Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I)ANIMALS: Form and FunctionMain References: (1) Campbell Biology by Reece et al.(2) Integrated Principles of Zoologyby Hickman et al.ANIMALS : Form and FunctionA. Animal Cell Types and TissuesB. Animal Systems and Processes1. Support and Protection2. Movement3. Digestion and Nutrition4. Gas Exchange5. Transport/Circulation6. Excretion and Osmoregulation7. Regulatory Mechanisms Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an organism Physiology - the study of the biological functions an organism performs The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlatedANIMALS : Form and Function Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of organization, each with emergent properties.1. Protoplasmic grade of organizationLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 2. Cellular grade of organization3. Cell-tissue grade of organization4. Tissue-organ grade of organization5. Organ-systemgrade of organization1. Protoplasmic grade of organization unicellular organisms all life functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cell protoplasm is differentiated into organellesLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Paramecium2. Cellular grade of organization aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated a division of labor is evidentLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Volvox3. Cell-tissue grade of organization aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns of layers, thus becoming a tissueLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 4. Tissue-organ grade of organization an aggregation of tissues into organsLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Planaria5. Organ-system grade of organization organs work together to perform some function systems are associated with basic body functionsLevels of Organization in Organismal Complexity Structural Organization in Higher Forms Structural UnitTypes/Kinds/Examples Field of StudyOrgan SystemIntegumentaryMuscularSkeletalNervousCirculatoryExcretoryRespiratoryReproductiveDigestiveEndocrineImmuneAnatomyOrgan oral cavitypharynxesophagusstomachpancreasintestinesbraineyeliverkidneylunganusAnatomyStructural Organization in Higher Forms Structural UnitTypes/Kinds/Examples Field of StudyTissue A. Somatic- epithelial- connective- muscular- nervousB. Reproductive- sperm- egg/oocyteHistologyCell same as in tissue Cytology/Cell BiologyAnimal Cell TypesFour main categories of animal tissues1.Epithelial Tissue2.Connective Tissue3.Muscular Tissue4.Nervous Tissue1. Epithelial Tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells little intercellular substance polarized1. Epithelial Tissue the free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or fluid structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia, flagella Basement membrane where the cells at the base of the barrier are attached also called basallamina cells are closely joined animals have 3 main types of intercellular links: 1. tight junctions2. desmosomes3. gap junctions1. Epithelial TissueTight junction0.5 m membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming continuous belts around cells prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells1. Tight JunctionDesmosome1m fasten cells together into strong sheets, much like rivets reinforced by intermediate filaments of keratin attach muscle cells to each other in a muscle2. DesmosomesGap junction0.1m provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small molecules can pass through channels3. Gap JunctionTypes according to layering:1. simple epithelium2. stratified epithelium1. Epithelial Tissue- Made up of a single layer of cells- Made up of many layers of cells3. pseudostratified epithelium- Made up of a single layer of cells but appears stratified1. Epithelial TissueTypes of epithelial cells according to shape:1. Cuboidal like dice2. Squamous flat like tiles3. Columnar like bricks on end composed of flattened cells form a continuous delicate lining of blood capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces permits the passive diffusion of gases and tissue fluids into and out of cavitiesSimple squamous epithelium consists of 2 to many layers of cells adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion basal layers of cells undergo continuous mitotic divisions lines the oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, vagina of mammals, skinStratified squamous epithelium short, boxlike cells usually lines small ducts and tubules may have active secretory and absorptive functionscollecting duct in kidneySimple cuboidal epithelium like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller found on highly absorptive surfaces such as intestinal tract and female reproductive tract in some organs, cells may be ciliatedroof of mouth of toadSimple columnar epithelium consists of at least two layers of cells found along some areas of the anorectal region and salivary ductsalivary ductStratified columnar epithelium a type of stratified epithelium specialized to accommodate great stretching found in the urinary tract and bladderTransitional epitheliumGlandular epithelia, absorb or secrete chemical solutionsTypes based on how products are released:a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)b. endocrinec. mixed (e.g., pancreas)Special terms of some epithelial tissues:a. mesothelium squamous cells lining serous cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and lining of visceral organsb. endothelium lining of blood and lymph vessels mechanical support exchange of metabolites between blood and tissues2. Connective Tissue storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues bind structures to preserve integrity of organization protection against infection repair paucity of cells; more intercellular substance (fibers and ground substance)2. Connective Tissue the extracellular matrix generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid2. Connective Tissue amorphous ground substance- glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate- permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water, gases, and wastes- important in areas where small blood vessels are absent2. Connective TissueA. fixed- fibroblast/fibrocyte- mesenchymal- adiposeTypes of cells:- fixed macrophageB. wandering (from blood)- monocyte- lymphocyte- plasma cell- eosinophil- mast cellThree kinds of connective tissue fibers: Collagenous fibers (white) made of collagen nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise Elastic fibers (yellow) long threads of elastin elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality Reticular fibers (branching) very thin and branched composed of collagen they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues37Diagram of Fibrous Connective TissueMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesA. Fibrous connective tissue dense due to its large number of collagenousfibers the fibers are organized into parallel bundles forms tendons and ligamentsMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesB. Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues functions as packing materials, holding organs in place has all three fiber types two cell types predominate in its fibrous mesh - fibroblasts- macrophagesMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesC. Adipose tissue specialized form of loose connective tissues that store fat in adipose cells pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules each adipose cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses fat as fuelMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesD. Cartilage has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitinsulfate Types:1. Hyaline cartilage2. Elastic cartilage3. FibrocartilageMajor types of connective tissues in vertebrates1. Hyaline cartilage bluish white, translucent, and homogenous has significant proportion of collagen fibers covers joint surfaces and rib ends present in the nose, larynx, and trachea skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all vertebrates skeletal cartilage of adult sharks and rays support and reinforcement2. Elastic cartilage contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic fibers external ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis maintains a structures shape while allowing great flexibility3. Fibrocartilage contains many large collagenous fibers intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee joint,and pads between femur and tibia absorbs compression shockCollagen fiberChondrocyte in lacunaE. Bone the skeleton supporting most vertebrates mineralized connective tissueCopyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin CummingsMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesE. Bone Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix of collagen then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix into the mineral hydroxyapatite the combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without being brittleCopyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin CummingsMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesF. Blood Made of:1. Plasma (55%)matrix consisting of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins2. Formed elements (45%)erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments called plateletsCopyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin CummingsMajor types of connective tissues in vertebratesPlasma (55 %)1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N)2. dissolved solidsa. proteins fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver) albumin (synthesized by the liver) globulinb. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like substances, amino acids, salts)c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies)d. cellular waste products (urea, uric acid)BloodFormed elements (45 %) produced by bone marrowBloodType %Nucleus Cytoplasmicgranule/cytoplasmOther features/functionsA. granulocyte1. neutrophil 60-75 2-5 or more thin lobes, connected by slender chromatic threadsfine; dont stain well at neutral pH with either acid or basic stainphagocytic2. eosinophil 2-5 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatingranules, coarse; stain pinkish redwith acid stainagainst helminthicinfections3. basophil 0.5-2 nuclei stain very faintly,often obscured by cytoplasmic granules; U or J-shapedstain blue with basic dyeinflammatory reactionTypes of White Blood CellsType %Nucleus Cytoplasmicgranule/cytoplasmOther features/functionsB. agranulocyte1. lymphocyte 20-25 large, somewhat spherical with some indentations and only slightly concentric positionnarrow rim of cytoplasmsmallest;antibody production2. monocyte 3-8 nuclei vary slightly, indented ovals to horse-shoe shaped structurelarge amount of cytoplasmbiggest;becomes macrophage; phagocyticTypes of White Blood Cells composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses most abundant tissue in most animals3. Muscle Tissue muscle contraction accounts for most of the energy-consuming cellular work in active animals Types of muscles tissue has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei (syncitial) occurs in muscles attached to skeleton functions in voluntary movement of body1. skeletal muscle single innervation by motor nerve Types of muscles tissue spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus cells have no striations double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system; involuntary blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract functions in movement of substances in lumens of body2. smooth muscleTypes of muscles tissue has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a single nucleus double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system; involuntary occurs in the wall of the heart functions in the pumping of blood3. cardiac muscleTypes of muscles tissue irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another neuron functional unit of nervous tissue4. Nervous Tissue4. Nervous TissueNeurons consists of a cell body, dendrites and axonsDendrite transmits nerve impulses from their tips toward the rest of the neuronAxon transmits impulses toward another neuron or toward an effector, such as a muscle cellTypes of neurons: sensory (afferent) motor (efferent) interneuron4. Nervous TissueSymmetry refers to balanced proportions correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite sides of a median planeAnimal Body Plans any plane passing through the center divides a body into equivalent or mirrored halves found chiefly among some unicellular forms rare in animals best suited for floating and rollingSpherical Symmetry body can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis found in some sponges and hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins usually sessile, free floating or weakly swimmingRadial Symmetry only two planes passing through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves because of some part that is single or paired comb jelliesBiradial Symmetry body can be divided along a sagittal plane into mirrored portions right and left halves much better suited for directional (forward) movement strongly associated with cephalizationBilateral SymmetrySegmentation metamerism serial repetition of similar body segments along the longitudinal axis of the body segment (metamere or somite)