lecture 4geog3320 management of wilderness environments1 lecture 4: the concept of landscape...

Lecture 4 GEOG3320 Management of Wilderness Environments 1

Lecture 4: The concept of landscape

Outline: Landscape character: nature and

people Perception: evaluation and assessment Policy development Seminar: video presentation “A

postcard from the Country – The Highlands of Scotland: in search of wilderness”


Question:What do we mean by

“landscape”?


What is landscape? Some uses of the word…

- an expanse of scenery that can be seen in a single view

- painting depicting an expanse of natural scenery

- embellishment with plants, rocks, etc.

- a genre of art dealing with the depiction of natural scenery


Question:How has art shaped our view

of wild landscapes


Ante Mortem by Syd Scroggie

I will attempt the Capel track Old, stiff and retrograde And get some pal to shove me on Should resolution fade For I must see black Meikle Pap Against a starry sky And watch the dawn from Lochnagar Once more before I die. The golden plover whistled there Before the Fall of Man And you can hear the brittle croak Of lonely ptarmigan, No heather there but boulders bare and quartz and granite grit and ribs of snow bleak, old and grey As I remember it. And if I do not make the top Then sit me on a stone Some lichen'd rock amongst the screes And leave me there alone, Yes leave me there alone to hear Where spout and buttress are The breeze that stirs the little loch On silent Lochnagar.


Away ye grey landscapes, ye gardens o' rosesIn you let the minions of luxury roveAnd restore me the rocks where the snowflake reposesIf still they are sacred to freedom and loveBrave Caledonia, dear are thy mountainsRound their white summits though elements warThough cataracts roar 'stead of smooth-flowing fountainsI sigh for the valley o' dark Lochnagar

Lord Byron, Dark Lochnagar


1. Landscape character: nature and people

Landscape is more than just a backdrop to our lives- source of invaluable economic and spiritual

resources- a historic record of human activity- helps us define our sense of who we are

Landscape character is defined as - “a distinct, recognisable and consistent pattern

of elements in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another, rather than better or worse” (Countryside Agency)

- it is that which makes an area unique


1. Landscape character: nature and people (cont’d)

Components of landscape- Biophysical

• terrain (relief, variability, geomorphology, etc.)• water inc. snow & ice (presence, type, quality)• flora and fauna (variety, condition, etc.)

- Socio-psychological• land use inc. urban (type, extent, modification)• transport (accessibility, intrusion)• other human features (powerlines, dams, etc.)• cultural (presence, type)• people (numbers, activities, behaviour, etc.)• mystery


Question: what is special about wild

landscapes?


“Scenery is a natural resource... [to determine which landscapes are of high quality and deserve attention by resource managers, it is essential...] to attempt the

evaluation of scenic resources in some objective and quantitative fashion” (Linton, 1968, p.219)

2. Perception: evaluation and assessment


“Landscape is the work of the mind …it scenery is built up as much from the strata

of memory as from layers of rock.”

(Simon Schama)


2. Perception: evaluation and assessment (cont’d)

“Beauty cannot be described: therefore it Cannot be defined... measured... [or] made

the basis of a science”(Kates, 1967, p.22)

“It’s about time that environmentalists supported their arguments... [about landscape aesthetics] with

numbers”(Leopold, 1969, p.41)



What’s in a view? What can be seen from where is a key

component of landscape analysis- depends strongly on terrain variables

- can be quantified using visibility analysis• what, how much and what quality?• use Geographical Information Systems (GIS)



Case study: wildland in Scotland- The uplands and coasts are highly valued

hallmarks of Scotland’s landscape• spectacular and distinctive scenery • wildlife of high conservation importance• major focus for outdoor recreation• Remote and natural areas now widely referred to

as ‘wild land’

- Subject to steady attrition due to various types of development

• including hydropower schemes, afforestation and the construction of bulldozed tracks



A brief history- Gaelic history, culture and society

• warring clans and bashing the “Sassenach”

• Robert de Bruce, William Wallace, Rob Roy, Bonnie Prince Charlie, etc.

• the C18/19th “Clearances” and subsequent oppression by the “English”

• focus on the Highlands and Islands



Significance of tourism and media- Scotland as a Victorian “invention”

• Tartan and the Kilt• Sporting estates

- C19th Romanticism - paintings and poetry of Scott, Byron, Landseer, Burns, etc.

- an image transplanted into global folklore

- perpetuated in promoting modern tourism and Hollywood versions of history (e.g. Braveheart and Rob Roy)



Perception of wild Scotland- Conflicting images of the Highlands:

• Wild and untamed landscape• Steeped in history, heroism and romance• The land as “Emptied… not empty”

- Current patterns of wild land• Remoteness, rugged terrain, harsh climate, sparse

population (historic)• Mapped using GIS methods



Wild land mapping- Wilderness Continuum Concept

• Remoteness from population and access• Naturalness of vegetation and lack of human

artefacts (Lesslie and Maslen, 1995)

- GIS methods• Multi-criteria evaluation (Carver & Fritz, 1998)• Fuzzy modelling (Fritz et al., 2000)• Public participation GIS (Carver et al., 2002)• Historic trends (Carver and Wrightham, 2004)• Perception surveys (Carver et al., 2005)


3. Policy development

Defining wilderness landscapes- important step in developing policy for

protection

- Wilderness often defined in terms of human values of ‘wildness’ attributed to particular places or landscapes.

• US Wilderness Act (1964)• Finnish Wilderness Act (1991)• Scottish Natural Heritage (2002)


3. Policy development (cont’d)

Wilderness as a human concept- wilderness is:

• An idea… an ideal• NOT discrete or objective… i.e. a ‘fuzzy’ concept• A place that exists in the mind as much as it does

on a map!

- dependent on individual perception, social and cultural background, and personal experience…

“One man’s wilderness is another’s roadside picnic ground.” (Nash, 1982)

- champions of the wild: the main actors• NTS, JMT and SNH• Scottish Wildland Group



Wildland policy in Scotland

“Uninhabited and often relatively inaccessible countryside where the influence of human activity on the character and quality of the environment has been minimal.” (NPPG 14, 1998)

“There are parts of Scotland where the wild character of the landscape, its related recreational value and potential for nature are such that these areas should be safeguarded against inappropriate development or land-use change.” (SNH, July 2002) http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf


The National Trust fro Scotland Founded 1931

- guardian of the nation's architectural, scenic and historic treasures

- 270,000 members

- 128 properties including• Torridon (15,908a)• Kintail and Morvich (18,362a)• West Affric (9,049a)• Mar Lodge estate, Cairngorm (72,598a)• Glencoe and Dalness (12,800a)• And several remote western isles



NTS Wildland Policy statement: “Wild land in Scotland is relatively remote and inaccessible,

not noticeably affected by contemporary human activity, and offers high-quality opportunities to escape from the pressures of everyday living and find physical and spiritual refreshment… The primary purpose will be to identify, protect and enhance the ‘core wild land’ areas of Scotland.”

(NTS, January 2002)



The Unna Principles: “…the land (should) be maintained in its primitive condition

for all time with unrestricted access to the public.” (Percy Unna, November 1937)

“The general principle of management is to avoid any reduction in wild land quality.” (NTS, January 2002)

- the hills should not be made easier or safer to climb.- no facilities should be introduced for mechanical

transport; that paths should not be extended or improved; and that new paths should not be made.

- no directional or other signs, whether signposts, paint marks, cairns, or of any other kind whatsoever, should be allowed.

- no other facilities should be afforded for obtaining lodging, shelter, food or drink; and, especially, that no shelters of any kind be built on the hills.



The John Muir Trust Formed in 1983 “to protect and conserve wild places and to

increase awareness and understanding of the value of such places.”

- Works closely with local communities.

- Believes that sustainable conservation can only be achieved by recognising special qualities of wild places and understanding the human factors and other aspects which contribute to the landscape we think of - and value - as wild.

- Developed a concordat with SNH on care of wild places in Scotland



JMT properties:

• Sandwood Bay

• Torrin (5,498a)

• Strathaird (16,062a)

• Sconser (8,401a)

• Ben Nevis (4,158a)

• Li & Coire Dhorrcail

• Schiehallion (2,310a)


Aims of the JMT- to conserve wild places and their landscapes, both

for their own sake and for the sustenance and inspiration they give to humanity;

- to protect existing wild places so as to conserve their natural processes, and their indigenous animals, plants and soils;

- to renew wild places, where they have been damaged, by encouraging natural processes;

- to work with local communities and to encourage them to live in harmony with wild places;

- to promote an awareness and understanding of wild places for their own sake and for their value to the benefit of humanity;

- to stimulate public support to help protect wild places;

- to encourage voluntary participation in the conservation and renewal of wild places. http://www.jmt.org/policy/index.html



A Declaration for the wild- The UK and devolved governments must actively

demonstrate that they recognise the importance of large areas of wild land and of all wild places as an integral part of our national culture and heritage by: 1. Encouraging and supporting people of all ages and of all

backgrounds to experience and understand the value of wild places, for the benefit of their health and spiritual well being.

2. Supporting local communities and land managers by developing a new, broader range of grants and incentive schemes to help restore and enhance wild land.

3. Reviewing planning policy and legislation to strengthen the protection and enhancement of wild land.

4. Establishing a forum to agree a national strategy for the appropriate siting of renewable energy developments.

5. Ratifying the Council of Europe’s Landscape Convention and embracing the responsibility to protect our national landscape heritage. http://www.jmt.org/policy/declare.html



JMT/SNH concordat Working together to care for the wild places

in Scotland through shared aims- Framework Agreement with SNH to broaden and

strengthen JMTs ability to care for Wild Land in Scotland

“JMT recognises and supports the role of SNH in the conservation and enhancement Scotland's natural heritage and wishes to work closely with SNH for the furtherance of common aims.”

“SNH recognises and supports the holistic approach of JMT in securing a long-term future of Scotland's wild places and wishes to work closely with JMT for the furtherance of common aims.”



Enhancers- Sense of remoteness

- Size of area and scale of landscape

- Scenic grandeur

- Surrounded by sea (islands)

- Solitude

- Roughness of terrain, harsh climate

- Peacefulness, quietness

- Absence of contemporary human activity or development

- Seemingly natural environment

- Evokes emotional experience whether first hand or at a distance

- Absence of re-assurance in a hazardous and challenging environment

- Physically demanding experience resulting in a sense of achievement

- Ruins and disused structures – where they add scale and fit the landscape

Detractors- Recent signs of human activity,

particularly ‘man in charge of nature’ including intensive agriculture and insensitive forestry

- Recent human artefacts (including litter)

- Presence of crowds or group activity

- Unsympathetic recreation activities

- Man-made noise

- Facilities to make recreation easier or safer

- Ecological imbalance

- Visual intrusions e.g. roads, pylons, fences

- Mechanical transport

- Low flying jets & helicopters

(After NTS, 2002)http://www.nts.org.uk/web/FILES/wild_land_policy_2002.pdf


http://www.nts.org.uk/web/FILES/wild_land_policy_2002.pdf


Attributes Main Criteria

Perceived naturalness Functioning natural habitats

Unmodified catchment systems

Lack of constructions or other artefacts

No recent buildings/works

Little impact from large structures outside area

Little evidence of contemporary land uses

Little effects from older remains

Only extensive grazing and field sports

Rugged or otherwise challenging terrain

Striking topographic features and difficult terrain

Natural settings for recreation providing hard physical exercise and challenge

Remoteness and inaccessibility

Distance from settlement and communications

Limited access either by scale of area and/or lack of easy access

Extent of area Area sufficient to engender feeling of remoteness and solitude

(After SNH, July 2002) http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf



Drivers of changing land use patterns- Reduction in domestic stocking densities

• Sheep and cattle numbers falling (Subsidies)• Red deer numbers artificially maintained at high

level (Estate management)

- Increasing emphasis on sporting estates and changing access methods:

• from foot and horseback to 4WD• leading to bulldozed hill tracks

- Exploitation of hydropower resource (dams, reservoirs and power lines)

• flooding valleys• changing access arrangements

- New threat from wind farm proposals?



Summary

Landscapes: mental image vs physical Landscape character and perception

- Human and physical geography

Wildland policy in Scotland- SNH, NTS and JMT

- What about England and Wales?


Reading

Bell, S (1999) Landscape: pattern, perception and process. Spon, London.

Gaddis, L (2004) The landscape of history: how historians map the past. OUP.

McCarthy, J (2004) An inhabited solitude: Scotland, land and people. Luath Press, Edinburgh.

Mitchell, I (1988) Scotland’s mountains before the mountaineers. Luath Press, Edinburgh.

Wildland policies for Scotland (see web links for SNH, NTS and JMT policies under “Tasks”)


Task

Read policy documents for wildland in Scotland:- SNH

• http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf

- NTS• http://www.nts.org.uk/web/FILES/wild_land_policy_2002.pdf

- JMT• http://www.jmt.org/policy/JMT_wildland.html

Think about how these might be extended or adapted for England and Wales


Workshop:Video presentation:

Postcard from the country

The Scottish Highlands:

In search of wilderness


Next week...

5. Recreational use of wilderness and wildland

Wilderness recreation and benefits Economics and development Management of recreational use Workshop: developing a wildland

policy for England and Wales

lecture 4geog3320 management of wilderness environments1 lecture 4: the concept of landscape...

Documents

people landscape

landscape character

search of wilderness

landscape different

dark lochnagar slide

mystery slide

concept of landscape

area unique slide