Learning and CognitionLearning and Cognition

Cognitive Information ProcessingCognitive Information Processing Schema TheorySchema Theory

BehavioristsBehaviorists

Not much interested in how people Not much interested in how people “think” mentally“think” mentally

Primarily concerned with observable Primarily concerned with observable behavior, I.e., what happens before and behavior, I.e., what happens before and after learningafter learning

In this sense, behavioral instruction In this sense, behavioral instruction (direct instruction, programmed (direct instruction, programmed learning, etc.) is mostly concerned with learning, etc.) is mostly concerned with what the teacher doeswhat the teacher does

CognitivistsCognitivists

Concerned with mental processesConcerned with mental processes How people acquire, process, and How people acquire, process, and

use informationuse information Pay attention to what goes on at Pay attention to what goes on at

the very moment of learning, not the very moment of learning, not just the results of learningjust the results of learning

Cognitive TheoristsCognitive Theorists

Jerome BrunerJerome Bruner• Spiral curriculumSpiral curriculum

– revisit at differentrevisit at different

stagesstages

Cognitive TheoristsCognitive Theorists

Jean PiagetJean Piaget• developmental stagesdevelopmental stages• learning structured bylearning structured by

– schemes (templates)schemes (templates)– assimilation (adding on)assimilation (adding on)– accommodation (changing schemes)accommodation (changing schemes)

Cognitive TheoristsCognitive Theorists

Both Bruner and Piaget, as well as Both Bruner and Piaget, as well as their successors, hold that:their successors, hold that:• children are different than adultschildren are different than adults• children’s thinking/learning children’s thinking/learning developsdevelops• children’s learning development not children’s learning development not

necessarily equivalent to physical age necessarily equivalent to physical age or maturation: experiences and or maturation: experiences and social interactions play vital rolessocial interactions play vital roles

Cognitive TheoristsCognitive Theorists

Lev VygotskyLev Vygotsky• learning first occurs on the inter-personal learning first occurs on the inter-personal

plane via interaction with othersplane via interaction with others– such intra-personal processes as thinking, reflecting, reasoning such intra-personal processes as thinking, reflecting, reasoning

and problem-solving occur through cooperation and interaction and problem-solving occur through cooperation and interaction with others in some cultural-social frameworkwith others in some cultural-social framework

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)Zone of proximal development (ZPD)– boundary of student’s prior knowledge and that for which he or boundary of student’s prior knowledge and that for which he or

she is not yet developmentally ready but can be assisted by she is not yet developmentally ready but can be assisted by others to get there; the area between what a learner can do others to get there; the area between what a learner can do independently (mastery level) and what can be accomplished independently (mastery level) and what can be accomplished with assistance of a competent adult or peer (instructional with assistance of a competent adult or peer (instructional level); scaffolding assists in getting from one place to the otherlevel); scaffolding assists in getting from one place to the other

Cognitive Information Cognitive Information ProcessingProcessing

Computer modelComputer model• compares basic biochemical workings compares basic biochemical workings

of the brain with basic computer of the brain with basic computer designdesign

• people, like computers, input people, like computers, input information, code and store it for information, code and store it for short and long-term retrieval, process short and long-term retrieval, process and manipulate it internally, and and manipulate it internally, and produce outputsproduce outputs

CIP StagesCIP Stages

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

holds information very briefly (e.g., holds information very briefly (e.g., striking match in dark room)striking match in dark room)

separate sensory memory for each separate sensory memory for each of the five senses of the five senses

Short-term or Working Short-term or Working MemoryMemory

further processing carried out here to further processing carried out here to make information ready for long-term make information ready for long-term storage or a responsestorage or a response

information is coded conceptually and information is coded conceptually and takes on meaningtakes on meaning

can handle only a limited amount of can handle only a limited amount of information (thought to be 7 bits or information (thought to be 7 bits or chunks, plus or minus 2) for a limited chunks, plus or minus 2) for a limited amount of timeamount of time

Short-term or Working Short-term or Working MemoryMemory

working memory can be increased working memory can be increased through creating larger bits (process of through creating larger bits (process of chunking)chunking)

as new chunks come into memory, as new chunks come into memory, they push out those previously they push out those previously occupying the available spacesoccupying the available spaces

unrehearsed information will be lost unrehearsed information will be lost from working memory in about 15-30 from working memory in about 15-30 secondsseconds

From working memory to From working memory to long-term memorylong-term memory

Rehearsal (repetition), e.g., Rehearsal (repetition), e.g., remembering a phone number you remembering a phone number you just looked upjust looked up

Encoding: fitting the information Encoding: fitting the information into fabric of what you already into fabric of what you already knowknow

– outlines, hierarchies, concept trees, outlines, hierarchies, concept trees, mnemonics, self-questioningmnemonics, self-questioning

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

permanent storehouse/hard drivepermanent storehouse/hard drive unlimited capacityunlimited capacity though some “files” may seem to though some “files” may seem to

be “erased” (forgetfulness), be “erased” (forgetfulness), information in long-term memory information in long-term memory is never truly lost unless there is a is never truly lost unless there is a physical/biological maladyphysical/biological malady

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

episodic memory (specific events)episodic memory (specific events) semantic memory (general semantic memory (general

information); this is the memory information); this is the memory that most concerns educatorsthat most concerns educators

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

how information is represented and how information is represented and stored in semantic memorystored in semantic memory• network models of LTM (mental network models of LTM (mental

dictionary; interconnected hierarchies; dictionary; interconnected hierarchies; problem is typicality: e.g. canary more problem is typicality: e.g. canary more easily recognized as a bird than penguin)easily recognized as a bird than penguin)

• feature comparison models (concepts feature comparison models (concepts stored with sets of defining as well as stored with sets of defining as well as characteristic features) characteristic features)

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

• propositional models of LTM propositional models of LTM (concepts stored as propositions, e.g. (concepts stored as propositions, e.g. “a bird has wings”)“a bird has wings”)

• parallel distributed processing (PDP) parallel distributed processing (PDP) models of LTM (interlinked frisbee models of LTM (interlinked frisbee metaphor; connections are the metaphor; connections are the building blocks of memory)building blocks of memory)

CIPCIP

Selective attentionSelective attention• learners can select and process certain learners can select and process certain

information while simultaneously information while simultaneously ignoring other informationignoring other information

• abililty to control attention varies with abililty to control attention varies with age, hyperactivity, intelligence, and age, hyperactivity, intelligence, and learning disabilitieslearning disabilities

• instructional strategy: get their instructional strategy: get their attention!attention!

CIPCIP

AutomaticityAutomaticity• occurs when information and/or tasks occurs when information and/or tasks

are overlearned, become habitual, are overlearned, become habitual, e.g. drivinge.g. driving

• desirable to develop some automatic desirable to develop some automatic decoding skills among learners, e.g., decoding skills among learners, e.g., learning to read, basic arithmetic learning to read, basic arithmetic operations, etc.operations, etc.

CIPCIP

Pattern Recognition and PerceptionPattern Recognition and Perception• Attention is necessary but not sufficient for Attention is necessary but not sufficient for

learninglearning• Information must also be analyzed and already Information must also be analyzed and already

familiar patterns or templates identified to familiar patterns or templates identified to give a basis for further information processinggive a basis for further information processing

• Pattern recognition refers to the process Pattern recognition refers to the process where stimuli from the environment are where stimuli from the environment are recognized as exemplars of concepts already recognized as exemplars of concepts already in memoryin memory

CIPCIP

Models of Pattern Recognition Models of Pattern Recognition • Template matching (exact mental Template matching (exact mental

models already stored in memory) --models already stored in memory) --not widely endorsednot widely endorsed

• Prototype Model (what is already Prototype Model (what is already stored is not an exact copy of a stored is not an exact copy of a stimulus but a general prototype)stimulus but a general prototype)

• Feature Analysis (features only stored Feature Analysis (features only stored in memory)in memory)

CIPCIP

Whatever has been learned or Whatever has been learned or experienced previously will have some experienced previously will have some impact on what is perceived in later impact on what is perceived in later situationssituations

Stroop effect: knowing what you think Stroop effect: knowing what you think is “right” interferes sometimes with is “right” interferes sometimes with processing something new; e.g., processing something new; e.g., proofreading, we see what we think proofreading, we see what we think should be rather than what isshould be rather than what is

Retrieval of Learned Retrieval of Learned InformationInformation

Recall (with no cues)Recall (with no cues) Recognition (cues or pregenerated Recognition (cues or pregenerated

stimuli)stimuli) Encoding Specificity: whatever Encoding Specificity: whatever

cues are used by a learner to cues are used by a learner to facilitate encoding will also serve facilitate encoding will also serve as the best retrieval cuesas the best retrieval cues

MetacognitionMetacognition

self-awareness and self-regulation of self-awareness and self-regulation of thinking, e.g. thinking, e.g. • knowing what one doesn’t know, predicting one’s performance, knowing what one doesn’t know, predicting one’s performance,

planning and apportioning cognitive resources and time; planning and apportioning cognitive resources and time; checking and monitoringchecking and monitoring

students must have a base of prior students must have a base of prior knowledgeknowledge

students must know when and why students must know when and why various self-regulatory strategies may various self-regulatory strategies may be effectively employedbe effectively employed

Schema Theory: AusubelSchema Theory: Ausubel

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments).

He is concerned with meaningful reception of information rather than information processing per se.

According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information.

Schema Theory: AusubelSchema Theory: Ausubel

A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis.

Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

Schema Theory: AusubelSchema Theory: Ausubel

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81).

Schema Theory: AusubelSchema Theory: Ausubel

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving.

Schema Theory: AusubelSchema Theory: Ausubel

Instructional Application: 1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented

first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Schema TheorySchema Theory

A schema is “a data structure for A schema is “a data structure for representing the generic concepts representing the generic concepts store in memory” (Rumelhart, 34).store in memory” (Rumelhart, 34).

Schemata are packets of Schemata are packets of knowledge and schema theory is a knowledge and schema theory is a theory of how these packets are theory of how these packets are represented in particular ways.represented in particular ways.

Discussion & TaskDiscussion & Task

In groups of three:In groups of three:• Select a concept or theme or skill Select a concept or theme or skill

commonly taught in some context commonly taught in some context (elementary, jr high, high school; (elementary, jr high, high school; language, math, music, social studies, language, math, music, social studies, whatever)whatever)

• Assume Suzy and Matt are having Assume Suzy and Matt are having difficulties learning itdifficulties learning it

• Analyze the situation from the standpoint Analyze the situation from the standpoint of a schema theoristof a schema theorist