What Is Leadership?

management

Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members

I. Trait Theories

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy

• The desire to leadThe desire to lead

• Honesty and Honesty and integrityintegrity

• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence

• IntelligenceIntelligence

• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy

• The desire to leadThe desire to lead

• Honesty and Honesty and integrityintegrity

• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence

• IntelligenceIntelligence

• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge

Trait Theories

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits that predict leadership No universal traits that predict leadership in all situations.in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits that predict leadership No universal traits that predict leadership in all situations.in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

II. Behavioral Theories

• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.

1. Ohio State Studies

2. University of Michigan Studies

9,9 patternTeam management-

the ideal style

1,9 pattern“Country club”

environment

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Con

cern

for

Peo

ple

Concern for Production(low)

(high)

(high)

3. The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)

1,1 patternimpoverishedmanagement

9,1 patternTask management

5,5 patternMiddle-of-the-road

management

The Leadership Grid

High 1,9 9,9 Country Club Management Team Management8 Thoughtful attention to the needs Work accomplishment is from of the people for satisfying committed people;7 relationships leads to a interdependence through a comfortable, friendly organization “common stake” in organization 6 atmosphere and work tempo purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect Middle-of-the-road Management 5 5,5 Adequate organization performance is possible through 4 balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. 3 Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from arranging 2 work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that human organization membership. elements interfere to a minimum degree 1 1,1 9,1Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Low Concern for Results High

Con

cern

for

Peop

le

4. Scandinavian Studies

III. Contingency Theories of Leadership

• Contingency theory of leadership assumes that there is no one best way to lead. Effective leadership depends on the leader’s and follower’s characteristics as well as other factors in the leadership situation.

CONTINGENCY THEORIES

• All Consider the Situation– Fiedler’s Contingency Model

– Cognitive Resource Theory

– Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

– Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models:

Fiedler: Leader’s style is fixed

Other’s: Leader’s style can and should be changed

Central Features of the Contingency Theory of Leadership

Best way: there is no one best way to lead. Leadership style: Different leadership styles are

appropriate for different situations. Middle ground: The contingency theory stresses

the views that (a) there is some middle ground between the existence of universal principles of leadership that fit all situations and (b) each situation is unique and therefore must be studied and treated as unique.

Central Features of the Contingency Theory of Leadership (Cont.)

Focus: The contingency theories of leadership we study focus on three variables: (a) leader’s style; (b) follower’s motivation and skill; and (c) the nature of the task.

Adaptability of leadership style: For an individual leader, this theory assumes that leadership is changeable and should be variable for different situations.

1. Fiedler Model• Leader: Style is Fixed (Task oriented vs.

Relationship oriented)

• Considers Situational Favorableness for Leader– Leader-member relations– Task structure– Position power

Key Assumption– Leader must fit situation; options to

accomplish this: – Select leader to fit situation– Change situation to fit leader

Fiedler’s Model: The Leader

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

The way in which a leader will evaluate a co-worker that is not liked will indicate whether the leader is task- or relationship-oriented.

Assumption: Leader’s Style is Fixed & Can be Measured by the Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation

Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Position Power

Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency Model

Task-oriented style Relationships-oriented Task-oriented style

considerate style

Favorable leadershipsituation

Situation intermediate Unfavorable leadershipsituation

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership

Figure 13.2

Findings from Fiedler Model

2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Follower r

eadiness: abilit

y and willi

ngness

Follower r

eadiness: abilit

y and willi

ngness

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Task behaviors(direct behavior)

Rel

atio

nshi

p b

ehav

ior

(am

oun

t of

sup

por

t re

quir

ed)

Low

Low

High

High

Situational Leadership Theory - the most effective leadership style dependson the extent to which followers require guidance, direction, andemotional support (i.e., the readiness of the followers to do the job)

Participating

Delegating

Selling

Telling

- four leadership styles- e.g., telling the most appropriate style when followers lack

readiness (have little job knowledge or willingness towork without taking direction)

Telling

3. Leader–Member Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

4. The Path-Goal Theory (Robert House)

Path-Goal Theory - subordinates are motivated by a leader only to the extentthey perceive this individual as helping them to attain valued goals- effective leadership determined by complex interaction of leader

behaviors, subordinate characteristics, and aspects of thework environment

• High performance• High satisfaction

Characteristicsof subordinates

• Ability• Personality

Aspects of thework environment

• Task structure• formal authority

Progresstoward

goal

Leader’s behavior

• Instrumental• Supportive• Participative• Achievement oriented

House’s Path-Goal Theory

• A contingency model of leadership proposing the effective leaders can motivate subordinates by:1. Clearly identifying the outcomes workers are trying to

obtain from their jobs.

2. Rewarding workers for high-performance and goal attainment with the outcomes they desire

3. Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals, remove obstacles to performance, and express confidence in worker’s ability.

Motivating with Path-Goal

• Path-Goal identifies four leadership behaviors:– Directive behaviors: set goals, assign tasks, show how to

do things.– Supportive behavior: look out for the worker’s best

interest.– Participative behavior: give subordinates a say in matters

that affect them.– Achievement-oriented behavior: Setting very challenging

goals, believing in worker’s abilities.• Which behavior to be used depends on the nature

of the subordinates and the tasks.

Cognitive Resource Theory

Research Support:

• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Research Support:

• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Types of Leadership Style

• Autocratic:– Leader makes decisions without reference to anyone

else

– High degree of dependency on the leader

– Can create de-motivation and alienation of staff

– May be valuable in some types of business where decisions need to be made quickly and decisively

Types of Leadership Style

• Democratic:Encourages decision making from different perspectives – leadership may be emphasised throughout the organisation– Consultative: process of consultation before decisions

are taken– Persuasive: Leader takes decision and seeks to persuade

others that the decision is correct

Types of Leadership Style

• Democratic:– May help motivation and involvement– Workers feel ownership of the firm and its

ideas– Improves the sharing of ideas

and experiences within the business– Can delay decision making

Types of Leadership Style

• Laissez-Faire:– ‘Let it be’ – the leadership responsibilities

are shared by all

– Can be very useful in businesses where creative ideas are important

– Can be highly motivational, as people have control over their working life

– Can make coordination and decision making time-consuming and lacking in overall direction

– Relies on good team work

– Relies on good interpersonal relations

Types of Leadership Style

• Paternalistic:

Leader acts as a ‘father figure’

Paternalistic leader makes decision but may consult

Believes in the need to support staff

Role and activities of leadership

• Interpersonal role

• Informational role

• Communication

• Traditional management

• Human resource management

• Networking