lecture 13 outline (ch. 41) i.animal nutrition overview ii.food intake iii.digestive compartments...
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Lecture 13 Outline (Ch. 41)
I. Animal Nutrition Overview
II. Food Intake
III. Digestive Compartments
IV. Adaptations
V. Energy sources and stores
VI. Summary
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What is/are the overall function(s) digestion?
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Overview: The Need to Feed
• Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition
• In general, animals fall into three categories:– Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs
(plants, algae)– Carnivores eat other
animals– Omnivores regularly
consume animals as well as plants or algal matter
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• Meat, eggs, cheese - provide all nine essential amino acids ( “complete” proteins)
• Individuals eating only plant proteins need specific plant combinations for all essential amino acids
Essential Parts of Diet
Beans and other legumes
Corn (maize)and other grains
Lysine
Essential amino acids for adults
Tryptophan
Isoleucine
Leucine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Valine
Methionine
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• Animals can synthesize most fatty acids they need• The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids that
must be obtained from the diet
Essential Parts of Diet
• Vitamins: organic molecules needed in small amounts
• 13 essential vitamins for humans• Fat-soluble & water-soluble
B-complex
Biotin/B7
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Vitamin A
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
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Minerals
• Minerals: inorganic nutrients, small amounts neededCalcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Chlorine
Sodium
Magnesium
Iron
A diet missing a certain essential part or not enough calories overall leads to malnourishment or undernourishment
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If a person is following a vegan diet, why is it recommended to eat a variety of plant sources?
Remember, these are the parts of diet:• Chemical energy (converted to ATP)• Organic carbon and nitrogen • Essential nutrients must be obtained
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Ingestion: the act of eating
• Suspension feeders - many aquatic animals, which sift small food particles from the water
• Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source
• Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host• Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
Food Intake
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Humpback whale, a suspension feeder
Baleen
Leaf miner caterpillar, substrate feeder
Caterpillar Feces
Mosquito, a fluid feeder Rock python, a bulk feeder
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Label each region of the digestive tract below:
What are the function(s) of each region?
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Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination
Undigestedmaterial
Chemical digestion(enzymatic hydrolysis)
Nutrientmoleculesenter bodycells
Smallmolecules
Mechanicaldigestion
Food
Piecesof food
1 2 3 4
Food Intake
Digestion: process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb. In chemical digestion, enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules
Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells
Elimination is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment
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Digestive Compartments
• Most animals process food (i.e. hydrolysis) in specialized compartments
• Reduces risk animal digesting its own cells/ tissues
Gastrovascularcavity
Food
Epidermis
Mouth
Tentacles
Gastrodermis
Gastrovascular Cavity:
For both digestion and distribution of nutrients
Cells secrete digestive enzymes
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• More complex animals: digestive tube with two openings (mouth, anus)
“Tube within a tube”
• Called alimentary canal
• Specialized regions, carry out digestion and absorption stepwise
Digestive Compartments Esophagus
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop Gizzard
Typhlosole
Intestine
Lumen of intestine
Anus
(b) Grasshopper
Foregut
(c) Bird
(a) Earthworm
Midgut Hindgut
Esophagus RectumAnus
Mouth
Crop
Gastric cecae
Esophagus
Mouth
CropAnus
StomachGizzard
Intestine
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Cecum
Anus Anus
Ascendingportion oflarge intestine
Gall-bladder
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Smallintestine
Rectum
Pancreas
Liver
Salivary glands
TongueOral cavity
PharynxEsophagus
Sphincter
Stomach
Sphincter
Duodenum ofsmall intestine
Appendix
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
Digestive Compartments
• Mammalian alimentary canal and accessory glands that secrete digestive juices through ducts
Food moves by peristalsis
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Larynx
Trachea
Pharynx
Tongue
Esophagus
Food
Tostomach
Tolungs
Epiglottisdown
Esophagealsphincterrelaxed
Epiglottisup
Sphincterrelaxed
Relaxedmuscles
Contractedmuscles
Relaxedmuscles
Stomach
Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus
• Food bolus, saliva added, digestion begins with amylase and mucus
• Pharynx, junction opens to both the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe)
• Esophagus conducts food pharynx to stomach by peristalsis
• Epiglottis blocks entry to the trachea, and larynx.
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Digestion in the Stomach• The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice,
which converts a meal to acid chyme
• Highly folded• Gastric juice -
hydrochloric acid (parietal cells) and the enzyme pepsin (chief cells)
• Pepsin initially secreted as pepsinogen
• Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
Esophagus
Small intestine
Epithelium
Stomach
Sphincter
Parietal cell
Chief cell
Folds ofepithelialtissue
Pepsin
Sphincter
Pepsinogen
HCl
H+
Cl–Mucus cells
Gastric gland
1
2
3
5 µ
m
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Digestion in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine: longest section of alimentary canal• Major organ of enzymatic
digestion and absorption
• 1st: duodenum - acid chyme from
stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself.
- 2nd: jejunum- 3rd: ileum
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Digestion in the Small Intestine
liver/gallbladder bile aids digestion
and absorption of fats
small intestinelining of duodenum
(brush border) produces several digestive enzymes
jejunum and ileum mainly absorb water & nutrients
pancreas proteases trypsin &
chymotrypsinamylase & lipasebicarbonate
neutralizes the acidic chyme
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Fat digestionNucleic acid digestion
Protein digestion
Fat (triglycerides)DNA, RNA
Nucleotides
Pancreaticnucleases
Pancreatic lipase
Glycerol, fatty acids,monoglycerides
Nucleotidases
Nucleosides
Nucleosidasesandphosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,sugars, phosphatesAmino acids
Dipeptidases, carboxy-peptidase, andaminopeptidase
Small peptides
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Smallerpolypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin andchymotrypsin
Small polypeptides
Proteins
Pepsin
Carbohydrate digestion
Polysaccharides Disaccharides
Salivary amylase
Smallerpolysaccharides
Maltose
Pancreatic amylases
Disaccharides
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Smallintestine(enzymesfromepithelium)
Smallintestine(enzymesfrompancreas)
Stomach
Oral cavity,pharynx,esophagus
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Absorption in the Large Intestine
• The colon of the large intestine is connected to the small intestine
Feces stored in rectum until eliminated
• The cecum aids in fermentation of plant material,- connects where the small and large intestines meet
• Human cecum extension (appendix), -minor role in immunity
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Here’s our generalized digestive tract again:
What are the secretions and purpose from each region listed below:
Mouth & teeth
EsophagusStomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
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• The colon houses strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli, some of which produce vitamins
• Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel movements
– Internal smooth muscle sphincter (involuntary)
– External striated muscle sphincter (voluntary)
Absorption in the Large Intestine
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Mutualistic Adaptations• Many herbivores have symbiotic microorganisms that
digest cellulose• The most elaborate adaptations in ruminants
Esophagus
OmasumAbomasum
Intestine
Rumen Reticulum1 2
4 3
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• Herbivores generally longer alimentary canals than carnivores; longer time needed to digest vegetation
• Coprophagy – method to recover more nutrients by ingesting feces
Cecum
Small intestine
HerbivoreCarnivore
Colon(largeintestine)
StomachSmall intestine
Adaptations
Enzymes for digesting plant matter
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Homeostasis:90 mg glucose/100 mL blood
Stimulus:Blood glucose
level risesafter eating.
Stimulus:Blood glucose
level dropsbelow set point.
Energy Sources and Stores
Pancreas releases insulin – cells uptake sugars
Pancreas releases glucagon – liver releases sugars
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If you eat a meal high in sugar, what happens?
Describe the steps including changes in blood sugar and changes in hormones.
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Energy Sources and Stores
• Animals store excess calories as glycogen in the liver and muscles
• Energy secondarily stored as adipose, or fat, cells
• Fewer calories taken in than expended fuel is taken from storage and oxidized
100 µm
Fat cells
• Excessive intake of food energy, excess stored as fat
• Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), colon and breast cancer, heart attacks, and strokes
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LeptinPYY
Insulin
Ghrelin
Energy Sources and Stores
• The complexity of weight control in humans is well-studied
• Mice that inherit a defect in the gene for leptin become very obese
Ghrelin – secreted by stomach, stimulates appetite
Insulin – secreted by pancreas, suppresses appetite
Leptin – released by fat cells, suppresses appetite
PYY – secreted by Sm. Intestine, suppresses appetite
hypothalamus
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Obese mouse with mutant ob gene (left) – mutant for leptin production – next to wild-type sibling mouse.
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The gene db codes for the leptin receptor. If mice are mutant for the db gene what happens?
1. They fail to make leptin – increased appetite
2. They fail to detect leptin – decreased appetite
3. They fail to detect leptin – increased appetite
4. They fail to make leptin – decreased appetite