไดเตอนะ
อนบาลหรอป.1 ยงไมได แตถาป.2 มากเรมไดละ ...เรมภาษากลางไดละ ...เฮาจะหอ ป. 5 ป. 6 มาชวย ใหครจดใหมาเปนลาม
หอพานองไปบวนปากนะ แลวพานองกลบมานงนนะ แลวกใหคาแนะนา สมมตวาไปถอนฟน
ตองใหคาแนะนาหลงถอนฟนวาตองทาอยางไรบาง ใหเขาชวยบอก...”. “tha pai ork nuai tham fan thi rong rian hao cha tong hai por 6 por 5 ma chuai du lae. Tha sommut wa pen por 1 yang mai dai tae tha por 2 ma kor rerm dai la…rerm phasa klang dai la…hao cha huh por 5 por 6 ma chuai hai khru chad ma pen laam huh pha norng pai buan paak na laew pha norng
4 รสกเปนคนเดยวกน (Ru suek pen khon diew gun), literally means feeling like the same person but the meaning is feeling as if from the same cultural background, with the same set of cultural and beliefs background and values.
427
klub ma nang ni na. Laew kor hai kham naenam sommut wa pai thorn fun tong hai kham naenum lang thorn fan wa tong tham yang rai bang hai khao chuai bork…”.
“…when we go for school trip dental care, we have to ask for help from grade 5 and 6 students; for examples students from grade 1 cannot really communicate [in standard Thai], kindergarten and grade 1 students not quite yet but grade 2 can slightly communicate …they can communicate in stand Thai…we would have to ask for help from grade 5 and 6 …teachers would organize them as interpreters. The interpreters will have to interpret things like “take them to gargle and bring them back here”, and giving advices for example a student just had his/her tooth pulled out, then the advice would be what to do and how to take care of themselves after tooth extraction. Dentists needed the student interpreters to tell their student patients”.
8.3 from pages 179-180
“ เขากจะแปลกใจวาเฮาอภาษาเขาได ..เขากซาเตอหวเราะใสเฮา เพราะเวลาเฮาอแลวเพยนแลวกวา ไมใช ไมใช
แลวออกเสยงคาวา เยาคอนเยา ใหฟงใหมตองแอกเซนตใหฟงเปนภาษาเขา แลวกหวเราะกนสนกสนานทงหมอทงคนไข
เรากวาเราพดไดขนาดนกดแลว เฮากจดไววาคาเหลานทเราใชบอยๆ”
“khao kor cha plaek chai wa hao oo phasa khao dai..khao kor sam tueah huaroah sai hao proah wela hao oo laew phian laew kor wa mai chai mai chai laew orksiang kham wa “yao kon yao” hai fang mai tong accent hai fang pen phasa khao laew kor huaroah kan sanook sanaan tung morh tung khon khai. Rao kor wa rao phood dai kanaad ni kor di laew. Hao kor chod wai wa kham lao ni thi rao chai boi boi”
“Patients would be surprised hearing dentists speaking to them in their own language …sometimes they laughed at us because we made pronunciation mistakes and they would say no..no..and then taught us how to correctly pronounce “yao kon yao” and we had to practice pronouncing correctly. We all laughed and had fun, both the patients and dentists. The language we could speak was already good enough and we noted down all the vocabulary we frequently use.”
8.4 from pages 181-182
“...เขาจะไมรจกโรคเอดสเสยเลย เขาจะไมรเลยวาเพศสมพนธหมายถงอะไร เขาจะไมรความหมาย สวนมากจะเปนชาวเขา
และอกบเขาบคอยฮเรอง....เทาทผานมานะสมมตวาเขาไมไดมากบ อสม.
พแกไขโดยการเอาญาตหรอเอาคนไขคนอนทฮกามาชวยแปลฮอ ตงพโตยตงหมอโตย …แตถามนเปนระดบเขาซรนจจะอนา
มนจะไมดเพราะมนเปนความลบไง ถาสมมตวาเราเอาตวแทนมานะมนจะไมได ...ลามจะรความลบไมได
เชนถาผลเลอดเขาเปนบวกเนย เฮาจะมปญหาหนกกตรงนแหละ ...แลวตรงนนะ โอย ตงเสยงอกเสยงใจละ เพราะวา
เขาบเขาใจ ภาษาเฮาอะ ...แตเฮาจะมปญหาหนกกตรงผลเลอดนแหละ เพราะวาเปนถอเปนความลบนะ
เพราะเปนปญหาใหญหลวง ตรงนแหละทขาเจาอดใจ เพราะจะเอา อสม.มา อสม. กจะตองฮความลบมนจะทาอยางใด…” “Khao cha mai ru chak rok AIDS sia loei khao cha mai ru loei wa phetsamphan maai thueng arai khao cha mai ru khwuam mai suan mak cha pen chao khao lae ou kap khao bo hu rueang…thao thi phan ma na sommut wa khao mai dai ma kap or sor mor pi kae khai doi kaan ao yaat rue ao khon khai khon uen thi hu kam ma Chuai plae hue tueng pi toi tueng mor toi…tae tha man pen radap khao syringe cha i na man cha mai di prao man pen khwuam lap tha sommut wa rao ao tua thaen ma na man cha mai dai… laam cha ru kwuam lap mai dai chen tha phon lueat khao pen buak nia hao cha mi panha nak kor trong ni lae… laew trong ni na oi tueng siang ok siang chai la prao wa khao bor khao chai phasa hao a … tae hao cha mi panha nak kor trong phon lueat ni lae prao wa poen thue pen khwuam lap na prao pen panha yai luang trong ni lae thi khachao it chai prao cha ao or sor mor ma or sor mor kor cha tong hu khwuam lap man cha tham yang dai…”
“ [patients]…don’t know anything about AIDS. They have no idea what is meant by sexual intercourse. They don’t know the meaning of it. The majority of the people were hilltribes and we don’t understand them and they don’t understand us. …Usually if they were here on their own without the volunteers then doctors and I would solve the problem by asking their relatives or other patient’s relatives who know the patients’ language to help interpret for us. …However, if it has
428
anything to do with syringe based, then having interpreters are not good since it is confidential and if we have any interpreter in that process it is forbidden. Interpreters are not allowed to know the confidentiality matter of the patients such as blood tested was positive for AIDS. We do have serious problem with the blood test results since it is considered highly confidential. This is a big problem. This is the point where I get so worried because if I have the volunteers with me they will absolutely know the confidentiality matter of the patients”.
8. 5 from pages 182-183
“ของพนะพจะเขยนไววาเพศสมพนธภาษามงเขยนจะอ วาจะอ ภาษาอาขาวาจะอ เชนคาวาหามมเพศสมพนธกจะวาบฮอมจะอ
จะอ ....แตพอมาพดถงเรองเพศสมพนธเขาจะไมรเรองเลย กอนอนพจะถามวา รจกโรคเอดสไหม เขาจะไมร
แลวไมตองถามตอไปเลย ประตปดเลย เพราะอธบายยากมาก ใชเวลามาก พจะรสกวาพ burn out วนหนงถาเขาซรนจคนไขทบฮเรองสก 4-5 คนนะ จะเรมเครยด เพราะมนไมใชเรองเดยวนะ เพราะของพเปนผหญงตงครรภ
จะตองอต งแตเรอง ทาลสซเมยลงมา ...เพราะฉะนนถาวนไหนมคนไขเอเอนซใหมสก 10กวาคน วนนนม 15 คน
พอยากอวกแลว พออกมาพกเหนอยจะตายละ …มนเปนเรองของคอนเซปนะ คนเมองกอยากนะ ขนาดคนเมองยงบเขาใจเลย
อยางเรองเอดสนพอจะรเรองนะ แตถาเปนทาลสซเมย แมแตเจาหนาทกยงเครยดเกยวกบเรองน” “Khorng phi na phi cha khian wai wa phetsamphan phasa Hmong khian cha i wa cha i phasa Akha wa cha i chen kham wa haam mi phetsamphan kor cha wa bor hue mi cha i cha i …tae phor ma phud thueng rueng phetsamphan khao cha mai ru rung loei korn uen phi cha tham wa ru chak rok AIDS mai Khao cha mai ru laew mai tong tham tor pai loei pratu pid loei prao athibai yaak maak chai wela maak phi cha ru suek wa phi burn out wan nueng tha khao syringe khon khai thi bor hu rueng sak 4-5 ku ni na cha reum kriat prao man nai chai rueng diaw na prao khorng phi pen phu ying tang kan cha tong ou tang tae rueng Thalassemia long ma…prao cha nan tha wan nai mi khon khai ANC mai sak 10 kwa khon wan nan mi 15 khon phi yaak uak laew phi ork ma phi kor nueai cha tai la… man pen rueng khorng concept na khon mueang kor ou yaak na khanad khon mueng yang bor khao chai loei yang rueng AIDS ni pho cha ru rueng na tae tha pen Thalassemia mae tae chaonathi kor yang kriat kiaw kap rueng ni” “As for me, I would note down that this is how to say sexual intercourse in Hmong and this is how to say it in Akha, and this is how we say no sexual intercourse in the two languages. ..but when we talked about sexual intercourse issues, they do not understand it at all. Prior to that I would ask them if they know what AIDS is. They have no idea about it and then after that no more questions. Door closed. It is very difficult to explain. It takes lots of times and I was always burned out. In a day, if I have to explain the blood test of 4-5 patient couples with communication problems I would get so tensed and stressed. It wasn’t just only one notion that I have to explain but my job deals with pregnancy women therefore I have a whole series of things to talk about starting from Thalassemia. Thus, any day if we have 10-15 new ANC patients I would really feel sick and I would be worn out by the evening. …This is about concept. Even northern Thai people do have problems understanding concepts. The concept of Aids is fine, they understand it but Thalassemia was a problem. Even staffs were stressed with this type of communication”.
Chapter 9: Wiang Mok village 9.1 from page 205
“…บางคนยงพดภาษาไทยไมไดดวยซา คนทมา 10 กวาปแลวอยางนอยตองพดภาษาไทยไดบาง
และตองไดเรยนหนงสอ....ถาไป ทางานรบจางตองไดคาเมอง ตองไดคาลอ ภาษาไทยลอ”
“ …bang khon yang phood phasaa Thai mai dai duai sam, khon ti ma sip kwa pi laew yang noi tong phood phasaa Thai dai bang, lae tong dai rian nang sue. … Tha pai tham ngarn rab jaang tong dai kam muang, tong dai kam lue, phasaa Thai Lue.”
429
“Some of them can’t even speak Thai. Those who lived here over 10 years had to at least be able to speak standard Thai at some level and had been to school…. If they took up any service or labour job in town they will definitely know northern Thai and Tai Lü words.”
9.2 from page 209
“เดกเขาพดจนคาไทยคาผสมกน จนกพดไมจบไทยกพดไมจบ ยงคดอย ยงหวงอยวาขางหนาจะเปนอยางไร”
“dek kao phood jeen kum thai kum phasom kan, jeen kor phood mai jobe thai kor phood mai jobe, yang kid yoo, yang huang yoo wa kang na ja pen yang rai”.
“They speak one Yunnanese word and one Thai word. They didn’t even finish the sentence in Chinese and not even in Thai. I am worried about the future what would it be like.”
9.3 from page 209
“หวงภาษาจน เพราะวาละออนบาเดยวนไปเรยนภาษาไทยกบภาษาจน แมกระทงอยโรงเรยนจนอหมเดยวกนเขายงอภาษาไทย
20-30 ปขางหนานภาษาจนอาจจะหดหายไป แตวาอยในโรงเรยนภาษาทเปนตวหนงสอจะบมหาย
ภาษาอมนอาจจะหายไปในอนาคต ... ภาษาลอกเหมอนกน
ครอบครวอนจะบยอมรบภาษาลอบยอมอกบพอแมเปนภาษาลอจะเอาภาษาไทยหรอภาษาจนอกบพอและแม ...”
“Huang phasaa jeen5
, phraw wa la-on ba diaew ni pai rian phasaa thai kub phasaa jeen, mae krathang yoo rongrian jeen oo moo diaew kan khao yang oo phasaa thai, 20-30 pi kang na ni phasaa jeen aaj hod hai pai, tae wa yoo nai rongrian phasaa ti pen tua nungsue ja bor mi hai phasaa oo mun aaj ja hai pai nai anakot…phasaa lü kor muen kan, krob krua uen ja bor yom rab phasaa lü, bor yom oo kub phor mae pen phasaa lü, ja aow phasaa thai rue phasaa jeen oo kub phor lae mae.”
“I am worried about Yunnanese because the kids today studies Thai and Chinese [Mandarin]. Even when at the Chinese ethnic school when they speak to their own people they now use standard Thai. In 20-30 years time the spoken language [Yunnanese] will gradually be gone but the written ones in school will still be there. The spoken one, in the future, may be gone. …Even Lü, other families do not accept Lü. They won’t speak Lü to their parents. They will only use either standard Thai or Yunnanese to their parents”.
9.4 from page 226
“เขาสนใจภาษาจน เพราะวาเขารเรองภาษาจน ถาเขาออกไปขางนอก เขาจะมทางกวางๆ ใหเลอก
เพราะวาปจจบนนลกๆเขากใชภาษาจนกนแมวาไมใช international language เหมอนภาษาองกฤษ
แตวาคนใชเยอะกวาภาษาองกฤษ…ใชภาษาจนนะ….ตรงเนยเดกสวนมากจะเปนเดกอาขา เดกเยากม
เดกอาขากไปเรยนทมหาวทยาลยไตหวน ...บางคนเขากไมไปไตหวนนะ
เขากเหนวาออกไปขางนอกแลวเขากจะหางานทางายขน...”
“khao son jai phasaa jeen phrow wa khao ru rueng phasaa jeen tha khao ork pai khaang nork khao ja mi thaang kwaang kwaang hai lueak phraw wa pajjubun ni look look khao kor chai phasaa jeen kun mae wa mai chai internal language muean phasaa angkrit tae wa khon chai yer kwa phasaa angkrit…chai phasaa jeen na… trong niah dek suan maak ja pen dek Akha dek Yao kor mi dek Akha kor pai rian ti mahawitthayalai Taiwan…bang khon khao kor mai pai Taiwan na khao kor hen wa ork pai khaang nork laew khao kor ja ngarn thum ngai khuen…”.
5 The village people used the term phasaa jeen to refer to Yunnanese language while the word jeen itself means Chinese. Therefore, whenever the word jeen is used it was translated as Yunnanese according to the use of the villagers. In some cases, the word jeen may be referred to Mandarin Chinese or Taiwanese Chinese. Therefore, the following factors will have to be taken into considerations during the translation: context, situation in the village, and historical perspectives.
430
“They are interested in Chinese because they knew that if they know Chinese the world outside will be a wide-road for them. This is also because currently their children are also communicating in Chinese, even though it is not an international language like English but there are more speakers than English…this is Chinese, more speakers…At this school, the majority of students are Akha. We do have Mien too. Some Akha students are now studying in Taiwan universities. …but some didn’t do to Taiwan because they think that by learning the language it will be easier to get a job…”.
9.5 from page 227
“…มคะ เราม เดกทกเผาเลย โดยเฉพาะเวลาครสอนชนเลกๆเนย ครตองเกงหลายภาษา
ครสอนชนเลกๆตองสอนหลายภาษา ภาษาจนตองพดได ภาษาไทยกตองพดได
นอกจากอนนแลวกตองภาษาเกยวกบเผานตองรนดๆหนอยๆ แลวเวลาเดกเขามาใหมๆนพดอะไรกไมรเรอง
เรากสอนยากมากๆ ขนาดพกตองพดหลายภาษาเหมอนกน บางทพกตองพดภาษาอาขาเหมอนกน
เวลาจาเปนพกพอพดได ...”
“...mi ka rao mi dek took phao loei doichapho wela khru sorn chun lek lek nia khru torng keng laai phasaa kru sorn chun lek lek torng sorn laai phasaa phasaa jeen torng phood daai phasaa thai kor torng phood daai nork jaak an ni laew kor torn phasaa kiaew kub phao ni torng roo nid nid noi noi laew wlea dek khao ma maim ai ni phood arai kor mai roo rueiang rao kor sorn yaak maak maak kanaad pi gor torng phood laai phasaa muen kun baang ti pi gor torng phood phasaa Akha Muen kun wela pi jumpen pi kor phood dai”. “…We have students from all tribal backgrounds. When teachers teach especially the early years of schooling, teachers will have to be fluent in many languages. Teachers teaching the early years will have to also teach many languages. They have to be able to speak Chinese and Thai. Besides, they have to know tribal languages to a certain extent. That was because when students first came to school they just can’t communicate. We don’t understand them and then teaching becomes extremely difficult. Even I have to learn many languages. I can also speak Akha when there is a need to speak in the school”.
Chapter 10: Huai Kok village 10.1 from page 267
“ไอขะเหมดทผมอตะกวาซอมอบน เวลามนจะอภาษาเมองนยากสดบวามนจะอยกทกจางเตอะ
...มนอไดแตลนมนบเขา...มนไปแฮมอยางหนง...อจางแตลนมนบไปอนะ”
“ai Khamet ti phom oo ta ki wa som oob ni wela mun ja oo phasaa muang ni yaak sud bor wa mun ja yoo ki thi gor jaang ter …mun oo dai tae lin mun bor kao…mun pai haem yang nueng…oo jaang tae lin mun bor pai I na”
“The Khamet that I just said, the soom oob Khamet, when they speak northern Thai its difficult for them no matter how many places they have stayed. … They can speak [northern Thai] but their tongues were not in place….Its different. …They can speak [northern Thai] but their tongues just don’t work”.
Chapter 11: Payang chum village 11.1 from page 286-287
“…สมยกอนตอนทเขามาใหมๆเนย มนยงบมบตรบมหยงเตอนะ เนาะ แลวหมตารวจกเขาไปไล หย บกนทแมสายนะ
เผลอๆนตสตหาไปลอมบานกอนเขาตน บากองตนขนมาปปไปจบฮองลงมาไปเขาโรงพกปป เมอสมยกอนนไมปรบนกนา ก
100 –200 –300- 400 กเงนมนหายากเนาะ 100 หนงนซอขาวสารไดเปนสองสามถงแลวสมยนนนะ
มนไปลกษณะอยางอ แลวทนเอาไปเอามาเอาเขามากวา เอ...ถาวากเปนลอเขาจะถามหาบตรหาไป...มนกใสกาเมองไปเลย
431
ตารวจกบคอยสนใจ เออ อนนมนอกาเมองกเลยบสนใจ ถาวาบจางอเมอง บจางอไทยกถามละ มใบกอน
แลวทนทวาอไดเตมปาก อแลวบอายน กคอวากาลงมามเอาตอนทไดบตรเปนพนองไทยลอขนมา. ... ป 2519” “Samai korn torn thi kao ma mai mai niah mum yang bor mi bat bor mi yang tueh na norh laew moo tamruaj kor khao pai lai yub kun ti Maesai na . pluerh pluerh ni ti si ti ha pai lorm baan korn kao tuen bah korng tuen khoen ma poep pai jub horng longma pai hong puk pup. Mueh samai korn ni mai prub nuk na kor 100 –200-300- 400 kor nguen mun ha yaak norh. 100 nueng ni sue khao sarn dai pen sorng saam thung laew samai nun na. Mun pai laksana yang ii. Laew ti ni ao pai ao ma ao khao ma kor wah eh…tha wa koo pen Lü khao ja thaam ha but ha pai...mun kor sai kum muang pai loei. Tumruaj kor bor koi sonjai. Ur…un ni mum oo kum Muang kor loei bor sonjai. Tha wa bor jaang oo Muang bor jaang oo Thai gor tham la mi bai gor ni. Laew ti ni ti wah oo dai tem paak oo laew bor ai ni kor kue wah kumlung ma mi ao torn ti dai but pen pi nong Tai Lü kuen ma …pi 2519” “When we first came to Thailand, we didn’t have any ID and police would arrest us in Maesai town. Sometimes the houses were rounded up by police as early as 4 – 5am and they waited for the Tai Lü migrants to wake up. When the migrants woke up they would be arrested by the police and taken to the police station. In those days, the fine wasn’t much when compared to today. It ranges from 100 –200-300-400 baht. In those days money were difficult to earn. A 100 baht would be able to buy 2-3 thangs6
of rice. So, that was all about it. What happened next is that the Tai Lü in those days thought that if they said they were Tai Lü people, then the police would ask them for their ID. What they did was they spoke northern Thai. When they used northern Thai, police were not interested. If they said they did not know northern Thai or did not know standard Thai, police would ask if they have an ID with them. It was in 1976 that we did confidently speak Tai Lü and were not embarrassed to speak the language because we all got our ID saying that we were Tai Lü brothers and sisters”.
Chapter 12: Phamee village 12.1 from page 302
“เดกอาขาไมไดใสใจหรอเหนคณคาของภาษาอาขาทถกสรางและสบทอดมาแตครงบรรพบรษแตอยางใด
เดกๆพรอมเสมอกบการหนมาใชชวตแบบคนไทย พดภาษาไทย และพรอมเสมอกบการละทงภาษาอาขา
เพอลบภาพของความเปนคนอาขา ทพวกเขาเขาใจวาต าตอย เปนเศษเดนของสงคม ไมไดรบการยอมรบ
และเปนผสรางปญหาใหกบสงคมไทย อาจเปนไปไดทในวนหนงขางหนา เดกๆรนใหมเหลานจะพดภาษาอาขาไมได
ฟงภาษาอาขาไมเขาใจ ถงตอนนนชนอาขากคงหมดไปจากประเทศไทย” “Dek Akha mai dai sai jai rue hen khun kah khong phasaa ti thook saang lae sueb thord ma tae krang banpaburut tae yang dai dek dek prom samur kub karn hun ma chai cheewit baeb khon Thai phood phasaa Thai lae phrom kub karn la thing phasaa Akha pueah lob phaab khong khwam pen khon Akha ti puak khao kao jai wa tam toi pen set den khong sangkhom mai dai rub karn yorm rub lae pen phoo sang punha hai kub sangkhom Thai aaj pen pai dai thi nai wan nueng khang nah dek dek roon mai lao ni ja phood phasaa Akha mai dai fung phasaa Akha mai khao jai thueng ton nun chon Akha kor khong mod pai jaak prathet Thai.” “Akha youngsters do not pay any attention to or see the values of the Akha language which had been invented and passed down from the ancestors. The youngsters were ready to live the Thai way of lives, speak Standard Thai; and were also ready to wipe off the image of being an Akha person. In their perception, being an Akha was of a lowly birth, an unwanted social subject who will never be accepted into the society. Moreover, they were viewed as the people who created problems for the Thai society. It may be that one day in the future these younger generations will not be able to speak Akha, cannot understand Akha and then by that time the Akha ethnic group will all be gone from Thailand”.
12. 2 from page 303
6 One thang is approximately 10 kilograms. The measurement is still widely used in the northern part of Thailand. Also, the exchange rate for Thai baht and Australian dollar today is roughly calculated at 30 baht for 1 Australian dollar. In those days, the exchange rate may have been different.
432
“หยานหยแปลวาชนเผาอาขานแหละ ในเวลาสวดจนถงปจจบนนเนย สภาษตกมนะ สภาษต คาสวด หรอทาพธกรรม
แตวาคาวาอาขากม แตอาขานจะอยในสภาษตเยอะ ในพธนมนอยเวลาสวดนะครบ แตหมายถงวาเกาแกจรงๆกหยานหย
นแหละกกลายเปนการเรยกชอชนเผาของอาขานนะครบ อาจจะเปนเกาเลยเอางายๆ ....กอนอาขาครบ...”
“Yaa Nyi plae wah chon phao Akha ni lae nai wela suad jon thoeng pajjuban ni niah suphasit gor mi nah suphasit khamsuad rue tham phithigam tae khum wah Akha gor mi tae Akha ni ja yoo nai suphasit yer nai piti ni mi noi wela suad na khrab tae mai thueng wah kao kae jing jing kor Yaa Nyi ni lae gor klai pen garn riak chue chon phao khong Akha ni na khrub Aajja pen kao loei ao ngai ngai…gorn Akha krub…” “The meaning of Yaa Nyi is the Akha people. It refers to the Akha in the chants from then and until now. Yaa Nyi was found to be used in proverbs, sayings, and rituals and worship chants too. Akha was also used. Akha usually appear more in proverbs and sayings but less in rituals and worship chants. What I mean is the oldest name is Yaa Nyi. This is how the Akha names were derived. Yaa Nyi is older…older than Akha.”.
12.3 from pages 305
“หลายทานกบอกวาเนองมาจากชนเผาอาขาอยนงโดยนสย หรอโดยธรรมชาตชอบอยตดแนวชายแดน
แลวคาวาแนวชายแดนเนยภาษาอาขาเรยกวามขะ … แลวกอกหลายทานบอกวาคอคลายๆการรบอทธพล
คออนนผมแปลตรงเลยกคอ เปนคนกลางคอสามารถรบไดกบเรองทกๆเรองอยางนหละครบ...อนนกยงไมชดเจนเทาไหร” “Laai thaan bok wah nueng ma jaak chon phao Akha yoo ning doi nisai rue doi thammachart chorb yoo tid naew chaidaen laew kham wah naew chai daen niah phasaa akha riak wah mikha. …laew ik laai thaan bok wah khue khlai khlai kub garn rub ittlipon khue un ni phom plae trong loei kor khue pen khon klang khue samart rub dai kub rueang thook thook rueang yang ni la khrub. … un ni gor yung mai chud jen thao rai.” “ Many people said that the Akha are quiet and calm by nature and they like to stay at the borders. The word border in Akha language is Mikha. … Many people also said that its like being influenced. However, I would like to be direct in my interpretation, I would say it means the mediator or neutral which means we can deal with anything that come our way. …However, it is still not clear”.
12.4 from page 308-309
“…เดมทนนชนอาขามภาษาเขยนเชนกน โดยไดเขยนตวหนงสอไวบนหนงควายแทนการเขยนลงในกระดาษ
แตเนองจากเกดศกสงครามบอยชนอาขาตองหนภยสงครามตลอดเวลา
ดงนนเพอขจดภาระในการดแลรกษาและการขนยายตวอกษรเหลานน
ชนอาขาจงคดหาวธทจะทาใหภาษาเขยนอยคกบชนอาขาตลอดไป โดยไดทาการตกลงกนวา ใหตมหนงควายกน
และใหจดจาตวอกษรใสไวในใจกบสมอง...” [Emphasis added]
“derm thi nun chon Akha mi phasaa khian chen kan doi dai khian tua nungsue wai bon nung kwai thaen kaan khian long nai kradaat tae nueng jaak kerd suek songkhram boi chon Akha tong ni phai songkhram talod wela dungnun phuea khajud phara nai karn doolae ruksa lae karn khon yaai tua aksorn lao nun chon Akha chueng khid ha withi thi ja thum hai phasaa khian yoo koo kub chon Akha talod pai doi dai thum karn toklong kun wah hai tom nung kwaai kin lae hai jodjum tua aksorn sai wai nai jai kub samong…” [Emphasis added]
“…In the old days, the Akha used to have their writing system. Their writing system was written on buffalo hide instead of paper. Due to frequent wars the Akha had to escape the wars and in order to get rid of the responsibility in carrying the alphabet and writing system, the Akha reached a decision. The decision was to keep the alphabet and the writing system with them forever. The Akha had to memorise the alphabet by heart [the thai phrase used was ‘in their heart and brain’] and then the buffalo hide was boiled and eaten…” [Emphasis Added]
433
12.5 from page 311
“อเปนภาษาไทยตวยละกแปลเปนภาษาอาขาตวย เวลาประชมตองดวากลมวยรน วยกลางคนมกอ
อยางรนพอหลวงเขานสวนใหญจะอไดหมดคอตงแต 50 ลงไปเนยอไดหมดละ ถา 50 ลงไปกลมนนกจะอภาษาอาขา
ถาผอแลวเปนคนวยทางานกอภาษาไทยเลย” “oo pen phasaa Thai tuai la gor plae pen phasaa Akha tuai wela prachoom tong doo wa khloom wairun wai klang khon me gor yang run porh luang ni suan yai ja oo dai mod khue tang tae 50 long pai niah oo dai mod la tah 50 long pai kloom nun gor ja oo phasaa Akha tah porh laew pen khon wai thum ngan gor oo phasaa Thai loei”.
“[the meeting is conducted] in standard Thai and also translated into Akha. When there is a meeting we have to see whether the attendants were the young generations or middle age. For example, my generation almost all of them can speak standard Thai which is the 50 years and downwards all can speak standard Thai; but if 50 years upwards, that group will speak Akha. If the meeting attendants were the working age people then standard Thai would be used”.
12.6 from page 316
“ภาษาอาขากนาเปนหวงนะตอนน ลกพสาวผม...... แตงงานตวยคนอาขาเนยแตไปอยเชยงราย มนอบไดแลว 2
คนนไปเกดป น อกคนหนงเกดทน แลวอมลงไปเมอตวยงเลก แตคนโตเวลาไปคยดวยเคายงฟงได แตไอสองคนเลกพดไมได
เวลาเฮาอกาอาขานผอหนา บฮแลวไปถามแมวาแม นาเปนออะหยงแน อเปนคาเมองเอา แมมนกแปลฮอ
แมมนกวานาเปนอจะอ จะอ โดยธรรมชาตนะ บฮจะไปหวง ไปหามจะใด” “phasaa Akha kor nah pen huang na torn ni look pi sao phom…..taeng ngarn tuai khon Akha niah tae pai yoo Chiang Rai mun kor oo bor dai laew 2 khon ni pai kerd poon ik khon nueng kerd ti ni laew oom long pai mueah tua yang lek tae khon toh wela pai kui duai kao yang fang dai tae ai song khon lek phood mai dai wela hao oo kam Akha ni phor nah bor hoo laew pai tham mae wah mae nah pern oo ayang nae oo pen kham muang mae mum kor plae hue mae mum kor wah mah pern o ja i ja i doi thammachart na bor hu ja pai huang pai harm ja dai”
“Akha language now is something to worry about. My sister’s children… My sister married an Akha too and now lives in Chiang Rai. Her children cannot speak Akha. Two of her children were born over there [Chiang Rai], and one was born here and was taken to Chiang Rai when she was small. When I speak Akha to the eldest one, she/he still understands the language but the younger two cannot speak Akha and when I speak Akha they looked at me in bewilderment and asked their mother what their uncle had said. They talked to their mother in northern Thai. Their mother translated to them and said your uncle said this and this. It’s natural; just don’t know how to stop them”.
12.7 from page 318
“…[เขา]ไมรสกเสยดายภาษาของตนทสญเสยไป ถอวาเปนเรองธรรมดา ตองมการปรบตว ปรบภาษา
เพอใหเขากบสภาวะแวดลอมและดาเนนชพอยในสงคมได
พวกเขาไมรสกกระดากอายหรอตาหนบคคลทใชภาษาไทยมากกวาภาษาอาขาแตอยางใด ...อยในเมองไทยจาเปนทจะตองพดภาษาไทยใหได และหากพดภาษาไทยไดจะทาใหมงานทดทา มเงนเดอนแพงๆ…” “ …[kao] mai roo suek sia dai phasaa khong tone ti soon sia pai tue pen rueng thummada tong mi karn plab tua plab phasaa pueh hai khao kub sapawa waed lorm lae dumnuen cheep yoo nai sangkhom dai phuak khao mai roo suek kradaak aai rue tamni bookkol ti chai phasaa maakkwa phasaa Akha tae yang dai. …Yoo Nai muang Thai jumpen ti ja tong phood phasaa Thai hai dai lae haak phood phasaa Thai dai ja thum hai mi ngarn ti dee thum mi nguen duean phaeng phaeng …”
434
“ [they] do not regret or feel sorry for the loss of their language. They think that it’s a normal process that people and languages adapt to the environment and survive in the society. They did not feel embarrassed or even blame Akha people who speak Thai more than Akha. ….When living in Thailand it is a must to speak Thai and if you can speak Thai you will have good job and high salary.”
12.8 from page 319
“ทาใหสามารถพดคยกบคนไดอยางหลากหลาย ไมวาจะเปนคนอาขาหรอคนไทย ทาใหไมเสยเปรยบจากการฟงไมรเรอง
โดยเฉพาะหากอยในกลมคนไทย พวกเขายงไดเปรยบ เพราะคนไทยฟงภาษาอาขาไมเขาใจ”
“thum hai samart phood khui kub khon dai yang laak lai mai wah ja pen khon Akha rue khon Thai thum hai mai sia priab jaak karn fung mai roo rueang doi chapoh haak yoo nai gloom khon thai phuak khao ying dai priab phro khon Thai fung phasaa Akha mai kao jai”
“[knowing two languages] can communicate to both Akha and Thai people. Moreover, we would not be disadvantage from not being able to understand the communication especially when in the Thai community, the Akha people understood what was spoken and were at an advantage because the Thai people do not understand Akha language” (Assawayingtaworn, 2002, p. 156).
435
Appendix B
Abbaew Phenomenon: Standard Thai language change
Due to the nature of the medium, which is through the internet where only writing and typing was the main communication, the cyber space’s use of Thai language took the change of standard Thai to an advance level. In the Minister of culture’s words, the changes “deteriorate” standard Thai. The changes are as follows. Firstly, the spellings are changed to reduce the use of diacritic marks and the use of the shift key on the keyboard as much as possible (See Figure 1 for Thai Keyboard layout). This is because standard Thai has 44 letters and vowels, apart from tone markers. Therefore, one key has to have 2 letters. The shift key is used when the second letter on the key is to be used. This creates quite a problem when typing in response to a web-chat conversation. Thus, to increase the speed of typing only the letters that require a shift key are not generally used. I tried to use one of the web-chats, MSN-chat, using standard Thai, and found that it was easier to type and quicker than typing full words with the shift key. Thus, this type of writing creates a short and strange looking written words and conversation. What is particular interesting in this change is that some words are censored by some web-based programs. Those words are censored for having parts of the word that spells like the already programmed taboo words. Therefore, when writing those words, web-chatters and bloggers have to alter the spellings (examples in Tables 1-3 below). With the same principle, the taboo words go into spelling change and are well alive on the web (examples below) with very special sense attached to it – being cutely transformed or readorned, and cool. Secondly, short vowels are lengthened to create a sort of cute, young, innocent, and teenage type of effect. To some people, such use is viewed as abnormally innocent and dubbed the use and change in language as “แอบแบว - abbaew” phenomenon.
Figure 1 Thai keyboard layout Abbaew7
7 In some source, the word “abbaew” was said to be the effect that Australian English had on the spoken English of the Thais due to the Australian English teachers hired in schools. However, it was debated that Australian English was not the cause but in fact English as a whole. With this explanation, it is evident then only American and British English are the only two favoured varieties in the Thai society.
was coined from two clipped words, one from English and the other from standard Thai: “ab” from ‘abnormal’, and “baew” from a Thai colloquial adjective “bongbaew” which means innocent. This type
436
of language use, later came out of the cyber space into the real world usage, both in written and spoken language. This, to some, is irritating to hear and read. The new written form made its way into school work. It is seen as ruining the proper standard Thai language use. Abbaew phenomenon became an interesting national debate between standard Thai is deteriorating beause of Abbaew phenomenon, and abbaew is a natural phenomenon in language and that the use of this kind of language will cease to be used in the future (Matichon Newspaper, 2007a, 2007b). Tables 1-3 below contains examples of observed changes in standard Thai language during the abbaew phenomenon. The tables below describe changes roughly at three levels: phonetic level, word level, emotional level and others8
.
8 This thesis did not deal in detail with the Abbaew phenomenon. The change itself needed an independent detailed study.
Table 1 Abbaew phenomenon and Thai language change at phonetic level
Level of Change
From Correct Thai To “Abbaew” Thai Notes
Thai phonetic Thai phonetic
Phonetic Level Consonantal sounds
สงส
เหรอ ย
เปน
[soŋsaj] [rɤː] [pen]
ฉงฉ
เหยอ ย
เปง
[ʨʰoŋʨʰaj] [jɤː] [peŋ]
Tone provided if there is a significant change in the tones in particular word or syllable.
Lengthen Vowel Sounds
ฉน ทาใจ ทาไ
ใช ม
ได
[ʨʰǎn] [tamʨaj] [tammaj] [ʨʰaj] [daj]
ฉาน ทามจาย ทามมาย ชาย ด
[ʨʰ aːn]
าย
[taːmʨaːj] [taːmmaːj] [ʨʰaːj] [daːj]
Shortened vowel sounds
มาก ตว
เด
เอง
ไมได
ยว
[maːk] [tuːa.eŋ] [diow] [majdaj]
มก ตะ
เดว เอง
มะด
[mak]
าย
[ta.eŋ] [dew] [madaːj]
437
9 The sound [ʨʰ] can be represented by 3 Thai letters: ฉ (a high class initial consonant), ช (a low class initial consonant) and ฌ (a low class initial consonant). This is due to the letters have certain sound or tone quality attached to them. When the spellings change, it affects the tones of the consonant. 10 Sound [pʰ] has 3 letters which are: ภ, พ and ผ. 11 Thai has 8 final sounds endings. No matter with what letter a word ends with, the final ending will have to be pronounced in any one of the 8 final sound which is the nearest to the spelling. The eight endings are called มาตราตวสะกด (Martra Tua Sakod) which consists of: ng, n, m, k, t, b, y and w. In the word ธรรมศาสตร, it can be phonetically written as ‘tʰammasaːstr’ but when pronounced the final clusters [str] is reduced to only [t]. Therefore the final ending of the word ‘mitrapʰa:pʰ’, has a [pʰ] sound and spelling but pronounced as [b] in the final position. This is also evident in กร or ‘kr’ [kɔːn] the Thai spelling ending in [r] but pronounced as [n] in final position.
Level of Change
From correct Thai To “Abbaew” Thai Notes Thai phonetic Thai phonetic
Word Level Word-spelling and vowel changed
ฉน9
ภาษา10
ให
ได ก ไมร มตรภาพ อยางไร ครบ ใหญ คอ พ ได ธรรมศาสตร
1[ʨʰǎn] 1[pʰaːsaː] [haj] [daj] [kɔː] [ma jruː] [mitrapʰaːpʰ11
[jaːŋraj] ]
[kʰrab] [jaj] [kʰƜː] [pʰi ː] [daˆj] [tʰammasaːt]
ชน ชาน ชร
ฉาน
าน
พาสา หย ดย, ดาย กอ, ก- มะร, ไมร, มายร มดตะพาบ งาย คบ หยาย ครอ เพ ดาย ทาสาด
2[ʨʰán] 2[ʨʰáːn] 2[ʨʰráːn] 1[ʨʰǎːn] 2 [pʰaːsaː] [haj] [daj] [daːj] [kɔː] [maru], [ma jru] [maːjru] [midtapʰaːb] [ŋaːj] [kʰab] [ja:j] [kʰrƜː] [pʰe ː] [da:ˆj] [tʰamsaːt]
Table 2 Abbaew phenomenon and language change at word level
438
In Table 3, under the others level, the adding of [s] seems to be imitating the English way of speaking where according to the Thais, English is a language with the [s] sound.
12 The word หบ [hi:b] means box, but the same word without the บ ‘b’ sound [hi:] is a taboo which means female genitals. In some websites, the program detects only the first two letters and not the ‘b’, for example words like หบหอ [hi:bhɔ:] which means package. Thus, results in the whole word being deleted and risking the ‘comment’ being published or shown on the web. Therefore, it makes perfect sense to add or delete some letters to avoid the censoring. 13 The word หายนต [hamjon] means decoration piece put on the wall directly above the door to signal that this is a private area, and do not enter without permission. The word when broken down consisted of the syllable หา [ham] meaning the male genital. Therefore, the letter ร [r] is added to avoid the taboo and censoring. 14 In มนส [mans] and ยากส [ya:ks], although the karant “ ◌ ” is on the final consonant,which means the consonant is silent, but in colloquial Thai it is still pronounced. The final ส [s] is pronounced in this case due to an influence in English plural ending. Therefore, the words mean: [mans] enjoyable + plural, [ya:ks] difficult + plural.
Level of change
From correct Thai To “Abbaew” Thai Notes Thai Phonetic Thai Phonetic
Word Level Emergence of Taboos
โวย ก มง หบ หายนต
[woˆ:j] [ku:] [mɯŋ] [hi:b]12
[hamjon]
13
เฟย, เฟรย
กร มรง หรบ, ห-◌บ หรายนต
[fɤ:j], [frɤ:j] [kru:] [mrɯŋ] [hri :b], [h-i:b]* [hramjon]
* [h-i:b] the dash ‘-’ is added to create a space between the ห
[h] and the vowel ◌ [i:]
Emotional Level Consonant Repetition
มาก(a lot) [ma:k] มากก [ma:kk] The more letters added, the more effect created
Vowel Repetition
มาก [ma:k] มาาก [ma:a:k] The more vowel markers are added, the more effect created.
Others Level Phrase ทาอะไร
มน ยาก
[tam.araj] [man] [ya:k]
ไร,ทาไร,ทาราย มนส ยากส
[raj],[tamraj], [tamra:j] [mans]14
[ya:ks]
This is seen in colloquial Thai among all age groups.
Table 3 Abbaew Phenomenon language change at word, emotional and other levels.
439
Appendix C
Auspicious names and its naming practice
The naming practice, based on Indian astrology, is called Phoomtaksa. Phoomtaksa is a Sanskrit term meaning the positions of the eight planets. Firstly, the eight planets refer to phra-arthit, phra-chand, phra-angkarn, phra-put, phra-sao, phra-paruhasabordi, phra-rahu, and phra-suk respectively. Planets names are given in English where applicable in the chart below. The word phra, in this context meaning deva or roughly the equivalent of lord, is attached to each planet’s names due to the belief that each planet is protected by different lords. Secondly, each lord was born at different directions or houses. In other words, the planets have fixed positions in the constellation. Thus, the planets are known to protect their own houses. As a consequence, the planets are positioned according to their constellation and also the direction of North-South as plotted in the table below. Thirdly, consonants and vowels are then assigned to the Phoomtaksa according to wak, which means a set of letters. Standard Thai alphabet is divided into 7 main sets according to their phonetic qualities: place and manner of articulation. The reason they are put in that order in the phoomtaksa is perhaps according to the chronological order from the first wak to the seventh wak in a clockwise manner. The eight wak is a set of vowels. In addition, the combination of a planet and its position, and the waks in that particular position is called a taksa. The importance of taksa is that the taksa will determine the letters and vowels allowed to be used in the naming (Watchanaprasith, 2008).
Table 1 Phoomtaksa chart adapted from Watchanaprasith (2008) Apart from playing a significant role in determining letters and vowels used in the naming, the taksa has a supporting role as the platform for an important action which is counting. Counting is based on the 8 taksas.
Phra-athit (Sun) (Northwest) Vowels: a, a:, ί , i:, u, u:, ei, o: 1 Sunday
Phra-chand (Moon) (North) ก /k/ ข, ค, ฆ /kh/ ง /ŋ/ 2. Monday
Phra-angkarn (Mars) (Northeast) จ /c/ ฉ /ch/ ช ,ฌ/ ʧ -unaspirated/ ซ /s/ ญ /y/ 3. Tuesday
Phra-suk (Venus) (West) ศ, ษ, ส /s/ ฮ, ห /h/ ฬ /l/ 7. Friday
Phra-put (Mercury) (East) ฏ /t/ ฎ /d/ ฑ, ฐ ,ฒ /th/ ณ /n/ 4. Wednesday (born between 6am-6pm)
Phra-rahu (Rahu) (Southwest) ย /y/ ร /r/ ล /l/ ว /w/ 5. Wednesday (born between 6pm-6am)
Phraparuhasabordi (Jupiter) (South) บ /b/ ป /p/ ผ, พ,ภ /ph/ ฝ, ฟ /f/ ม /m/ 6. Thursday
Phra-sao (Saturn) (Southeast) ด /d/ ต /t/ ถ, ท, ธ /th/ น /n/ 8. Saturday
440
The taksas has 8 counts, therefore, has 8 meanings (See Table 2). The importance of the counting is that it assigns certain meaning to the letter sets in the 8 taksas and also to the overall meaning of a name. It is believed that the meaning of a name will become the person’s characteristics throughout life. Also, the person will be blessed by the meaning assigned to the letters that make up his/her name. The count has eight main meanings which are as follows:
Count Meaning of count 1. Boriwaan Followers, subordinates, offspring, husband, wife, colleagues including those under
the person’s care both at home and work 2. Aryu Longevity, life in general and life styles 3. dej Power, honour, fame, career advancement including education, love, and respect 4. Sri Wealth, property, money, other commodities, luck, including the wealth today and the
wealth that may come in the future 5. Moonla Inherited wealth and property including the financial status of relatives 6. Utsaha Hard working, ambitious, successful in career, creativity 7. Montri Patron such as parents, teachers, lecturers, employer and people who assisted the
person in life 8. Kalakini Evils, enemies, unpleasant things, including all kinds of barriers and obstructions
Table 2 Meaning of the counts translated from Watchanaprasith (2008) This count is dependent on a person’s birth day (weekdays). In order to go into the naming process, the person will need the day of the week he/she is born. Persons born on Wednesday will have to know the time of birth whether they are born during the day (6am-6pm) or night (6pm-6am). For example, I was born on Thursday. It is applicable to all born on Thursday, therefore, I will have to start counting the phoomtaksa chart in the clockwise direction from Thursday which is number 6 or from taksa 6. Taksa 6 gets the first count and continues until the count of 8, which ended in taksa 8 on the phoomtaksa chart. In my case, taksa 6 from which I started counting as 1 has the meaning of boriwan. The count then goes on until the count of 8 ended on taksa 8 which means Kalakini (bad luck).
Count Taksa Meaning of taksa 1 6 Boriwan 2 5 Aryu 3 7 Dej 4 1 Sri 5 2 Moonla 6 3 Utsaha 7 4 Montri 8 8 Kalakini
Table 4 Simmee’s naming chart. This means I can use the letters and vowels given in the 7 taksas 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 of my count from 1 to 7 to be parts of my name, or begin my name with; as they are considered good and auspicious to me, and they have the meaning that will support me and be my characteristics throughout life. The choice of any letters or vowels depend on my own choice (or my parents’ choice) of the meaning that I wanted it to support myself. If I choose the alphabets in taksa 7 or on my count of 3 it will have certain sense and meaning attached as having power. I can even have the choice of using any letters from all the taksa (except from taksa 8 on my count of 8) and mix them up to get the desired meaning of my name. I cannot begin, nor have a name that contains letters in taksa 8 which is considered kalakini or bad luck to me. Therefore, my name Simmee, written in Thai as ซมม, contains the letters and vowels in the following taksas: taksa 1 (2 vowels: /¡/ and /¡:/ sounds); taksa 3 (letter ซ); and taksa 6 (2 of the letters ม). The meaning that will support me throughout my life ,according to my count, includes: boriwan, sri, and utsaha. Personal names in Thailand can be changed. It is believed that if hardship falls upon a person, one of the reasons may be that the name is ‘not good’ for that person. One can change his/her name for a better life and luck. Moreover, in this case, the name has to conform to the abovementioned cultural perception of
441
auspiciousness. Apart from personal names, auspicious names also apply to naming of shops and stores. To some, the letters and vowels would be given by monks or learned people. However, to many people, names are selected on their choice and given to monks for blessings. For further personal names see also Raja Ram Mehrotra’s book Sociolinguistics in Hindi Context (1986)
442
Appendix D
Timeline of northern Thai scripts BE = Buddhist Era
Year CE (BE)
Incidents
1370 (1913) Sukhothai script was first found on Prayuen stone slab inscription.
1376 (1919) Sukhothai and Tua Dham scripts found on Lanthong stone inscription. Sukhothai script was used to inscribe Thai language but Tua dham was used to inscribe Pali.
1431 and after (1974)
Phra Yannakhampeera monk returned from Pilgrimage from Sri Lanka to Lanna and reformed Tua Dham script. After 1431, tremendous change occurred with Buddhist text. Religious texts were copied from Sukhothai script into Tua Dham script. Tua Dham had taken over Sukhothai script in religious text domain.
1442 – 1507 (1985- 2050)
Changes of Sukhothai script were detected. The changed script was named Phakkhaam script. Numerous stone inscriptions of this period, were inscribed in both Sukhothai and Phakkhaam scripts. This period was in the reign of King Tilokaraj of Lanna (1442-1487).
1495-1525 (2038-2068)
Phakkhaam script flourished. During the reign of Phra Muang Kaew, Phakkham script was widely used. Stone inscriptions in Phakkham script were found in 8 northern provinces including Lanchang Kingdom in Laos, and Kentung in Burma.
1525-1557 (2068-2100)
After the reign of Phra Muang Kaew, there was a gradual decrease in the popularity of Phakkham script. Only 6 stone slabs were found inscribed in Phakkhaam. The decrease in popularity, may due to Lanna confronted with the instability of the kingdom due to Burmese invasion.
Late 1556 (2099) Thai Nithet script was invented for the purpose of writing secular texts. There were two arguments on the invention of this script. One argument was that the script was invented in late 1556 (Rungruengsri, 1984). The other argument was that the script was invented after Lanna had been freed from Burmese in 1774 (Kruethai, 2002).
1558 (2101) The kingdom of Lanna was defeated by Burmese troops and went under control of the Burmese Empire for 216 years. During this time, Phakkhaam script was forbidden and Tua Dham had taken full function in serving the society (Wittayasakphan, 2006).
1774 (2317) Lanna was freed from Burmese control. Thai Nithet script was developed for the purposes of writing secular texts, poetry and literature. The script did not last long. Only 14 texts have been found so far and all are studied by Prof. Kruethai at Chiang Mai University (Kruethai, 2002).
1868 (2411) American missionaries introduced printing in Lanna.
1872 (2415) The first attempt to develop Tua Dham script for printing.
1884 (2427) Bangkok had tight measures over Lanna in terms of administration, education and religion which led to the downfall of Lanna scripts.
1886 (2429) Assimilation policy was adopted by Siam.
1892 (2435) Tua Dham script was successfully developed by Dr. S.C. Peoples, an American missionary in Lampang (Rungruengsri, 1984).
1893 (2429) Central Thai script from Siam was made an official script.
1903 (2446) 1. “Rong Rian Nung Sue Thai” or Thai Script School was established in Lanna. 2. “Laos Christian News”, first monthly magazine, was published in Tua Dham script.
1906 (2449) A new publishing house was opened and published local literature in tua dham script.
1910 (2453) The American publishing house published over 20 “Krao Saw”.
1926 (2469) The American missionary printing house was sold to Muangjai Chainilaphun.
1939 (2481) Siam changed its name to Thailand and introduced a national identity.
443
1940 (2483) The government of Thailand enforced the 3rd State Preference on language and citizen duty where local script was forbidden to learn.
1952 (2495) “Krao Saw” was first published in Standard Thai. Thus, ended the use of Lanna script in northern Thailand or Lanna.
(Boonmuang, 2003; Kiatpreecha, 2001; Kruethai, 2002; Ongsakul, 2001; Rungruengsri, 1984;
Wittayasakphan, 2006)
444
Appendix E
Letter of Introduction/ Information My name is Simmee Oupra. I am undertaking a research project as part of my PhD Degree in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Centre for European Studies and General Linguistics (CESGL), The University of Adelaide. I am looking particularly at the language situation and language planning and language policy in Chiang Rai. I would like to discuss on the various topics concerning language use, language skills, language attitudes, language problems, language needs and language policy (a list of topics enclosed) and your past and present experiences concerning the abovementioned issues. The discussion will provide an opportunity for you to reflect upon the issues both positively and negatively. The study result may help to understand the language situation in Chiang Rai and how this understanding can be used in forming language policy and planning in the future. The study is completely confidential so nothing that you say will be reported in a way will identify you or your remarks about any person or organization, unless you agree to be identified. If you do not wish to be identified, no personal or identifying information about you will be included in the study, and I will use an invented name to attach to your interview notes. The way that I will carry out the study will be to organize a time and place to meet that suits you. The meeting should take only 40-60 minutes and will be more like a “conversation” than a formal interview. I would like to audio tape our conversation if that is okay with you. If you do not wish to be identified, your real name would not be connected with the tape. The tape would be erased as soon as I have finished using it to make notes of our conversation. If you would prefer not to be taped recorded, I am happy just to take notes. If you wish to check a copy of my notes before I use them in my study, then please indicate this on the attached consent form. If you decide to participate in the study you are free to change your mind and withdraw at any time before the study has been completed. Also you are not obliged to answer questions or to discuss any issues that you do not wish to discuss. You are free to withdraw your interview material up until the time I have finished all the interviews. You do not have to give me any reason if you decide to withdraw from the study. Please do not hesitate to contact me if you want more information about the study. If you have concerns that you do not wish to discuss with me directly, contact Prof. Peter Mühlhäusler, who is my principal supervisor. I look forward to your participation and the chance to hear your views on the language situation and language planning and policy in Chiang Rai. Yours sincerely, Simmee Oupra Contact Details
Simmee Oupra 869/125 Thaiwiwatoutit Road, Chiang Rai, Thailand 57000 Mobile: 069 222 164 Email: [email protected]
Prof. Peter Mühlhäusler Centre for European Studies and General linguistics The University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA. 5005. Phone: 618 8303 3138
445
Letter of Introduction/Information in Thai จดหมายแนะนาตวและขอมลเบองตน
ขาพเจา นางสาวซมม อปรา ปจจบนกาลงทาวทยานพนธปรญญาเอก สาขาวชาภาษาศาสตร คณะมนษยศาสตรและสงคมศาสตร
ศนยยโรปศกษาและภาษาศาสตรทวไป มหาวทยาลยอดเลดรฐออสเตรเลยใต ประเทศออสเตรเลย
หวขอวทยานพนธของขาพเจาเ ก ยวกบเ รองระบบนเวศของภาษาและการวางแผนทางดานภาษาในจงหวดเ ชยงราย
ขาพเจาสนใจศกษาภาษาโดยเฉพาะหวขอทเกยวกบดานสถานการณการใชภาษาในปจจบน ความสามารถในการใชภาษาตางๆ
ทศนคตท ม ตอภาษา ปญหากบภาษา ความตองการของชมชนในดานภาษา และนโยบายดานภาษา(ตามเอกสารแนบ )
ร ว ม ท ง ป ร ะ ส บ ก า ร ณ ใ น อ ด ต แ ล ะ ป จ จ บ น ท ม ต อ ห ว ข อ ด ง ก ล า ว
ในการสมภาษณนอกเหนอจากการสอบถามเกยวกบประสบการณในอดตและปจจบนของทานในสวนทเกยวของกบเรองของภาษาแลว
ข า พ เ จ า ย ง ป ร ะ ส ง ค ท จ ะ ส อ บ ถ า ม ค ว า ม ค ด เ ห น ถ ง ป ร ะ เ ด น ข อ เ ส น อ แ น ะ เ ห ล า น น ซ ง ใ น ก า ร พ ด ค ย ค ร ง น
ท า น ส า ม า ร ถ แ ส ด ง ค ว า ม ค ด เ ห น ไ ด อ ย า ง เ ส ร ใ น ท ก แ ง ม ม ท ง ใ น แ ง บ ว ก แ ล ะ ล บ
ผ ล ข อ ง ก า ร ว จย ใ น ค ร ง น จ ะ ช ว ย ใ ห เ ก ด ค ว า ม เ ข า ใ จ ใ น เ ร อ ง ข อ ง ส ถ า น ก า ร ณ ท า ง ด า น ภ า ษ า ใ น จง ห วด ช ย ง ร า ย
และยงสามารถทจะนะไปใชในดานการวางแผนดานการใชภาษาในอนาคตตอไป
ห า ก ท า น ไ ม ป ร ะ ส ง ค ท จ ะ เ ป ด เ ผ ย ช อ จ ร ง ข อ ง ท า น ห น ว ย ง า น ห ร อ อ ง ค ก ร ข อ ง ท า น ใ น ก า ร ว จ ย ค ร ง น
ผ วจยขอยนย นวาจะ เกบขอมลของทานไวเ ปนความลบ และจะไม ม สวนใ ดๆ ของขอมลท ระบ ถ งตวท านแตอยางใ ด
ทงนผ วจยจะใชชอแฝงแทนในการถอดเทปสนทนา นอกจากทานจะยนดใหมการเปดเผยชอของทาน และหนวยงานของทาน
ขอมลทไดจากการสมภาษณจะไมนาไปใชอางองเพอใหเกดความเสยหายตอตวทานหรอ หนวยงานของทานแตอยางใด
วธการทผวจยจะดาเนนการสมภาษณกคอ จะมการนดวน เวลาละสถานท ทขนอยกบความสะดวกของทาน การสมภาษณ
จะใชเวลาประมาณ 40นาท ถง 1 ชวโมง โดยจะเปนเชงสนทนามากกวาสมภาษณทเปนทางการ ในการสมภาษณครงน
ถาทานไมขดของขาพเจาใครขอบนทกเทปการสนทนาเทปบนทกนจะถกลบทงหลงจากงานวจยเสรจสน
อยางไรกตามถาทานไมประสงคใหมการบนทกเทปขาพเจากยนดทจะใชวธจดบนทก
นอกจากนถาทานประสงคอยากจะตรวจบนทกการสมภาษณกอนทขาพเจาจะนาไปใชในงานวจย
กรณาโปรดระบความจานงดงกลาวในหนงสอยนยอมใหสมภาษณ
ถ ง แ ม ท า น ย น ย อ ม ใ ห ส ม ภ า ษ ณ ใ น เ บ อ ง ต น ท า น ส า ม า ร ถ ย ก เ ล ก ก า ร ย น ย อ ม ไ ด ท ก เ ว ล า
โ ด ย ไ ม จ า เ ป น ต อ ง ช แ จ ง เ ห ต ผ ล ใ น ก า ร ก ร ะ ทา ด ง ก ล า ว ท ง น ก อ น ท ก า ร ด า เ น น ก า ร เ ก บ ข อ ม ล จ ะ ส น ส ด ล ง
นอกจากนทานยงมสทธทจะเลอกตอบหรอไมตอบคาถามหนงคาถามใดททานไมประสงคจะตอบคาถาม
ถาทานตองการขอมลเพมเตมเกยวกบงานวจยของขาพเจาครงน ทานสามารถแจงความประสงคดงกลาว แกขาพเจาได
หรอถาทานประสงคจะสอบถามหรอตองการรายละเอยดอน ๆ ทานสามารถตดตอกบ Professor Peter Mühlhäusler ซงเปนอาจารยทปรกษาวทยานพนธไดโดยตรง
446
ขาพเจาขอขอบพระคณลวงหนาในความรวมมอในครงนของทานเปนอยางสง และหวงวาคงจะไดแลกเปลยนความคดเหนกบทาน
เกยวกบประเดนของสถานการณภาษาและนโยบายดานภาษาในจงหวดเชยงราย
ขอแสดงความนบถอ
นางสาวซมม อปรา
อาจารย๒ ระดบ ๖มหาวทยาลยราชภฏเชยงราย
นกศกษาปรญญาเอกมหาวทยาลยอะดเลด ออสเตรเลย
อาจารยทปรกษา Prof. Peter Mühlhäusler Centre for European Studies and General Linguistics Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences The University of Adelaide North Terrace, Adelaide, SA, 5005
447
Appendix F
CONSENT FORM FOR A PARTICIPANT IN A RESEARCH PROJECT I (print your name)…………………………………………………….consent to take part in the study titled: Language Situation and Language Planning in Chiang Rai, Thailand. I acknowledge that I have read the attached information sheet that describes the aims and purpose of this study. I confirmed that I have had the study, so far as it affects me, fully explained to my satisfaction by the researcher, Simmee Oupra. My consent to be interviewed for the purpose of the study by Simmee Oupra is freely given. Although I understand the purpose of this study is to study the language ecology, language planning and language policy of Chiang Rai, it has been explained to me that my involvement in the study may not be of any benefit to me or my community. I understand that I can request that my name not be connected with any information that I provide, and that if I do not wish to be identified; Simmee Oupra will create a false name to identify me.
…..I do wish to be identified. ……I do not wish to be identified. I also understand that if I do not wish the interview to be audio tape-recorded, Simmee Oupra will only take notes of the interview.
….I do wish to be audio tape recorded. …..I do not wish to be audio tape recorded. I understand that my participation is completely voluntary and that:
• I am free to withdraw the information that I provide at any time during the information gathering stage of the study;
• I do not have to give reasons for withdrawing the information I provide. • I am under no obligation during interview to divulge information or to discuss issues if I do not
wish to do so. I understand that I can request to check the transcript of the interview before it is used in the study. ……I do wish to check the transcript of the interview. ……I do not wish to check the transcript of the interview. I understand that I will be provided with information about the results of the study if I wish. …….I do wish to be provided with information about the results of the study. …….I do not wish to be provided with information about the results of the study. If you answered in the affirmative to either of the above questions, please provide your contact details. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... I am aware that I should retain a copy of this consent form, when completed and the attached information sheet. Signature (participant)…………………………………………………Date…………………………..........................
448
WITNESS I, Simmee Oupra, have described to (name of participant)…………………………………………the nature of the interview to be carried out. In my opinion she/he understood the explanation. Signature(interviewer)………………..…………………………..Date………………………………………
หนงสอยนยอมใหสมภาษณ (Consent Form in Thai)
ขาพเจา………………………………………………………ยนยอมใหมการสมภาษณขาพเจาเพอเปนสวนหนงในการวจยในหวขอ
สถานการณของภาษา และ นโยบายดานภาษาในจงหวดเชยงราย
ขาพเจาไดรบจดหมายแนะนาตวและใหขอมลเบองตน ของงานวจยแลว ขาพเจาไดรบทราบวตถประสงคของผวจยและ
ผวจยไดอธบายใหทราบถงลกษณะของงาน และผลกระทบทอาจจะเกดขนไดเปนทนาพอใจ
และขาพเจายนดและสมครใจทจะใหสมภาษณกบผวจย
ถงแมวาขาพเจาจะเขาใจวตถประสงคของงานวจยน ซงกคอ ศกษาสถานการณของภาษาทใชในจงหวดเชยงราย
และศกษานโยบายภาษาในจงหวดเชยงราย
ผวจยยงไดแจงใหทราบการมสวนรวมในงานวจยของขาพเจาถงประโยชนทอาจจะไดรบหรอไมตอตวเอง และตอชมชน
ขาพเจาทราบวาขาพเจาสามารถรองขอใหไมใชชอจรงของขาพเจา
ขาพเจายนยอมใหมการระบชอจรงของขาพเจา
ขาพเจาไมประสงคใหมการระบชอจรงของขาพเจา
ขาพเจาทราบวาหากขาพเจาไมยนดใหมการบนทกเทปเสยง นางสาวซมม อปรา จะใชวธการจดบนทกแทนการบนทกเทปเสยง
ขาพเจายนยอมใหมการบนทกเทปเสยง
ขาพเจาไมประสงคใหมการบนทกเทปเสยง
การยนยอมใหสมภาษณครงนเปนไปดวยความสมครใจของขาพเจาเอง ซง:
• ขาพเจาสามารถยกเลกการยนยอมนไดทกเวลาโดยไมตองชแจงเหตผลดงกลาว
ทงนการยกเลกการยนยอมตองอยภายในระยะเวลาทผวจยเกบขอมลในประเทศไทย
• ขาพเจาสามารถเรยกคนขอมลทขาพเจาไดใหไปในการสมภาษณ
ทงนการเรยกคนตองอยภายในระยะเวลาทผวจยเกบขอมลในประเทศไทย
• และขาพเจามสทธทจะเลอกตอบหรอไมตอบ ถามหนงคาถามใด
ขาพเจาทราบวาขาพเจามสทธทจะขอตรวจสอบบนทกการภาษณหลงจากทถอดเทป กอนทจะนาไปใชในการวจย
ตองการ / ไมตองการ ตรวจสอบบนทกการสมภาษณ
ตองการ / ไมตองการ รบทราบผลงานวจย
ถาทานตองการขอใดขอหนงขางตน กรณากรอกรายละเอยดทอยของทาน
ทอย…………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..………............................. โทรศพท……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..........................
ลงชอ (ผใหสมภาษณ)……………………………………………….วนท………………………………………………………………….
449
พยาน
ขาพเจานางสาวซมม อปรา
ไดอธบายให .................................................................................. ทราบถงลกษณะของงานวจยทจะทาการศกษาแลว
และผถกสมภาษณมความเขาใจในสงทขาพเจาไดใหขอมล
ลงชอ (ผสมภาษณ)…………………………………………………..วนท…………………………………...................................
Appendix G
Interview questions for various organizations with Thai translation Language Association
1. What is the purpose of this group? What are the short-term goals? 2. What is your provision of this project/group? 3. What is the estimated number of the speaker of this language (and its dialects)? 4. How did you come up with which language or dialect to use in your project? Why? 5. Are you responsible for any particular area? 6. How many members are working on this project? Who are they? Where are they from? How did
you recruit your members? What are their qualifications and why are those criteria important? 7. What is the working process like? 8. What types of activities do you have? 9. How is the project supported (in terms of financial, staffing, experts)? 10. Have you had any support from the government sectors for example the cultural office, schools
and universities? What type of support? 11. Are you satisfied with this support? Why and why not? 12. What other types of support would you like to have? What would you like the organizations to help
you with? 13. Did you have any problems carrying out the project? What are the problems? What do you think
are the causes of those problems? 14. How do you evaluate your project or activities? Is it successful? What are your assessment criteria? 15. Material production 16. Language classes 17. Assessment
University Language Centres 1. What are the main purposes of the language centre? Does it go according to the mission of the
university or the nation? 2. What is the organization structure of the centre? 3. How many languages do you offer? Do you offer any minority or indigenous languages? Why? 4. What are the courses structures of the languages you offer? Why? 5. How do you recruit your teachers? What are their qualifications? 6. How many students do you have in the language classes? 7. How do you assess the classes, courses, teachers and etc? 8. How is the centre funded? 9. How would you evaluate the language classes offered? Are they successful? Why and why not? 10. Do you have any other language projects with the community? What are they? How did the project
started? Who initiated the projects? 11. Have you had any external support apart from the support given by the university? 12. What other types of support would you need? And from whom (which organization)? 13. What are the problems that the centre is facing? What do you think are the reasons? What should
likely be the solution? Inter-Ethnic Centre (Chiang Rai Rajabhat University)
1. What is the mission of the centre? (Work with all ethnic groups or specifically hilltribes) 2. What is the organizational structure of the centre? 3. Why was this structure chosen?
450
4. How are the works carried out? Who are the main working researchers/members? What are the criteria used in assigning the members to the projects?
5. What kind of projects has been done? Are there any projects that are concerned with language? 6. Approximately how many languages (and dialects) are spoken in Chiang Rai? 7. What language or languages (which dialect) is considered to be the most important language (s)by
the centre, by the hilltribes, by the general public?
Chambers of Commerce 1. What are the planned projects for Chiang Rai in the future? 2. Do you think will there be any language problems for the traders in the GMS region? 3. What language do you think would play an important role? Why? 4. Do you think will these plans affect the language use, school and university curriculum and
employment qualifications in Chiang Rai? Why and why not? Are there any plans on this? 5. Will it affect the languages spoken in the GMS region of Chiang Rai? 6. What seems to likely be the problems confronting the Chambers of commerce? Does language
seems to be the problem? 7. Do you see the economic value of minority languages?
Labour skill development and training unit 1. What is the mission of the unit? 2. What language skills do you consider valuable / useful? 3. What type of courses does the unit offer? Which course has the highest demand and which has the
least? What do you think are the reasons? 4. Do the economic changes in Chiang Rai have any effect in your training courses and schedules? 5. Do you have any projects or joint work with the community or other organizations? 6. How is the unit funded? What support do you get from the state government or the provincial
level? 7. What support would you like to have and from whom? 8. What are the problems that the unit is facing? 9. Other questions:
Military Camp Unit 1. What languages are used in the camp apart from Thai? 2. Are there any other languages taught in the military camp? If yes, what are they? 3. Why are those languages important? 4. What is the expectation of the language skills? 5. Are all soldiers expected to study the languages mentioned in 2? 6. How are the classes and activities carried out? 7. How is the language class funded? 8. Are any minority languages taught in the camp? If so, why? If not, why not? 9. Are there any reports on problems of language use during work or patrol? What are they? 10. Others
Head of Villages
1. What are the environmental and physical characteristics of the area? 2. What are the religions of the people in this village? How are the churches/temples/mosques
located in the village area? Do people have to go to other villages to churches/temples/mosques? 3. Do you have any activities with churches/temples/mosques? 4. Is there any historical, economic or political factor of this village/area that will affect the language
use of the people? 5. How do people earn their living? What are their jobs? 6. What is the migration (both in and out) statistics like? Is it for labour purpose or any other
purpose? 7. Are there any One Tambon (village) One Product projects (OTOP project)? What do they do? Has
anything changed in terms of language? 8. What is the population like in this village- Men, women, old people, and children? 9. What language is mainly spoken in this area? What are the other languages spoken in the same
area/village? 10. How many languages are spoken in this village? Can you roughly map out the area? 11. What is the approximate number of people speaking the languages mentioned above? 12. Can children still speak the languages?
451
13. What about the old people who speaks the languages? 14. Who do you think is the best contact person of each language community in your area? Why? 15. How much do you think the village people from various language background understand each
other? What language (s) do they use to communicate? 16. How many speakers of each language are monolingual? 17. How many speakers are bilingual? 18. How many speakers are multilingual? 19. How do you communicate with the people? In what language do you conduct meetings with the
committee? 20. If meetings cannot be conducted in Thai, what language would be used instead of Thai? 21. Were there any communication problems in the village? What were the solutions? 22. Is the language currently threatened? If so what is the cause? 23. Are the communities, which speak the languages in danger? If so, what is the cause?
Ministry of Education, Chiang Rai Provincial Education Office
1. How many schools are there in Chiang Rai? What about schools for special needs children, is the school under the ministry’s jurisdiction? What about bilingual schools?
2. To what extent can the office influence/modify the state-run curriculum? 3. What do you mean by local curriculum? 4. What is the curriculum of the schools like? Does the curriculum have any provision for the study of
languages? 5. What are the languages? 6. What about the minority language? 7. What is your provision towards Chinese? 8. Do you have any policy on putting the minority language into schools for students to study? 9. If the office has the power to put languages in the local curriculum, what languages would you like
to put in the local curriculum? Why? Why not other languages? 10. If you were to decide the local languages to be taught which languages would you give the priority
to? What about other languages? Can you put the languages in order of importance? On what basis would you rank them?
11. Are there any schools that teach students in their first language? 12. What is the reason behind the teaching with the first language? 13. When teachers are assigned to teach in certain areas, is the language background of the teacher and
the community a factor to think about? 14. How are the languages offered in schools – as compulsory subjects or electives? How many hours
per week/ semester? Education Faculty/ Humanities
1. What type of courses do you offer in the faculty? 2. What is the structure of the curriculum? 3. As an educational institution producing future teachers/workforce for the locals/nation what do
you think makes your curriculum special? 4. Are students required to study languages? If so, what are the languages? Why? 5. While on the job training as teachers, what kinds of problems do students face? What about
language problems? 6. How do you deal with students that have language problems? 7. When its come to selecting schools/work places for students to go on the job training on what
criteria this selection is made? (distance, network schools, student’s language background etc.) 8. Are students required to study any minority language or regional language courses? Why (not)? 9. Are there any support programs for students both Thai and non-Thai with difficulties in languages?
What are they? 10. Do you have any joint projects with outside organizations or community? What are they? How is
the project funded? 11. With the rapid economic development in the region also as an academic institution producing
workforce for the nation in the region what do you foresee yourself in 5 years from now? Will there be any changes to your curriculum, to the people, to the culture?
Religious Organizations
1. What are the organization’s functions other than religious ceremonies? 2. What language do you use with documents, preaching, prayer, other functions? 3. What are the activities of the organization? 4. Do you have any language courses offered? What are they?
452
5. Who are the learners? Are courses offered to outsiders? 6. In the case of children learning the language what is likely to be the reason? Do you think there is a
decline in the language being used by children? What is your opinion on this issue? Please provide examples.
7. What is the duration of the course? What is the total cost of the course? 8. How is the course structured? Does the course include literature? 9. Who are the teachers? 10. Do you have any joint projects with other organizations? What are they? 11. Are there any other places that provide this type of language courses? Who is the contact person?
Hospitals
1. How long have you been working in this hospital? In the region? Where were you before that? 2. What language did you first learn as a child? Do you know any other language apart from standard
Thai and your mother tongue? Where did you learn those languages? 3. How would you describe your language skills? 4. When the patients first entered the clinic in what language would you address the patient? Why? 5. Have you encountered communication problems with patients? How often? What are they? Can
you provide examples? (Describing pain, symptoms etc) 6. Who were the patients that you most likely have communication problems with? Why is that so? 7. How did you solve those problems? Did you seek any help from an outsider at that moment? 8. Did you have the same problems when you were in your former work place? What are the
differences? 9. When explaining to patients and their family members what language do you usually use? 10. Did you have any hospital signposts, brochures, pamphlets, video clips and other communication
tools in other languages apart from Thai? Why and why not? 11. Do you have any sessions where explanation of the disease is done in the patients’ languages? 12. If yes in question 11, is it successful? 13. Does the hospital have any interpreter? If no, would the hospital consider on this? Why and why
not? 14. If given a chance to learn the language that you have problems with, what would you choose learn?
Why? 15. Should language courses be added to medicine courses? Will it work? What would your suggestions
be? What language would you recommend as a must for this region? 16. If Lahu language were added in the curriculum would you study the language when you were at
university? Why and why not? Schools
1. What languages are offered in the school? 2. Why are these languages offered? Do the students or parents or outsiders have an influence on the
languages offered? 3. Do you offer any minority languages? Why and why not? 4. To what extent is your freedom to develop the local curriculum? 5. What does the local curriculum mean to the school? 6. Are the languages offered the result of local curriculum? 7. How often/how many hours per/week? 8. Who are the teachers? 9. Who are the students? Is there a special kind of students? What about the numbers of students? 10. Would you consider the tuition of the languages offered effective? 11. Do you have any joint language projects with the communities? 12. What do you think are the problems that your students have regarding languages? 13. What has the school done in order to help solve the problems mentioned in 12?
Chiang Rai Cultural Centre
1. Could you please tell us about your organization? 2. What is your mission and what are your activities? 3. Does your office cover all the languages in Chiang Rai area? Why and why not? 4. How many staff do you have? What are their backgrounds? 5. How is the organization funded? 6. What projects do you have for the future? 7. Do you have any joint project/work with any other organization or individuals? 8. Have you tried seeking for funding from any other organizations?
453
9. What do you think about the language situations in Chiang Rai? What do you think is likely to happen in the future?
Media
1. Radio program (to be confirmed) 2. Newspapers (to be confirmed)
Language activists/ individuals (from snowballing) 1. Former journalist (name to be confirmed) 2. Radio program (name to be confirmed) 3. Cassette store (supports the production of especially northern thai/Lanna songs)
Dean of the School of Alternative and Traditional Medicine 1. How many students do you have at the moment? Where are they from? What are their backgrounds
in terms of: ethnicity and language? 2. What language do you use as a medium of instruction? Why? 3. Does your student have any difficulties in studying the courses with regards to language and the
differences of the traditional healers’ speeches? 4. How do you solve the problems? 5. Do your students have to study the northern Thai scripts and language? Is it a prerequisite? 6. What are other problems with regards to language? 7. According to the prior conversation with you on your project with tribal medicinal knowledge,
what is the progress with the project? Are there any problems with the project with regards to language?
คาถามในการสมภาษณสมาคม/มลนธ
1. วตถประสงคของการจดตงสมาคมคออะไร วตถประสงคระยะสนมอะไรบาง
2. ทางสมาคมคาดหวงจะใหเกดผลอยางไรบาง
3. ภาษาน(รวมทงภาษายอย)มผพดจานวนโดยประมาณเทาไหร
4. มวธการในการเลอกภาษาทจะใชในการปฏบตหนาทหรอในการทาโครงการตางๆอยางไร ทาไมจงเลอกใชภาษานนๆ
5. ทางสมาคมมการแบงเขตพนทรบผดชอบในการทางานกบหนวยงานใดบางหรอไม และมพนทในการรบผดชอบอยางไร
6. ทางสมาคมมสมาชกชวยงานจานวนกคน มใครบาง มาจากไหน และทางสมาคมมวธการคดเลอกสมาชกอยางไร
มคณสมบตอยางไร และทาไมจงพจารณาจากคณสมบตเหลานน
อยางกรณผสมภาษณจะสามารถเขามาชวยทางานไดหรอไม
7. มกระบวนการในการทางานอยางไรบาง
8. ทางสมาคมมกจกรรมอะไรบาง
9. กจกรรมและโครงการตางๆนนไดรบการสนบสนนจากหนวยงานใดบาง (การสนบสนนดาน การเงน บคลากร ผเชยวชาญ)
10. ทางมาคมไดรบความชวยเหลอสนบสนนจากทางหนวยงานของจงหวดหรอรฐบาลหรอไม อยางไร (หนวยงานเชน
ศนยวฒนธรรมจงหวด, โรงเรยน และมหาวทยาลย)
11. ทางสมาคมมความพอใจในการสนบสนนในขอ 10 มากนอยเพยงใด เพราะเหตใด
12. ทางสมาคมมความตองการการสนบสนนในดานใดเพมเตมอก จากหนวยงานใด และอยางไร
13. ทางสมาคมมปญหาในการดาเนนงานหรอดาเนนโครงการใดๆหรอไม อยางไร อะไรเปนสาเหตของปญหานนๆ
14. ทางสมาคมมวธการในการประเมนโครงการหรอกจกรรมอยางไรบาง เทาทผานมาประสพผลสาเรจหรอไมอยางไร
15. ทางสมาคมมวธการในการผลตสออยางไรบาง
16. ทางสมาคมมการจดการเรยนการสอนภาษาชนเผาหรอไม อยางไร
17. การสอนภาษาประสพผลสาเรจหรอไมอยางไร มวธการในการประเมนอยางไร
18. คาถามเกยวเนองอนๆ
454
คาถามสาหรบสถาบนภาษา มหาวทยาลยราชภฏเชยงราย
1. วตถประสงคในการจดตงสถาบนภาษาคออะไร วตถประสงคของสถาบนภาษานนเกยวของกบ mission
ของมหาวทยาลยหรอไมอยางไร
2. ทางมหาวทยาลยมโครงสรางของการบรหารจดการอยางไร
3. ทางสถาบนมการสอนภาษาอะไรบาง มการสอนภาษาชนกลมนอยอะไรบาง เพราะเหตใด
4. โครงสรางของคอรสสอนภาษาทมสอนในสถาบนมลกษณะอยางไร มจดเนนอะไรในการสอนภาษานนๆ เพราะเหตใด
5. สถาบนมวธการคดเลอกผสอนอยางไร ผสอนตองมคณสมบตอยางไร เพราะเหตใดจงเปนเชนนน
6. ในแตละหองเรยนมผเรยนโดยประมาณกคน มการกาหนดจานวนผเรยนตอหองหรอไมอยางไร
7. ทางสถาบนมวธประเมนการเรยน การสอนของคร ผเรยน และอนๆอยางไร
8. ปจจบนนสถาบนมองวาการจดการดานการสอนภาษาทมอยนประสพผลสาเรจมากนอยเพยงใด เพราะเหตใด
9. สถาบนภาษาไดรบการสนบสนนทางดานงบประมาณอยางไร
10. สถาบนมโครงการทเกยวของกบภาษาและชมชนอยางไรบาง มโครงการใดทไดทารวมกบชมชนหรอไม
โครงการดงกลาวเกดขนไดอยางไร ใครเปนผรเรมโครงการดงกลาว
11. ทางสถาบนไดรบความชวยเหลอจากภายนอกทนอกเหนอจากการสนบสนนจากมหาวทยาลยหรอไม อยางไร
12. สถาบนภาษาตองการการสนบสนนในดานอนๆอกหรอไม และจากแหลงใด
13. สถาบนมปญหาในการดาเนนงานอยางไรบาง ทานคดวาปญหาดงกลาวมสาเหตอะไรบาง
ทานคดวาวธการใดนาจะเปนวธการแกไขปญหาไดดทสด
14. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
สถาบนชาตพนธศกษา
1. สถาบนมmission ในการดาเนนงานอยางไรบาง ทางานกบทกชาตพนธ หรอเฉพาะชนเผา hilltribes?
2. สถาบนมโครงสรางในการดาเนนงานอยางไร เพราะเหตใด
3. สถาบนมวธการ ขนตอนในการดาเนนงานอยางไรบาง ใครเปนผทางานหลก
มวธการคดเลกคนกบประเภทของงานอยางไรบาง
4. มโครงการใดบางทไดทาไปแลว มโครงการทเกยวกบภาษาหรอไม
5. ในจงหวดเชยงรายมภาษาและสาเนยงทใชอยในปจจบนทงหมด(โดยประมาณ)จานวนกภาษา
6. ภาษาใดหรอภาษาถนใดทถอไดวาสาคญทสด มประโยชนทสด (โดยสถาบน, โดยกลมชนเผา, และโดยบคคลทวไป)
7. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
หอการคาจงหวด
1. ทางหอการคามโครงการ หรอแผนในการทางาในปจจบนและในอนาคตอยางไรบาง
2. ทานคดวาโครงการททานจะมปญหาทเกยวของในดานภาษาสาหรบผคาในเขตพนท GMS หรอไม
ทเคยทามามปญหาดานภาษาหรอไม
3. ทานคดวาภาษาใดทนาจบตามองและ นาจะมบทบาททสาคญตอการคาในเขตภมภาคน เพราะเหตใด
4. ทานคดวาโครงการในอนาคตททางหอการคา หรอพาณชยจงหวดจะดาเนนการนน
จะมผลกระทบตอรปแบบการใชภาษาในจงหวด หลกสตรการเรยนการสอนในโรงเรยนและในมหาวทยาลย
รวมทงคณสมบตของผสมครงานในจงหวดเชยงรายหรอไมอยางไร เพราะเหตใด
ทางหนวยงานมแผนรองรบเรองนหรอประสานงานกบหนวยงานใดหรอไม
5. โครงการทจะดาเนนการจะมผลกระทบกบภาษาตางๆทพดอยในเขตพนท GMS ของจงหวดเชยงรายหรอไม
6. ทางหอการคามปญหาในการดาเนนงานของหนวยงานอยางไรบาง มปญหาทางดานภาษาหรอไม
7. ทางหนวยงานของทานเหนมลคาทางเศรษฐกจ(economic value)ของภาษาทองถนและภาษาของชนกลมนอยหรอไม
อยางไร
455
8. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
แรงงานจงหวดและกรมพฒนาฝมอแรงงานจงหวด
1. ทางหนวยงานมภารกจอยางไรบาง
2. ทางหนวยงานมการอบรมหลกสตรใดบาง หลกสตรใดเปนทนยมและมความตองการสงสด
และหลกสตรใดมความตองการในการอบรมนอยทสด ทานคดวาเปนเพราะเหตผลใด
3. มหลกสตรทเกยวของกบภาษาหรอไม? ทานคดวาในสถานการณปจจบนภาษาใดมความสาคญมากทสด
และภาษาใดทนาจะเปนประโยชนมากทสด
4. การเปลยนแปลงดานเศรษฐกจทในจงหวดเชยงรายมผลตอการดาเนนงาน หรอการจดอบรมของทานหรอไมอยางไร
5. ทานมการทาโครงการรวมกบหนวยงานภายนอก หรอกบชมชนหรอไมอยางไร
6. ทางหนวยงานไดรบการสนบสนนงบประมาณในการดาเนนงานอยางไร จากสวนกลางหรอจากจงหวด
7. ทานตองการการสนบสนนเพมเตมในดานใดบาง และจากหนวยงานใด
8. ทางหนวยงานประสพปญหาอะไรบาง
9. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
การทหาร
1. มการใชภาษาอะไรบางนอกเหนอจากภาษาไทย
2. มการสอนภาษาอนๆใดบางใหกบทหารในพนท
3. เพราะเหตใดจงเลอกภาษานนๆ มความสาคญอยางไร
4. คาดหวงใหผเรยนหรอผปฏบตหนาทมทกษะในระดบใด
5. ทหารทกนายมความจาเปนทจะตองเรยนภาษาในขอสองหรอไม อยางไร
6. มการจดหองเรยนและจดกจกรรมการเรยนการสอนอยางไร
7. การเรยนการสอนภาษามการสนบสนนดานงบประมาณอยางไร
8. มการเรยนการสอนภาษาชนเผาและชนกลมนอยหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
9. มการรายงานเรองของปญหาการใชภาษาในขณะปฏบตหนาทหรอไมอยางไร
10. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
คณบด
1. คณะเปดหลกสตรใดบาง ภาษาอะไรบาง
2. มโครงสรางของหลกสตรอยางไรบาง
3. ในฐานะทเปนมหาวทยาลยซงเปนแหลงผลต work force ใหกบประเทศ หรอจงหวด/ ครในอนาคต
อะไรททาใหทานคดวาหลกสตรของคณะนนตางจากทอน มความพเศษ หรอมเอกลกษณเฉพาะ
4. นกศกษาทกคนตองเรยนภาษาหรอไม กชม. ตอสปดาห ภาษาอะไรบาง เพราะเหตใด
5. ในขณะทฝกงานนกศกษามปญหาดานใดบาง มปญหาดานภาษาหรอไม
6. ทาอยางไรกบน.ศ.ทมปญหาดานภาษา
7. เมอถงเวลาทตองเลอกสถานทฝกงานใหกบนกศกษาทางคณะมวธการอยางไรในการคดเลอกสถานทฝกงานใหกบนกศกษา
(เชน ระยะทาง, โรงเรยนหรอสถานทฝกงานในเครอขายของคณะ, ภมหลงทางภาษาของนกศกษา)
8. นกศกษาตองเรยนภาษาชนกลมนอยหรอภาษาถนใดๆหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
9. ทางคณะมโครงการสนบสนนนกศกษาทงไทยและตางประเทศทมปญหาในดานภาษาหรอไม อยางไร
10. ทางคณะมโครงการรวมกบหนวยงานหรอชมชนภายนอกหรอไม อยางไร
โครงการดงกลาวไดรบการสนบสนนทางดานงบประมาณหรอไมอยางไร
456
11. ดวยสภาวะการขยายตวทางเศรษฐกจในเขตภมภาคน กอปรกบในฐานะทเปนสถาบนทางวชาการในเขตภมภาคน
และรบผดชอบในการผลตบณฑตเขาสตลาดแรงงาน คณะมองตวเองในอก 5 ปขางหนาอยางไรบาง
จะมการเปลยนแปลงทางดานหลกสตร ประชาชน และวฒนธรรม หรอไมอยางไร
โรงพยาบาล/แพทย/พยาบาล
1. ทางโรงพยาบาลไดเปดดาเนนการมากปแลว ภารกจในการใหบรการครอบคลมพนทใดบาง
2. คาถามสวนตว:ภาษาทพดเปนภาษาแรกและภาษาทสองคอภาษาอะไร ทานรภาษาอนใดอกบาง
นอกเหนอจากภาษาไทยมาตรฐาน และภาษาทหนง ทานเรยนภาษาดงกลาวมาจากทใด (ทานทใชภาษาไทยเปนภาษาทหนง
ประสพปญหาในการสอสารเมอไปทางานในสวนภมภาคหรอไม
3. ระยะเวลาในการทางานในทองถนและเขตภมภาค
4. มปญหาในดานการสอสารหรอการใชภาษาภายในหนวยงานหรอไมอยางไร
5. เมอผปวยเขารบการรกษา ภาษาทใชสนทนากบผปวย หรอญาตผปวยคอภาษาใด
ทานมปญหาในการสอสารกบผปวยหรอไม มากนอยเพยงใด กรณาใหตวอยางการสอสารทประสบปญหา
6. ทานมวธแกไขปญหาดงกลาวอยางไรบาง ไดขอความชวยเหลอจากบคคลภายนอกหรอไม อยางไรบาง
7. เคยประสพปญหาในลกษณะน ในทอนๆหรอไม อยางไร มความแตกตางกนอยางไรบาง
8. ทางโรงพยาบาลมปาย หรอเอกสารเชน แผนพบ จลสาร หรอสออเลคโทรนกสตางๆ เชน วดโอ
เปนภาษาอนๆนอกเหนอจากภาษาไทยหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
9. ทางโรงพยาบาลมการบรรยายเปนชวงเวลาเกยวกบอาการ หรอโรคตางๆใหผปวยหรอญาตผปวยฟงหรอไม
หากมมการบรรยายเปนภาษาอนๆหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
10. การกระทาในขอ 9 ประสพผลสาเรจหรอไม
11. ทางโรงพยาบาลมผททาหนาทแปล หรอเปนลามหรอไม
หากไมมทานคดวามการมลามหรอผแปลความจาเปนตอโรงพยาบาลหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
12. ทานคดวาควรจะบรรจภาษาทองถนใหอยในหลกสตรแพทยหรอไม อยางไร
ทานคดวาภาษาใดนาจะมประโยชนทสดในภมภาคน
13. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
โรงเรยน
1. ทางโรงเรยนเปดสอนวชาภาษาอะไรบาง
2. เพราะเหตใดจงเปนภาษาในขอ 1 นกเรยน ผปกครอง หรอ
บคคลภายนอกมผลตอการตดสนใจของโรงเรยนในเปดสอนภาษาเหลานหรอไมอยางไร
3. ทางโรงเรยนมการเปดสอนภาษาของชนกลมนอยบางหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
4. หลกสตรทองถนหมายถงอะไรสาหรบโรงเรยน
5. ทางโรงเรยนมอสระ หรอมขอบเขตเพยงใดในการจดหลกสตรทองถน
6. หลกสตรทองถนของโรงเรยนไดบรรจภาษาไวหรอไม เพราะเหตใด อยางไร
7. จดหลกสตรกชวโมง มใครเปนผสอน
8. ผเรยนเปนใคร เปนกลมเฉพาะหรอไม มจานวนโดยประมาณเทาไหร
9. ทานคดวาการหลกสตรดงกลาวมประสทธภาพหรอไมอยางไร
10. ทางโรงเรยนมความรวมมอในดานการเรยนการสอนภาษากบชมชนภายนอกหรอไม อยางไร
11. ทางโรงเรยนคดวานกเรยนมปญหาดานภาษาอยางไรบาง
12. ทางโรงเรยนมวธการใดในการแกไขปญหาดงกลาวในขอ 11
สานกงานวฒนธรรมจงหวดเชยงราย
457
1. ทางสานกงานมจดระบบองคการอยางไร และมวธการดาเนนงานอยางไร
2. ทางองคกรมภารกจ เปาประสงค อะไรบาง และมกจกรรมอะไรบาง
3. ภาระงานขององคกรนนครอบคลมการดแลและอนรกษภาษาในจงหวดเชยงรายดวยหรอไมเพราะเหตใด
4. ทางองคกรมเจาหนาทปฏบตงานโดยประมาณกคน
5. ไดรงบประมาณสนบสนนในการดาเนนงานจากไหน อยางไร เพยงพอหรอไม
6. ทางองคกรมแนวทางในการดาเนนโครงการในอนาคตอยางไรบาง
7. ทางองคกรมโครงการความมอกบหนวยงานอนๆ หรอกบผเชยวชาญใดๆ หรอไม
8. ทางองคกรเคยไดรบงบประมาณหรอการสนนสนนอนใดในการดาเนนงานจากหนวยงาน หรอองคกรอนๆหรอไม
9. ทางองคกรมโครงการสงเสรมทางดานภาษาของกลมชาตพนธหรอไม อยางไร เพราะเหตใด
10. ทานคดวาสถาณการณดานภาษาของจงหวดเชยงรายขณะนเปนเชนไร
และแนวโนมการใชภาษาของจงหวดเชยงรายในอนาคตจะเปนเชนไร
11. ทานมทศนะอยางไรหากจะมการฟนฟการใชภาษา มความเปนไปไดมากนอยเพยงใด
12. ทานคดวาการพฒนาทางเศรษฐกจในปจจบนจะสงผลกระทบตอสถานการณการใชภาษาในปจจบนหรอไมอยางไร
13. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
หนวยงานดานรบผดชอบดานการศกษาในจงหวดเชยงราย
1. ภาระงานทรบผดชอบดแลดานการศกษาครอบคลมอะไรบาง
ภาระงานนนครอบคลมโรงเรยนสาหรบเดกพเศษและโรงเรยนสองภาษาหรอไม
2. ทางองคกรมสวนในการดแลและจดการศกษาในหลกสตรทองถนหรอไม
3. มหลกสตรทเกยวของกบการเรยนการสอนภาษาหรอไม ในอนาคตจะมโครงการหรอไมอยางไร
4. ทางหนวยงานมนโยบายทจะใหสอนภาษาของกลมชาตพนธตางๆในโรงเรยนหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
5. หากทางหนวยงานมนโยบายดงกลาว ทางหนวยงานจะใหบรรจหลกสตรภาษาใด เพราะเหตใด
6. ดวยเชยงรายมการพฒนาทางเศรษฐกจทด
ทานคดวาการพฒนาดงกลาวจะสงผลตอระบบการเรยนการสอนภาษาชาตพนธหรอภาษาตางประเทศในจงหวดเชยงรายอย
างไรบาง
7. คาถามอนๆทอาจเกดขนในระหวางการสนทนา
ผนาหมบาน
1. ลกษณะภมประเทศในเขตนเปนอยางไร
2. มประชากรกคน แบงเปนผชาย ผหญง เดก และคนชรากคน
3. ประชาชนนบถอศาสนาอะไรบาง การตงวด โบสถ หรอ สเหรานนมวธการตงอยางไรใกลกบหมบานหรอไม
ชาวบานตองเดนทางไปทาพธกรรมทอนหรอไม
4. ทานมกจกรรมรวมกบทางศาสนสถานตางๆหรอไม อยางไร
ในการรวมกกรรมทานและสมาชกในศาสนสถานนนๆใชภาษาอะไรในการสอสาร
5. หมบานนมความสาคญทางประวตศาสตร เศรษฐกจ และ การเมองอยางไรบาง ททาใหมผลตอการใชภาษาเชน
ประวตในการตงหมบาน การประกอบอาชพของคนในหมบาน
6. สวนใหญคนในหมบานประกอบอาชพอะไร
7. อตราคนยายเขาและออกในหมบานเปนอยางไร เพราะเหตใด (เชนเพราะเพอตองการแรงงาน)
8. ในหมบานมสนคาโอทอปหรอไม อยางไร
9. ในหมบานนมการใชภาษาอะไรบาง สวนใหญพดภาษาอะไร แบงคราวๆไดหรไมวาสวนใดของหมบานพดภาษาอะไร
10. มจานวนผพดภาษาดงกลาวกคน แลวเดกๆยงพดไดหรอไม ผเฒาผแกทยงพดภาษานนๆไดมอยเยอะหรอไม
11. ทานคดวาผทจะเปนจดทตดตอไดในแตละภาษาคอใครบาง เพราะอะไร
458
12. ทานคดวาชาวบานทมพนภาษาตางกนสามารถสอสารกนไดดหรอไม ใชภาษาอะไรเปนการสอสารภาษาหลก
13. ทานคดวาชาวบานทพดได หนงภาษา สองภาษา และมากกวาสองภาษามจานวนโดยประมาณกคน
14. ทานใชภาษาอะไรในการสอสารกบชาวบาน ทานใชภาษาอะไรในการประชมกบชาวบาน
และกบสมาชกหรอคณะกรรมการหมบาน
15. มบงหรอไมททานประชมหมบานดวยภาษาใดภาษาหนงแลวไมประสพผลสาเรจตองเปลยนภาษาทใช
16. ในหมบานมปญหาดานการใชภาษาหรอการสอสารอนๆหรอไม ทานแกไขปญหาอยางไร
17. ภาษาใดททานคดวานาเปนหวงและนาจะสญหายบาง ทานคดวาเปนเพราะเหตใด
18. ทานคดวาชมชนทพดภาษานนๆนาเปนหวงหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
Appendix H Interview questionnaire on language use in the villages
Village…………………..…………Sub-district……………………..…………..District………………… Date of interview……………………………………………………..interview no………………………...
Personal Data 1. name……………………………...………………………..Ethnic group………………………… 2. Gender…………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. Age………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Contactdetails……………………………………………………………………………………… 5. How many members are there in yourfamily?……………………………………………………… 6. How are theyrelated?……………………………………………………………………………… 7. Were you born in this village? If “no” where were you originally from?…………………………… 8. How long have you lived in thisvillage?…………………………………………………………… 9. What do you for a living?………………………………………………………………………… 10. Have you got an ID card?………………………………………………………………………… 11. Are there any members of the family who works in otherprovinces?………………………………
Sociolinguistics questions 1. What language did you learn first as a child? 2. What do you call your language? Is your language known by any other name? What are the names
and why do you think they used those names? 3. Do you know if any other villages speak the same language as yours? Is it dispersed or concentrated
in one area? Are there any varieties to the language? How different is it? Can you understand other varieties?
4. Are you a fluent speaker of the language or any of its varieties? Can you make yourself understood with no difficulties in the language and its varieties? Does this language have written forms? What about your reading and writing skills?
5. Do you have a literary tradition in your language such songs, poetry or any written texts? Please provide information that you know or contact persons.15
6. Is there any standardization of the language?
7. Do you still use the above language? Why and why not? If so when, where and with whom? 15 The following questions have been taken from World Language Report Survey: questions 5-6, 9-10, and 18 under sociolinguistics questions; question 5-8 under language attitudes; and question 8 under language needs and language policy.
459
8. What about your children? Do they still use the language? 9. How has the numbers of speakers of your language changed over time? (Increased, decreased or
remained stable) What do you think are the reasons? 10. Is the language passed down from generation to generation? If not, why not? What language is
replacing it? 11. What language do you use most frequently in everyday communication? Why? 12. What languages do you use in your work place? Spoken or written? 13. What languages do you use with your neighbouring villages? 14. What languages do you use with the following people when you are at home and in public:
People At home In public
Brothers Sisters Children Grandchildren Friends from same village Friends from neighbouring village Teachers Colleagues Shop assistants Strangers Monks/priests/shaman Others
15. What languages do you use in the following domains?
Domains Languages Spoken Written
Schools Market Church/temples/mosques In the village Government Sectors Hospitals Meetings Work place Ceremonies Others…………… 16. What other languages do you know? And what are your language skills?
Skills Languages
Understand all that is said Understand most that is said Understand a little that is said Understand only a few words No understanding at all
17. Could you indicate how often the members of each generation use the language with other
generations: Specify the frequency:
5 always in this language 4 more in this language than others 3 equally often in either language 2 more in other language than this one 1 always in other language
Generations Frequency
Children and the elderly (F/M)
460
Children and middle ages (F/M) Children and children Middle ages and middle ages (F/M) Middle ages and elderly (F/M) Elderly and children Elderly and youngsters Elderly and the middle ages Youngsters and middle ages Youngsters and youngsters (with and without schooling)
Language attitudes 1. What do you think about your own language? 2. What do you feel when you speak your own language in your village? 3. What do you feel when you speak your language in language in front of other people who do not
speak the same language as you? Why? 4. Are there any language services available in the local public places such as hospitals, city councils,
and so on? Are you satisfied with the language services? 5. If I were to settle in your village what languages would be:
• The most useful one…………………………………………………….. • The most beautiful one …………………………………………………. • The most powerful one …………………………………………………. • The simplest to learn ……………………………………………………. • The most difficult to learn ……………………………………………….
6. Do outsiders peak or learn your language? Are you happy with that? Do they speak a funny or
incorrect form of your language? 7. Do you change your language when speaking to outsiders? What language did you use? 8. Are there any ethnic groups using your language? 9. What is your opinion on the following statements?
5 Strongly Agree
4 Agree 3 No opinion
2 Disagree 1 Strongly disagree
Statements Opinion 1. Local languages should be passed onto the future generations. 2. Local languages should be given more importance. 3. Local languages have been neglected. 4. Thailand has no language policy towards minority languages. 5. I am fluent in standard Thai. 6. I feel that the people’s attitude to my language and culture is not very positive. 7. I would be willing to give my time/money for the development of my language.
8. People do not see our languages as an important element of our culture. 9. The government had not done anything to help with languages. 10. I feel embarrassed when I speak my language in front of the people who do not speak it.
11. I am proud of my language. 12. I am a monolingual. 13. I am a bilingual. 14. I am a multilingual.
Language needs and language policy
1. Do you think there are language problems in your community? Why? What do think are the problems?
2. Do you think is there a need to maintain your language? Why?
461
3. How should the languages be maintained? 4. What kind of help do you think you would need? 5. If there are language courses in your language would you be interested to attend? Why? Would you
send your children to study? 6. Who would you prefer to be the teacher? 7. What do you think should help maintain the language? 8. Is there any organization or responsible bodies for linguistic policy and planning with respect to
your language or any other language that you know? What kind of activities does this organization perform?
แบบสมภาษณลกษณะการใชภาษาในหมบาน (Interview questionnaire translated into Thai)
หมบาน… .....................................ตาบล ................................. . ....... อาเภอ.......................................................................................
วนทสมภาษณ ...........................................................แบบสอบถามเลขท .......................................................................................
คาถามสวนตว
1. ชอ.................................................................เผา........................................................................................................................
2. เพศ ............................................................................................................................................................................................
3. อาย ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. หมายเลขโทรศพท/ทอยทสามารถตดตอได.............................................................................................................................
5. ทบานมคนอยกคน................................................................................................................………………………………….
6. มความสมพนธกนอยางไร……………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. เกดในหมบานนหรอไม ถาไมเกดทไหน…………………………………………………………………………………….
8. แลวอยในหมบานนมานานเทาไหรแลว………………………………………………………………………………………
9. ทามาหากนอะไร ทางานทไหน………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. มบตรประชาชนแลวหรอยง…………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. มใครในบานไปทางานทจงหวดอนไหม………………………………………………………………………………………
คาถามเชงสงคมวทยาภาษาศาสตร
1. เมอตอนเดกๆเรยนภาษาอะไรเปนภาษาแรก
2. เรยกภาษาทเรยนวาอะไร ภาษานมชออนๆอกหรอไม มอะไรบาง ทานคดวาทาไมคนจงเรยกชอนนๆ
3. ทานพอจะทราบหรอไมวานอกเหนอจากหมบานทานแลวมทไหนทพดภาษานอก
มการกระจายทวไปไหมหรอวามเปนกลมๆเฉพาะทไป ภาษานนๆแตกตางไปจากภาษาของทานอยางไร
ทานฟงเขาใจหรอไม
4. ทานฟงภาษาทคลายๆกบทานเขาใจหรอไม ภาษาของทานมตวเขยนหรอไม ทานฟง พด อาน เขยน ภาษาของทานไดหรอไม
462
5. ภาษาของทานมการใชโคลง กลอน เพลง หนงสอหรอไม กรณาใหขอมลเพมเตม
6. ภาษาของทานมการทาใหเปนมาตรฐานเดยวกนหรอไม
7. ยงใชภาษานทกวนหรอไมเพราะเหตใด ใชเมอไหร ทไหน กบใครบาง
8. แลวลกๆใชภาษานดวยหรอไม ใครเปนผสอน
9. ทานคดวาจานวนผพดภาษาของทานนนมเพมขน หรอลดลงอยางไร มการเปลยนแปลงไปหรอไม
ทานคดวาเปนเพราะเหตใด
10. ภาษานถายทอดจากรนหนงไปสอกรนหนงหรอไม ถาไมทานคดวาภาษาใดกาลงจะมาแทนทภาษาของทาน
11. ทานใชภาษาอะไรในการสอสารในชวตประจาวนมากทสด เพราะอะไร
12. ใชภาษาอะไรในททางาน ภาษาเขยนหรอภาษาพด
13. ใชภาษาอะไรกบเพอนบาน หรอกบหมบานอนๆ
14. ทานใชภาษาอะไรกบคนตอไปนเวลาอยทบานกบอยขางนอก
คสนทนา ทบาน ทสาธารณะ
พชาย/นองชาย
พสาว/นองสาว
ลก
หลาน
เพอนในหมบานเดยวกน
เพอนในหมบานอน
คร
เพอนรวมงาน
คนขายของ
คนแปลกหนา
พระ/บาทหลวง/หมอผ
อนๆ
15 ทานใชภาษาอะไรในสถานการณตอไปน
7Bสถานการณ 4Bภาษา
ภาษาพด ภาษาเขยน
ในโรงเรยน
ในตลาด
ในวด/โบสถ/มสยด
ในหมบาน
สถานทราชการ
โรงพยาบาล
การประชม
ททางาน
งานพธตางๆs
อนๆเชน………
16. นอกจากนทานมความรภาษาอะไรอกบาง และในระดบใด
463
ความสามารถทางภาษา ภาษาทร
ฟงเขาใจทกอยาง
ฟงเขาใจเปนสวนใหญ
นดหนอย
บางคาเทานน
ไมเขาใจเลย
17. ปกตแลวทานคดวาเดก ผใหญและผสงอายสนทนากนอยางไร โปรดระบความถในการใชภาษาดงน
5 เปนภาษานตลอด
4 เปนภาษานมากกวา
3 เทาๆกน
2 พดภาษาอนๆมากกวา
1 พดภาษาอนตลอด
รน ความถ
เดกและผสงอาย (ช/ญ)
เดก และวยกลางคน (ช/ญ)
เดกกบเดก
วยกลางคนกบวยกลางคน (ช/ญ)
วยกลางคนและผสงอาย (ช/ญ)Middle ages and elderly (F/M)
ผสงอายและเดก
ผสงอายและวยรน
ผสงอายและวยกลางคน
วยรนและวยกลางคน
วยรนและวยรน (ทงเขาโรงเรยนและไมเขาโรงเรยน)
ทศนคตทมตอภาษา
1. ทานมความคดเหนตอภาษาของทานอยางไรบาง
2. ทานรสกอยางไรทพดภาษาของตวเองในหมบาน
3. ทานรสกอยางไรทพดภาษาของตวเองตอหนาคนทไมไดพดเดยวกบทาน ทานคดวาเขารสกอยางไร เพราะเหตใด
4. ทานเคยพบเหนการบรการความชวยเหลอทางดานภาษาในสถานทสาธารณะเชน โรงพยาบาล
หรอตามสถานทราชการหรอไม ทานพงพอใจหรอประสพความลาบากในดานการใชภาษาหรอไมอยางไร
5. สมมตวาผวจยจะตองไปอาศยอยในหมบานของทานภาษาใดทนาจะเปนประโยชนสดสาหรบผวจยในดานตอไปน
• ภาษาทใชประโยชนไดมากทสด..............................................................................................................................
• ภาษาททานคดวาสวยงามทสด.................................................................................................................................
• ภาษาทมอทธพลทสด..............................................................................................................................................
• ภาษาทเรยนงายทสด................................................................................................................................................
• ภาษาทเรยนยากทสด...............................................................................................................................................
6. มคนนอกมาเรยนภาษาของทานหรอไม ทานพงพอใจหรอไม เขาพดภาษาของทานเพยนหรอไม
7. ทานเปลยนภาษาเวลาพดกบคนภายนอกหรอไม ใชภาษาอะไร
8. มเผาอนๆทใชภาษาของทานหรอไม
9. ทานมความคดเหนอยางไรตอคากลาวเหลาน
464
5 เหนดวยอยางมาก
4 เหนดวย
3 ไมมความคดเหน
2 ไมเหนดวย
1 ไมเหนดวยอยางมาก
คากลาว ความคดเหน
1. ภาษาทองถนหรอภาษาในหมบานควรจะมการสบทอดใหกบคนรนหลง
2. ควรมการใหความสาคญกบภาษาในทองถนใหมากยงขน
3. ภาษาทองถนถกละเลย.
4. ประเทศไทยยงไมมนโยบายภาษาสาหรบภาษาของชนกลมนอย
5. ขาพเจาพดภาษาไทยไดอยางคลองแคลวชดเจน
6. ขาพเจามความรสกวาทศนคตของคนทวไปทมตอภาษาของขาพเจานน ไมคอยดเทาไหรนก
7. ขาพเจามความยนดทจะใหความรวมมอทงในดานเวลาและ/หรองบประมาณในการพฒนาภาษาของขาพเจา
8. ผคนทวไปไมเหนวาภาษาของเราเปนสงสาคญของวฒนธรรม
9. รฐบาลและจงหวดยงขาดการดแลและใสใจภาษาของเรา
10.ขาพเจารสกอายเมอตองพดภาษาของขาพเจาตอหนาคนทไมพดภาษาของขาพเจา
11.ขาพเจารสกภมใจในภาษาของขาพเจา
12. ขาพเจาพดไดสองภาษา
13. ขาพเจาพดไดเพยงหนงภาษา
14. ขาพเจาพดไดหลายภาษา
ความตองการดานภาษา และนโยบายภาษา
1. ทานคดวาในชมชนของทานมปญหาดานภาษาหรอไม เพราะเหตใด ปญหาทเกดขนมลกษณะอยางไร
2. ทานดวาสมควรหรอถงเวลาทควรมการอนรกษภาษาของทานหรอไม เพราะเหตใด
3. ทานคดวาวธการใดนาจะอนรกษภาษาไดดทสด
4. ทานตองการความชวยเหลออะไรบางในการอนรกษภาษา
5. หากมการสอนภาษาของทาน ทานจะเรยนหรอไม ทานจะสงลกไปเรยนหรอไม
6. อยากใหใครเปนผสอน
7. ทานคดวาอะไรนาจะเปนตวชวยทดในการอนรกษภาษาของทาน
8. มหนวยงานใดทเปนทาหนาทอนรกษภาษา สงเสรมการใชภาษา และวางแผนนโยบายดานภาษาททานรจก
มกจกรรมอะไรบาง
465
Appendix I Transcription of Thai into Roman Letters
The transliteration of Thai language used in this thesis is based on the standardized transliteration as formally announced by the Royal Institute of Thailand on January 11, 1999. This latest version can be downloaded from the Royal Institute’s website at www.royin.go.th However, while using the standard transliteration code, some words seemed to create pronunciation problem thus obscure their pronunciations and meanings. Therefore, the researcher had added a few general rules as follows: 1. Any word beginning with อ is represented as “o” as in:
อ = ou
ออ สอ มอ = or sor mor 2. Words with the vowel ‘ออ’ is to be written as ‘or’ without the pronunciation of the [r]. The ‘or’ is to distinguish words with the vowel [o] as in the Thai standard transliteration the two sounds are represented by only one letter which is ‘o’. This caused a problem when transliterating a word such as ‘ก’ which is supposed to be ‘ko’ according to the Royal Institute. To the researcher the use of ‘ko’ is not the likely representation of the Thai word ก due to its similar pronunciation to ‘co’. Therefore, to the researcher, ‘kor’ is a better representation of the word.
ออ สอ มอ = or sor mor
ก ko kor
For example Khor
ng as in ของ, if the letter ‘r’ is not added, this word would be pronounced the same as the name of the river khong. Therefore, in order to clearly distinguish between the two pronunciations the letter ‘r’ is added in the Romanized transliteration.
3. Short vowel is represented as single ‘a’ while the long vowel is represented as ‘aa’. The vowels [a] and [a:] were represented by only one single letter ‘a’. This created a transliteration problem when confronting the long vowel for example:
Royal Institute’s Problems in reading due to
466
Thai words transliteration similarity to English words
and way of pronunciation The researcher’s
transliteration
ญาต yat - Yaat
การ kan can Kaan ลาม lam lam Laam หาม ham ham Haam
4. The letter ‘จ’ is represented as ‘j’ in this thesis. This is to prevent the confusion of pronunciation in the
transliteration of the quotes. The Royal Institute’s transliteration code allowed the following Thai letters จ
,ฉ, ช, ฌ to be represented by ‘ch’ but to the researcher the letter ‘จ’ is a different phoneme which is represented as [c] in the IPA system.
Appendix J Additional and valuable comments from examiners
Details of additional comments from examiners which are not added in the texts but are added as a special section. This is due to the additional comments are valuable experiential comments which deserves a special attention. The additional comments are in chronological order of chapters.
1. p.32 the change is of /s/ to [θ], this is not aspiration but a sociolinguistic change underway in central Thai, especially in Bangkok.
2. p. 82 the of –j or –t here is a matter of transliteration 9-j0 versus transcription 9-t0; such
inconsistencies is extremely common in representing all kinds of Thai names in Romanization: Mahidol or Mahidon and so on.
3. p.84 It seems that Chiang Rai street signs consistently use unsimplified traditional characters, at
least in the examples illustrated. This should be checked further. Various of the Burmese signs are incorrectly translated. 4.11 the last line reads “come in and ask inside”, not “3 baht per minute”, 4.13 the Burmese ahs a spelling error; it presumably should be Byuthiphu (beautiful?) optical shop, but one stroke of the ‘u’ is missing in ‘byu’. The spelling given is not possible in Burmese.
4. p.120 fn10/p.307 There are at least 15 orthographies for Akha, with the main ones being the Baptist orthography, the catholic orthography, and the Chinese orthography using postscript letters for tones (like the example Aq Kaq cited elsewhere).
5. Page 169 In my experience, the army and border police who can speak some of a hilltribe language
have very imperfect knowledge, absolutely inadelquate for health or other interpreting. In general, interpreting is another area which needs more official attention in Thailand.
6. P.193/p.220 The sign shows that the village name of Wiang Mok in Chinese is Lianhua Xincun
gloassable as ‘join China new village’ or ‘new Lianhua village’ written in traditional characters. The second Chinese line of the sign reads ‘huanying guanglin ‘welcome honoured guests’. It is quite normal for Chinese place and business names to be completely different from the names used in other languages, such as the Thai names here.
7. P.264-5 The Lamet 1 km N of Wiang Pa Pao may have changed what they say about their name
and identity to outsiders, but this does not make them anything other than Lamet linguistically. The suggestion of Lamet in Phrae may be a misunderstanding with the Mpi, who live in Ban Don near Phrae and are also referred to by the Northern Thai cover term Lua, unless the Lamet in Phrae are additional are additional Lamet in Kammu villages. It is not surprising that there are scattered Lamet among the Kammu in Thailand, and it would be worth documenting this further. There is also one Mok village (Chinese name Benglong, sometimes called Blang in the literature) in the
467
Wiang Pa Pao area and another in the far northern tip of Lampang Province, but in both the language is nearly dead.
8. p.267 There is a Mang group speaking an AA language in far northern Vietnam and across the
border in Yunnan, and Ethnologue also states that there are some in Thailand. It would be easy enough to compare Mang Data from Vietnam and China to determine whether these are the same Mang.
9. p.288 The ‘new’ Tai Lu script is the reformed version prepared in China in the mid -1950’s and implemented in 1958; this dates the departure of these people to after that.
10. p. 300 Most Akha in Burma near Phami speak southern Jeu g’oe dialect like most Thai Akha. The
original core of Phami Akha from China speak northern Jeu g’oe Akha, which is somewhat different; no syllabic /m/, velar voiced fricative /ɣ/ in more environments, and so on; see Bradley 1979 Proto-Loloish p.40.
11. P. 317 All but one example are borrowed nouns, showing no structural influence of Thai on Akha.
The one interesting example is 3, which is a Thai verb+noun in that order, impossible in Akha syntax, and so showing unsual and extreme Thai interference in Akha.