leadership and employee work engagement · jd-r model + + bakker & demerouti (2008, 2014)...
TRANSCRIPT
Leadership and Employee
work engagement
Prof. dr. Arnold Bakker
Erasmus University Rotterdam
Lingnan University Hong Kong
Parnu, Estonia, Workshop 17 April 2015
Schaufeli & Bakker (2003, 2004, 2010)
Work Engagement
“A positive, affective-motivational state
of fulfillment that is characterized by
vigor, dedication, and absorption.”
HIGH
ACTIVATION
LOW
ACTIVATION
Pleasant low
activation
Unpleasant low
activation
Unpleasant
high activation
Enthusiastic
Excited
Happy
Energised
Agitated
Hostile
Irritated
Angry
PLEASANT UNPLEASANT
Content
Relaxed
Calm
Tranquil
Tense
Dejected
Lethargic
Fatigued
Gloomy
Sad
Pleased
ENGAGEMENT
Russell & Carroll (1999)
JD-R model
+ +
Bakker & Demerouti (2008, 2014)
Personal
Resources
Performance Work
Engagement
Job
Resources
Job
Demands
+
+
Traits • Adaptable to situations
• Alert to social environment
• Ambitious and achievement orientated
• Assertive
• Cooperative
• Decisive
• Dependable
• Dominant (desire to influence others)
• Energetic (high activity level)
• Persistent
• Self-confident
• Tolerant of stress
• Willing to assume responsibility
Skills • Clever (intelligent) • Conceptually skilled • Creative • Diplomatic and tactful • Fluent in speaking • Knowledgeable about group task • Organised (administrative ability) • Persuasive • Socially skilled
Stogdill, 1974
Leadership Traits and Skills
Leaders will also use: Integrity, Honesty, Compassion, Humility
Individual consideration: leaders are
mentors and acknowledge that every
employee has his/her own needs and
abilities.
Intellectual stimulation: challenging
followers to rethink some of their
ideas and to take a different
perspective on work problems.
+
Personal
Resources
Work
engagement
Job
Resources Creativity
+
Bakker & Xanthopoulou (2013)
Charisma
+
+ +
84 female school principals,
190 teachers
Arnold Bakker
Leader-member exchange
LMX1
LMX2
LMX4
LMX5
LMXWork
Engagement
Job
Performance
V1-V3 A1-A3 D1-D3
J1
J2
J3
.07
Social
Support
S1 S3 S4S2
Developmental
Opportunities
.15**
*
.40***
.34***
D1 D3D2
Autonomy
A1 A3 A4A2
LMX3
.51***
.38***
.37**
*
.25***
Figure 2. The process model of leader-member exchange showing standardized estimates.
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Van den Heuvel (in press)
Arnold Bakker
How will You help Leaders to increase
Employee Work engagement?
5 minutes
Stand up and discuss with your neighbour
EXERCISE
Leaders carry out this process by
applying their leadership
knowledge and skills. This is
called Process Leadership
We know that we have traits that
can influence our actions. This is
called Trait Leadership
Arnold Bakker
Discuss examples you have come
across of strong & weak leadership
EXERCISE
Stand up and Discuss
with your neighbour
Great Man Theories
• Leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead
• Term 'man' was intentional - concept was primarily male, military and Western
Trait Theories
• Research on traits or qualities associated with leadership are numerous
• Traits are hard to measure. For example, how do we measure honesty or integrity?
Leadership Theory
Functional Leadership Theories (Adair, 1970; Action Centred Leadership)
Leader is concerned with 3 areas:
• Task – goal setting, methods and process
• Team – effective interaction/communication, clarify roles, team morale
• Individual – attention to behavior, feelings, coaching
Leadership Theory
Behaviorist Theories (Blake & Mouton, 1964, Managerial grid)
• Leaders’ behaviors / actions, rather than their traits and skills e.g. production-oriented or people-oriented
• Different leadership behaviors categorised as ‘leadership styles’ e.g. autocratic, persuasive, consultative, democratic
• Does not provide guide to effective leadership in different situations
Leadership Theory
Situational/contingency Leadership (Hersey-Blanchard, 1970/80) Leadership style changes according to the ‘situation’ and in response to the individuals being managed – their competency and motivation
Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1970/80)
Competency
Low competence
Some competence
High competence
High competence
Motivation
Low commitment/ Unable and unmotivated
Variable commitment/
Unable but motivated
Variable commitment/ Able but unmotivated
High commitment/ Able and motivated
Leadership style
DIRECTIVE Telling
COACHING Selling
SUPPORTIVE Participating
DELEGATORY Observing
Leadership Theory
1. Guide/coordinate team members – encourage teamwork and motivate individuals
2. Provide structure for team – set mission and purpose, clarify roles and responsibilities, allocate tasks and set objectives
Key Team Leader Responsibilities
3. Clarify working methods, practises and protocol
4. Focus on performance – anticipate challenges, monitor performance, delegate and provide CPD support
Key Team Leader Responsibilities
Transformational Theory (Bass & Avolio, 1994)
• Leaders inspire individuals, develop trust, and
encourage creativity and personal growth
• Individuals develop a sense of purpose to benefit the group, organisation or society. This goes beyond their own self-interests and an exchange of rewards or recognition for effort or loyalty.
New Leadership Theory
Bass (1999)
Transactional leaders motivate their
followers to fulfil their leaders’
expectations.
Transformational leaders motivate
their followers to perform beyond
what is expected of them.
4 i’s
Transformational Leadership
Bass (1999)
Idealized influence: followers identify
with their leaders and respect and
trust them.
Inspirational motivation: creating and
communicating an appealing vision of
the future and leaders’ own optimism
about this future.
JD-R model
+ +
Bakker & Demerouti (2008, 2014)
Personal
Resources
Performance Work
Engagement
Job
Resources
Job
Demands
+
+
Leadership Job
resources
Work
engagement Performance
Autonomy
Feedback
Opportunities for development
.69*** .50*** .22***
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Sleebos & Maduro (in press)
Dutch leaders and followers,
N=162
Leadership Job
resources
Work
engagement Performance
Autonomy
Feedback
Opportunities for development
.69*** .50*** .22***
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, Sleebos & Maduro (in press)
Need
satisfaction
.36* .41***
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Daily scores
Leadership
Naval cadets, diary study
Breevaart, Bakker, Hetland, Demerouti et al. (2014)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Daily scores
Leadership Job Resources Engagement
Naval cadets, diary study
Breevaart, Bakker, Hetland, Demerouti et al. (2014)
Job Crafting
Job crafting is defined as the
changes individuals make in their
job demands and job resources
“Self-initiated change behaviors employees
engage in with the aim to align their jobs with their
own preferences, motives, and passions.”
Tims, M., & Bakker, A.B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual
job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36, 1-9.
Leader-member
exchange Job
crafting
Work
engagement Performance
Increasing job resources
Increasing job challenges
.51*** .40** .51***
Bakker (2015)
Chilean leaders and followers,
N=202
.24*
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Derks (2015)
Dutch leaders and followers, weekly diary study
Transform
Leadership
Need for
Leadership
Work
engagement
Leader-rated
Performance
Self-
Leadership
Dutch leaders and followers, weekly diary study
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Derks (2015)
Work
en
gagem
ent
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
Low Transformational Leadership
High Transformational Leadership
Low NFL
High NFL
Dutch leaders and followers, weekly diary study
Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Derks (2015)
Work
en
gagem
ent
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
Low Self-Leadership High Self-Leadership
Low NFL
High NFL
Conclusions
• Transformational Leadership
attention for individual needs
• Provision of resources
• Contagion / Crossover
• Indirect effect on performance
• General and daily effects
Goleman (1999)
Emotional Intelligence
“Noncognitive skills, capabilities, and
competencies that influence a person's
ability to succeed in coping with
environmental demands and pressures.”
EI dimensions
• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Self-motivation
• Empathy
• Social skills
Goleman (1999)
Emotional Intelligence
“The ability to perceive and express
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought,
understand and reason with emotion,
and regulate emotion in self and others.”
Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso (2001)
Emotional
Intelligence
Managing emotions
Understanding
emotions
Assimilating emotion
in thought
Perceiving and
expressing emotions
4 classes of Abilities
Mayer & Salovey
Lowest level skill
Highest level skill
Ability vs. Beliefs
• Beliefs (Bar-on; Goleman; Schutte; Wong & Law)
self-reports, e.g. “I am a sensitive person”,
and “I am in touch with my feelings”
Ability vs. Beliefs
• Ability (Mayer & Salovey)
can be assessed most directly by asking
a person to solve emotional problems,
such as identifying the emotion in a story
or painting, and then evaluating the
person’s answer against criteria of
accuracy
Management of Emotions
e.g. knowing how to calm down after
feeling angry or being able to alleviate the
anxiety of another person.
Meta-analysis
Emotional intelligence, operational validity
for predicting performance
Employment .24
Academic .10
Other .24
Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004)
EI and Leadership
• Leadership success
– Leadership emergence
– Leadership effectiveness
(Lord, De Vader, & Alliger, 1986)
• Focus: How is EI related to leadership
emergence?
Côté (2006)
EI and Leadership emergence
• Mechanism 1: Emergent leaders are
socially perceptive (Chowdry &
Newcomb, 1952). EI helps individuals
perceive others’ goals, attitudes, and
interests.
EI and Leadership emergence
• Mechanism 2: Emotionally intelligent
individuals have the ability to generate
excitement about their goals and,
hence, influence others to pursue them.
Côté (2006)
EI and Leadership emergence:
Cross-Level Effect
• Emotional intelligence may exhibit a
stronger association with leadership
emergence in some contexts
• The context may be defined by peers’
personality traits – their neuroticism
• A group of neurotic peers constitutes a
more challenging social context than a
group of emotionally stable peers
Results
5
5,5
6
6,5
7
Low High
Peers Low in Emot Stability
Peers High in Emot Stability
Emotional Intelligence
Le
ad
ers
hip
em
erg
en
ce
The Jekyll and Hyde of
Emotional Intelligence
Does emotional intelligence promote
behavior that strictly benefits the greater
good, or can it also advance interpersonal
deviance?
Study: Can emotion regulation knowledge
promote both prosocial and interpersonally
deviant behavior?
Côté, DeCelles, McCarthy, Van Kleef & Hideg (2011)
The Jekyll and Hyde of
Emotional Intelligence
Prediction: emotion-regulation knowledge
strengthens the effects of other-oriented and
self-oriented personality traits on prosocial
behavior and interpersonal deviance,
respectively
The Jekyll and Hyde of
Emotional Intelligence
Moral identity: how central being a moral
person is to a person’s self-concept (Aquino
& Reed, 2002).
Individuals with high moral identity should be
motivated to act prosocially to ensure that
their actions match how they view
themselves.
The Jekyll effect of
Emotional Intelligence
Hypothesis 1: there is a positive association
between moral identity and prosocial
behavior in a social dilemma.
This association is stronger among
individuals with high (vs. low) emotion-
regulation knowledge
The Jekyll and Hyde of
Emotional Intelligence
Machiavellianism: reflects mistrust in
human nature and a desire to manipulate
other people for personal gain, often at their
expense (Christie & Geis, 1970).
Machiavellians are motivated to assert their power
over other people and feel superior to them; they
are intransigent during bargaining, give orders, and
adopt leadership roles in groups (Wilson, Near, &
Miller, 1996).
The Hide effect of
Emotional Intelligence
Hypothesis 2: there is a positive association
between Machiavellianism and interpersonal
deviance.
This association is stronger among
individuals with high (vs. low) emotion-
regulation knowledge
Concluding Remarks
• Emotional Intelligence may be
crucial for leadership – people work
• Better measures needed
• Can we train EI?
• Cross-level designs needed
– General EI
– Daily social and emotional demands
Job Crafting
Job crafting is defined as the
physical and cognitive changes
individuals make in their task or
relational boundaries
Wrzesniewski & Dutton (2001)
Job Crafting
Job crafting is defined as the
changes individuals make in their
job demands and job resources
“Self-initiated change behaviors employees
engage in with the aim to align their jobs with their
own preferences, motives, and passions.”
Tims, M., & Bakker, A.B. (2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual
job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36, 1-9.
Employees Chemical Plant,
N = 288
Job crafting
Δ Work
engagement
Δ Job
Resources
Tims, M., Bakker, A.B., & Derks, D. (2013). The impact of job crafting on job demands, job resources, and
well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18, 230-240.
Δ Job
satisfaction
.47
.46
.22
TIME 2 TIME 1-3 TIME 1-3
Emotion Management model
- + Performance
Coping,
Well-being
Emotional
Intelligence
Emotional
Demand
+
EI and Discrete Emotions
• ERM and Diary among Police officers
• 5 days out of 4 weeks
• Discrete emotions during (extreme)
event: Anger, Guilt, Joy, Proud
• Ability-based Emotional Intelligence
Gooty, Gavin, Ashkanasy, & Thomas (2014)
EI and Discrete Emotions
• Emotion-focused coping (EFC) as a
means to deal with the immediate
aftermath of the emotion.
• EFC requires the least amount of
cognitive resources and facilitates
performance by helping individuals to
meet their task demands.
Gooty, Gavin, Ashkanasy, & Thomas (2014)
Gooty et al.’s overall model
- +
Task
Performance
Emotion-
focused
coping
Emotional
Intelligence
Discrete
Emotion
+