lecture presentation by patty bostwick-taylor florence-darlington technical college chapter 5 the...
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Lecture Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
Chapter 5
The Skeletal System
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The Skeletal System
Two subdivisions of the skeleton1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton Parts of the skeletal system
Bones (skeleton) Joints Cartilages Ligaments
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Functions of Bones
Support the body Protect soft organs
Skull and vertebrae protect brain and spinal cord Rib cage protects thoracic cavity organs
Attached skeletal muscles allow movement Store minerals and fats
Calcium and phosphorus Fat in the internal marrow cavity
Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
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Bones of the Human Body
The adult skeleton has 206 bones Two basic types of bone tissue
1. Compact bone Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone Small needle-like pieces of bone Many open spaces
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Figure 5.1 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.
Spongybone
Compactbone
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Classification of Bones
Bones are classified on the basis of shape, as: Long Short Flat Irregular
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Figure 5.2 Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(a) Long bone(humerus)
(b) Irregular bone(vertebra),right lateral view
(d) Short bone(talus)
(c) Flat bone(sternum)
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Classification of Bones
Long bones Typically longer than they are wide Shaft with heads situated at both ends Contain mostly compact bone All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist, ankle, and
kneecap bones) are long bones Examples:
Femur Humerus
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Figure 5.2a Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(a) Long bone(humerus)
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Classification of Bones
Short bones Generally cube-shaped Contain mostly spongy bone Include bones of the wrist and ankle Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone that form
within tendons (patella) Examples:
Carpals Tarsals
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Figure 5.2d Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(d) Short bone(talus)
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Classification of Bones
Flat bones Thin, flattened, and usually curved Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of
spongy bone Examples:
Skull Ribs Sternum
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Figure 5.1 Flat bones consist of a layer of spongy bone sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone.
Spongybone
Compactbone
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Figure 5.2c Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(c) Flat bone(sternum)
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Classification of Bones
Irregular bones Irregular shape Do not fit into other bone classification categories Examples:
Vertebrae Hip bones
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Figure 5.2b Classification of bones on the basis of shape.
(b) Irregular bone(vertebra),right lateral view
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Concept Link
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Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis Shaft Makes up most of bone’s length Composed of compact bone
Periosteum Outside covering of the diaphysis Fibrous connective tissue membrane Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers secure periosteum to
underlying bone
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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Proximalepiphysis
Diaphysis
Distalepiphysis(a)
Articularcartilage
Spongy bone
EpiphyseallinePeriosteum
Compact boneMedullarycavity (linedby endosteum)
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Figure 5.3c The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
(c)
Endosteum
Yellow bonemarrowCompact bone
Periosteum
Perforating(Sharpey’s) fibers
Nutrientarteries
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Anatomy of a Long Bone
Epiphysis Ends of the bone Composed mostly of spongy bone enclosed by thin
layer of compact bone Articular cartilage
Covers the external surface of the epiphyses Made of hyaline cartilage Decreases friction at joint surfaces
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Figure 5.3b The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
(b)
Articularcartilage
Spongy bone
Compact bone
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Anatomy of a Long Bone
Epiphyseal plate Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing
bone Causes lengthwise growth of a long bone
Epiphyseal line Remnant of the epiphyseal plate Seen in adult bones
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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Proximalepiphysis
Diaphysis
Distalepiphysis(a)
Articularcartilage
Spongy bone
EpiphyseallinePeriosteum
Compact boneMedullarycavity (linedby endosteum)
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Anatomy of a Long Bone
Marrow (medullary) cavity Cavity inside the shaft Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults Contains red marrow for blood cell formation in
infants In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of
spongy bone and epiphyses of some long bones
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Figure 5.3a The structure of a long bone (humerus of arm).
Proximalepiphysis
Diaphysis
Distalepiphysis(a)
Articularcartilage
Spongy bone
EpiphyseallinePeriosteum
Compact boneMedullarycavity (linedby endosteum)
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Bone Markings
Surface features of bones Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments Passages for nerves and blood vessels
Categories of bone markings Projections or processes—grow out from the bone
surface Terms often begin with “T”
Depressions or cavities—indentations Terms often begin with “F”
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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (1 of 3).
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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (2 of 3).
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Table 5.1 Bone Markings (3 of 3).
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Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
Osteocytes are situated within cavities known as lacunae
Lacunae are arranged in concentric rings called lamellae
Lamellae are rings situated around the central (Haversian) canal
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Figure 5.4a Microscopic structure of compact bone.
Spongy bone
Perforating(Volkmann’s) canal
Blood vessel continuesinto medullary cavitycontaining marrow
Blood vessel
Compact bone
Central (Haversian) canal
Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
Periosteum
Periosteal blood vessel
Osteon(Haversiansystem)
Lamellae
(a)
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Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Central (Haversian) canal Opening in the center of an osteon Runs lengthwise through bone Carries blood vessels and nerves
Osteon (Haversian system) A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix
rings
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Figure 5.4b Microscopic structure of compact bone.
Lamella
Osteocyte
CanaliculusLacunaCentral(Haversian) canal(b)
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Figure 5.4c Microscopic structure of compact bone.
Osteon
Interstitiallamellae
LacunaCentral(Haversian) canal
(c)
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Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Canaliculi Tiny canals Radiate from the central canal to lacunae Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to
a nutrient supply Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
Canal perpendicular to the central canal Carries blood vessels and nerves
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Figure 5.4b Microscopic structure of compact bone.
Lamella
Osteocyte
CanaliculusLacunaCentral(Haversian) canal(b)
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Bone Components
Organic parts of the matrix make bone flexible Calcium salts deposited in the matrix make bone
hard
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Bone Formation and Growth
Ossification Process of bone formation Occurs on hyaline cartilage models or fibrous
membranes Long bone growth involves two major phases
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Figure 5.5 Stages of long-bone formation in an embryo, fetus, and young child.
Hyalinecartilage
New center ofbone growth
Medullarycavity
Bone startingto replacecartilage
Hyalinecartilagemodel
Bone collar
In an embryo In a fetus In a child
Articularcartilage
Spongybone
Epiphysealplate cartilage
New boneforming
Growthin bonewidth
Growthin bonelength
Invadingblood vessels
New boneforming
Epiphysealplate cartilage
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Bone Formation and Growth
Two major phases of ossification in long bones1. Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells Cover hyaline cartilage model
2. Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity
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Bone Formation and Growth
By birth, most cartilage is converted to bone except for two regions in a long bone:
1. Articular cartilages
2. Epiphyseal plates New cartilage is formed continuously on external
face of these two cartilages Old cartilage is broken down and replaced by bony
matrix
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Figure 5.6 Growth and remodeling of long bones.
Bone grows inlength because:
1
21
23
34
Growing shaft isremodeled as:
Bone growth Bone remodeling
Articular cartilage
Epiphyseal plate
Bone isresorbed here.
Bone is addedby appositionalgrowth here.
Bone is resorbed here.
Cartilagegrows here.
Cartilageis replacedby bone here.
Cartilagegrows here.
Cartilageis replaced bybone here.
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Bone Formation and Growth
Bones grow in length and width Appositional growth
Growth in diameter
Controlled by hormones such as growth hormone Epiphyseal plates are converted to bone during
adolescence Growth in length ends
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Bone Remodeling
Bones are lengthened until growth stops Bones are remodeled throughout life in response to
two factors:1. Blood calcium levels
2. Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
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Bone Remodeling
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Released when blood calcium levels are low Activates osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium
ions into the blood Hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels) prompts
calcium storage to bones
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Bone Fractures
Fracture: break in a bone Types of bone fractures
Closed (simple) fracture: break that does not penetrate the skin
Open (compound) fracture: broken bone penetrates through the skin
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Bone Fractures
Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization Closed reduction: bones are manually coaxed into
position by physician’s hands Open reduction: bones are secured with pins or
wires during surgery
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Repair of Bone Fractures
Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed Fibrocartilage callus forms
Cartilage matrix, bony matrix, collagen fibers splint the broken bone
Bony callus replaces the fibrocartilage callus Osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate in
Bone remodeling occurs in response to mechanical stresses
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Figure 5.7 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture.
Hematoma
1
Externalcallus
Internalcallus(fibroustissue andcartilage)
New bloodvessels
Spongybonetrabecula
Hematomaforms.
2 3 Fibrocartilagecallus forms.
Bony callusforms.
Boneremodelingoccurs.
Bonycallus ofspongybone
Healedfracture
4
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Common Types of Fractures
Comminuted: bone breaks into many fragments Compression: bone is crushed Depressed: broken bone portion is pressed inward Impacted: broken bone ends are forced into each
other Spiral: ragged break occurs when excessive
twisting forces are applied to a bone Greenstick: bone breaks incompletely
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Table 5.2 Common Types of Fractures.
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The Axial Skeleton
Forms the longitudinal axis of the body Divided into three parts
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column
3. Bony thorax
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Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.
Skull
(a) Anterior view
Thoraciccage
Vertebralcolumn
(ribs andsternum)
Sacrum
Facial bones
Cranium
Clavicle
ScapulaSternumRibHumerus
VertebraRadiusUlna
FemurPatella
Tibia
Fibula
TarsalsMetatarsalsPhalanges
Carpals
PhalangesMetacarpals
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Figure 5.8b The human skeleton.
(b) Posterior view
Bones ofpectoralgirdle
Upper limb
Bones ofpelvicgirdle
Lowerlimb
Cranium
Clavicle
Scapula
RibHumerus
VertebraRadiusUlna
Carpals
PhalangesMetacarpalsFemur
Tibia
Fibula
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Concept Link
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The Skull
Two sets of bones1. Cranium bones enclose the brain
2. Facial bones Hold eyes in anterior position Allow facial muscles to express feelings
Bones are joined by sutures Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable
joint
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The Skull
8 cranial bones protect the brain1. Frontal bone
2. Occipital bone
3. Ethmoid bone
4. Sphenoid bone
5–6. Parietal bones (pair)
7–8. Temporal bones (pair)
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The Skull
There are 14 facial bones. All are paired except for the single mandible and vomer.
1–2. Maxillae
3–4. Zygomatics
5–6. Palatines
7–8. Nasals
9–10. Lacrimals
11–12. Inferior nasal conchae
13. Mandible
14. Vomer
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Figure 5.9 Human skull, lateral view.
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Temporal bone
Lambdoid suture
Squamous sutureOccipital bone
Zygomatic process
External acousticmeatus
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Mandibular ramus
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Zygomatic boneMaxilla
Alveolar processes
Mandible (body)
Mental foramen
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Figure 5.10 Human skull, superior view (top of cranium removed).
Sphenoidbone
Temporal bone
Internalacoustic meatus
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Foramen magnum
Frontal bone
Ethmoidbone
Cribriform plateCrista galli
Optic canal
Sella turcicaForamen ovale
Jugular foramen
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Figure 5.11 Human skull, inferior view (mandible removed).
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone(greater wing)
Foramen ovale
Carotid canal
Jugular foramen
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Maxilla(palatine process)
Palatine bone
Hardpalate
Zygomatic bone
Temporal bone(zygomatic process)
Vomer
Mandibular fossa
Styloid process
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
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Figure 5.12 Human skull, anterior view.
Mandible
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid boneLacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Frontal bone
Superior orbitalfissure
Temporal boneOptic canal
Middle nasal conchaof ethmoid bone
Vomer
Inferior nasal concha
Alveolar processes
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Paranasal Sinuses
Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
Functions of paranasal sinuses Lighten the skull Amplify sounds made as we speak
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Figure 5.13a Paranasal sinuses.
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidalsinus
Maxillarysinus
(a) Anterior view
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Figure 5.13b Paranasal sinuses.
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
SphenoidalsinusMaxillarysinus
(b) Medial view
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The Hyoid Bone
Closely related to mandible and temporal bones The only bone that does not articulate with another
bone Serves as a movable base for the tongue Aids in swallowing and speech
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Figure 5.14 Anatomical location and structure of the hyoid bone.
Greater horn
Lesser horn
Body
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The Fetal Skull
The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length Fetal skull is 1/4 body length compared to adult skull,
which is 1/8 body length Fontanels are fibrous membranes connecting the
cranial bones Allow skull compression during birth Allow the brain to grow during later pregnancy and
infancy Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
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Figure 5.15a The fetal skull.
Frontal bone
Parietalbone
Posterior fontanel
(a)
Anteriorfontanel
Occipitalbone
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Figure 5.15b The fetal skull.
Parietal bone
Posteriorfontanel
Anterior fontanelSphenoidalfontanel
Frontalbone
Temporal bone
Occipital bone
Mastoidfontanel
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Vertebral Column (Spine)
Vertebral column provides axial support Extends from skull to the pelvis
26 single vertebral bones are separated by intervertebral discs 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower
back
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Vertebral Column (Spine)
9 vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones Sacrum formed by the fusion of 5 vertebrae Coccyx (tailbone) formed by the fusion of 3 to 5
vertebrae
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Figure 5.16 The vertebral column.
1st lumbar vertebra
Intervertebral foramen
Intervertebral disc
Spinous process
Transverse process
1st thoracic vertebra
1st cervical vertebra(atlas)
2nd cervical vertebra(axis)
Anterior Posterior
Cervical curvature (concave)7 vertebrae, C1 – C7
Thoracic curvature (convex)12 vertebrae, T1 – T12
Lumbar curvature (concave)5 vertebrae, L1 – L5
Sacral curvature (convex)5 fused vertebrae
Coccyx4 fused vertebrae
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Vertebral Column (Spine)
Primary curvatures Spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions Present from birth Form a C-shaped curvature as in newborns
Secondary curvatures Spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions Develop after birth Form an S-shaped curvature as in adults
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Figure 5.17 The C-shaped spine typical of a newborn.
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Figure 5.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures.
(a) Scoliosis (b) Kyphosis (c) Lordosis
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Vertebral Column (Spine)
Parts of a typical vertebra Body (centrum) Vertebral arch
Pedicle Lamina
Vertebral foramen Transverse processes Spinous process Superior and inferior articular processes
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Figure 5.19 A typical vertebra, superior view.
LaminaPosterior
Vertebralarch
Transverseprocess
Spinousprocess
Vertebralforamen
Body
Anterior
Pedicle
Superiorarticularprocessandfacet
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Figure 5.20a Regional characteristics of vertebrae.
Transverseprocess
(a) ATLAS AND AXIS
Posteriorarch
Superior view of axis (C2)
Anterior arch
Superior view of atlas (C1)
Transverseprocess
Spinous process
DensBody
Facet onsuperiorarticularprocess
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Figure 5.20b Regional characteristics of vertebrae.
(b) TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Right lateral view
Spinous processFacet onsuperiorarticularprocess
Vertebralforamen
Transverseprocess
Superior view
Body
Facet on inferiorarticular process
Transverseprocess
Superior articularprocessSpinousprocess
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Figure 5.20c Regional characteristics of vertebrae.
(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Right lateral view
Transverseprocess
Body
Body
Spinous process
Facetfor rib
Vertebralforamen
Facet on transverseprocess
Spinous process
Costal facetfor rib
Superior view
process
Facet onsuperiorarticular
Facet on superiorarticular process
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Figure 5.20d Regional characteristics of vertebrae.
(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Right lateral view
Transverseprocess
Vertebralforamen
Facet on superiorarticular processBody
BodySuperior articularprocess
Spinousprocess
Facet on inferiorarticular process
Superior view
Spinous process
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Figure 5.21 Sacrum and coccyx, posterior view.
Ala
Sacrum
CoccyxSacralhiatus
Posteriorsacralforamina
Mediansacralcrest
Body
Auricularsurface
SuperiorarticularprocessSacral
canal
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The Bony Thorax
Forms a cage to protect major organs Consists of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs True ribs (pairs 1–7) False ribs (pairs 8–12) Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
3. Thoracic vertebrae
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Figure 5.22a The bony thorax (thoracic cage).
Clavicular notch
Trueribs(1–7)
Falseribs(8–12)
(a)Floatingribs (11, 12)
L1
vertebra Costal cartilage
Intercostalspaces
T1 vertebraJugular notch
ManubriumSternal angleBodyXiphisternaljointXiphoidprocess
Sternum
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Figure 5.22b The bony thorax (thoracic cage).
Jugularnotch
Sternalangle
Heart
Xiphisternaljoint
T2
T3
T4
T9
(b)
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The Appendicular Skeleton
Composed of 126 bones Limbs (appendages) Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle
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Figure 5.8a The human skeleton.
Skull
(a) Anterior view
Thoraciccage
Vertebralcolumn
(ribs andsternum)
Sacrum
Facial bones
Cranium
Clavicle
ScapulaSternumRibHumerus
VertebraRadiusUlna
FemurPatella
Tibia
Fibula
TarsalsMetatarsalsPhalanges
Carpals
PhalangesMetacarpals
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Figure 5.8b The human skeleton.
(b) Posterior view
Bones ofpectoralgirdle
Upper limb
Bones ofpelvicgirdle
Lowerlimb
Cranium
Clavicle
Scapula
RibHumerus
VertebraRadiusUlna
Carpals
PhalangesMetacarpalsFemur
Tibia
Fibula
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The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
Composed of two bones that attach the upper limb to the axial skeletal
1. Scapula
2. Clavicle Pectoral girdle (2)
Light, poorly reinforced girdle Allows the upper limb a great deal of freedom
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Figure 5.23a Bones of the shoulder girdle.
Scapula
ClavicleAcromio-clavicular joint
(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral)girdle showing the relationship tobones of the thorax and sternum
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Figure 5.23b Bones of the shoulder girdle.
Inferior view
(b) Right clavicle, superior andinferior views
Posterior
Acromial end
Anterior
Sternal(medial)end
Acromial(lateral) end
Superior view
Anterior
Posterior
Sternal end
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Figure 5.23c Bones of the shoulder girdle.
Suprascapular notch
Superiorangle
Spine
Medialborder
Lateral border
Coracoid process
Acromion
Glenoid cavityat lateral angle
(c) Right scapula, posterior aspect
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Figure 5.23d Bones of the shoulder girdle.
Suprascapular notchAcromion
Coracoidprocess
Glenoidcavity
Superior borderSuperiorangle
Lateral(axillary)border
Medial(vertebral)border
Inferior angle(d) Right scapula, anterior aspect
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Bones of the Upper Limbs
Humerus Forms the arm Single bone Proximal end articulation
Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula Distal end articulation
Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the bones of the forearm
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Figure 5.24a Bones of the right arm and forearm.
Greatertubercle
(a)
Lessertubercle
Head ofhumerus
Anatomicalneck
Intertubercularsulcus
Deltoidtuberosity
Medialepicondyle
Trochlea
RadialfossaCoronoidfossa
Capitulum
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Figure 5.24b Bones of the right arm and forearm.
(b)
Head ofhumerus
Anatomicalneck
Surgicalneck
Radialgroove
Deltoidtuberosity
Olecranonfossa
Lateralepicondyle
Medialepicondyle
Trochlea
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Bones of the Upper Limbs
The forearm has two bones1. Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
Proximal end articulation Coronoid process and olecranon articulate with the
humerus
2. Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position Proximal end articulation
Head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus
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Figure 5.24c Bones of the right arm and forearm.
(c)
Head
NeckRadialtuberosity
Radius
TrochlearnotchOlecranon
CoronoidprocessProximalradioulnarjoint
Ulna
Inter-osseousmembrane
UlnarstyloidprocessDistal
radioulnar joint
Radialstyloidprocess
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Bones of the Upper Limbs
Hand Carpals—wrist
8 bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones in each hand
Metacarpals—palm 5 per hand
Phalanges—fingers and thumb 14 phalanges in each hand In each finger, there are 3 bones In the thumb, there are only 2 bones
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Figure 5.25 Bones of the right hand, anterior view.
Distal
Middle
Proximal
Phalanges(fingers)
Metacarpals(palm)
Carpals(wrist)
Hamate
Pisiform
Triquetrum
Lunate
Ulna
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Scaphoid
Capitate
Radius
1
2345
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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Formed by 2 coxal (ossa coxae) bones Composed of three pairs of fused bones
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis Pelvic girdle 2 coxal bones, sacrum Bony pelvis 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx
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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
Pelvis protects several organs Reproductive organs Urinary bladder Part of the large intestine
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Figure 5.26a The bony pelvis.
Ilium
Pubis
Ischium
(a)
Coxal bone(or hip bone) Sacrum
Coccyx
Pubic arch
Iliac crest
Sacroiliacjoint
Pelvic brim
Ischial spine
Acetabulum
Pubic symphysis
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Figure 5.26b The bony pelvis.
Ilium
Iliac crest
Anterior superioriliac spine
Anterior inferioriliac spine
Acetabulum
Body of pubis
Pubis
Inferior pubicramus
Obturatorforamen
Ala
Posteriorsuperioriliac spine
Posteriorinferioriliac spine
Greater sciaticnotchIschial body
Ischial spine
Ischial tuberosity
Ischium
Ischial ramus(b)
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Gender Differences of the Pelvis
The female’s pelvis: Inlet is larger and more circular Pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones are
lighter and thinner Ilia flare more laterally Sacrum is shorter and less curved Ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus, the
outlet is larger Pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the
pubic arch is greater
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Figure 5.26c The bony pelvis.
False pelvis
Inlet oftruepelvis
Pelvic brim
False pelvis
Inlet oftruepelvis
Pelvic brim
(c)
Pubic arch(less than 90°)
Pubic arch(more than 90°)
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
Femur—thigh bone The heaviest, strongest bone in the body Proximal end articulation
Head articulates with the acetabulum of the coxal (hip) bone
Distal end articulation Lateral and medial condyles articulate with the tibia in
the lower leg
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Figure 5.27a Bones of the right thigh and leg.
Neck
Inter-trochantericline
Lessertrochanter
(a)
Lateralcondyle
Patellarsurface
Head
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Figure 5.27b Bones of the right thigh and leg.
Lessertrochanter
Glutealtuberosity
Greatertrochanter
Inter-trochantericcrest
(b)
Lateralcondyle
Head
Intercondylarfossa
Medialcondyle
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
The lower leg has two bones1. Tibia—shinbone; larger and medially oriented
Proximal end articulation Medial and lateral condyles articulate with the femur to
form the knee joint
2. Fibula—thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia Has no role in forming the knee joint
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Figure 5.27c Bones of the right thigh and leg.
Intercondylareminence
LateralcondyleHead
Proximaltibiofibularjoint
Medialcondyle
Tibialtuberosity
Interosseousmembrane
Anteriorborder
Tibia
Medialmalleolus
Distaltibiofibularjoint
Lateralmalleolus
(c)
Fibula
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
The foot Tarsals—7 bones
Two largest tarsals Calcaneus (heel bone) Talus
Metatarsals—5 bones form the sole of the foot
Phalanges—14 bones form the toes
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Figure 5.28 Bones of the right foot, superior view.
Medialcuneiform
Tarsals:
Phalanges:
Metatarsals
Tarsals:Intermediatecuneiform
Navicular
Talus
DistalMiddle
Proximal
Lateralcuneiform
Cuboid
Calcaneus
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Arches of the Foot
Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches Two longitudinal One transverse
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Figure 5.29 Arches of the foot.
Medial longitudinal arch
Transverse arch
Lateral longitudinalarch
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Joints
Joints are articulations Two or more bones meet
Functions of joints Hold bones together Allow for mobility
Two ways joints are classified Functionally Structurally
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Functional Classification of Joints
Synarthroses Immovable joints
Amphiarthroses Slightly movable joints
Diarthroses Freely movable joints
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Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous joints Generally immovable
Cartilaginous joints Immovable or slightly movable
Synovial joints Freely movable
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Concept Link
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Fibrous Joints
Bones united by fibrous tissue Types
Sutures Immobile
Syndesmoses Allow more movement than sutures but still immobile Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
Gomphosis Immobile
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Figure 5.30a Types of joints.
Fibrousconnectivetissue
(a) Suture
Fibrous joints
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Figure 5.30b Types of joints.
(b) Syndesmosis
Tibia
FibulaFibrousconnectivetissue
Fibrous joints
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Cartilaginous Joints
Bones connected by fibrocartilage Types
Synchrondrosis Immobile
Symphysis Slightly movable Example: Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
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Figure 5.30c Types of joints.
First rib
Cartilaginous joints
(c) Synchondrosis
Hyalinecartilage
Sternum
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Figure 5.30d Types of joints.
(d) Symphysis
Vertebrae
Fibro-cartilage
Cartilaginous joints
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Figure 5.30e Types of joints.
(e) Symphysis
PubisFibro-cartilage
Cartilaginous joints
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Synovial Joints
Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity Four distinguishing features of synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Articular capsule
3. Joint cavity
4. Reinforcing ligaments
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Figure 5.30f Types of joints.
(f) Multiaxial joint
Humerus
Articular (hyaline)cartilage
(shoulder joint)
Scapula
Articularcapsule
Synovial joints
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Figure 5.30g Types of joints.
(g) Uniaxial joint
Ulna
Radius
Articular capsule
Articular (hyaline)cartilage
Humerus
(elbow joint)
Synovial joints
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Figure 5.30h Types of joints.
Synovial joints
(h) Biaxial joint(intercarpal joints of hand)
Carpals
Ulna
Radius
Articularcapsule
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Synovial Joints
Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs Lined with synovial membranes Filled with synovial fluid Not actually part of the joint
Tendon sheath Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
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Synovial Joints
Types of synovial joints based on shape: Plane joint Hinge joint Pivot joint Condylar joint Saddle joint Ball-and-socket joint
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Figure 5.31 General structure of a synovial joint.
Acromion ofscapula
Ligament
Bursa
Ligament
Tendonsheath
Tendon ofbiceps muscle
Joint cavitycontainingsynovial fluid
Articular(hyaline)cartilage
Synovial membrane
Fibrous layer of thearticular capsule
Humerus
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Figure 5.32a Types of synovial joints.
(f)
(a) Plane joint
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)
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Figure 5.32b Types of synovial joints.
(f)
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)
HumerusUlna
(b) Hinge joint
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Figure 5.32c Types of synovial joints.
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(f)
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)(c) Pivot joint
UlnaRadius
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Figure 5.32d Types of synovial joints.
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(f)
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)MetacarpalPhalanx
(d) Condylar joint
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Figure 5.32e Types of synovial joints.
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(f)
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)(e) Saddle joint
CarpalMetacarpal #1
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Figure 5.32f Types of synovial joints.
NonaxialUniaxialBiaxialMultiaxial
(f)
(c)
(a)(e)(d)
(b)
Head ofhumerus
Scapula
(f) Ball-and-socket joint
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Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints
Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction
Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of
joints Over 100 different types The most widespread crippling disease in the United
States Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of the joint
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Clinical Forms of Arthritis
Osteoarthritis (OA) Most common chronic arthritis Probably related to normal aging processes
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) An autoimmune disease—the immune system
attacks the joints Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints Often leads to deformities
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Figure 5.33 X-ray image of a hand deformed by rheumatoid arthritis.
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Clinical Forms of Arthritis
Gouty arthritis (gout) Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of
uric acid crystals from the blood Can usually be controlled with diet More common in men
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Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System
Fontanels Allow brain growth and ease birth passage Present in the skull at birth Completely replaced with bone within 2 years after
birth
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Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System
Growth of cranium after birth is related to brain growth Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows tooth
development and enlargement of the respiratory passageways.
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Figure 5.34 Ossification centers in the skeleton of a 12-week-old fetus are indicated by the darker areas. Lighter regions are still fibrous or cartilaginous.
Frontalbone of skull
Parietalbone
Occipitabone
Clavicle
Scapula
Mandible
RadiusUlna
Humerus
Femur
Tibia
Ribs
Vertebra
Hip bone
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Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
Fetus Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes Flat and long bone models are converted to bone
Birth Fontanels remain until around age 2
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Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
Adolescence Epiphyseal plates become ossified, and long bone
growth ends Size of cranium in relationship to body
2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to the body compared to that of an adult
8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and proportion
Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from the skull
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Figure 5.35a Differences in the growth rates for some parts of the body compared to others determine body proportions.
Human newborn Human adult
(a)
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Figure 5.35b Differences in the growth rates for some parts of the body compared to others determine body proportions.
(b)
Newborn 2 yrs. 5 yrs. 15 yrs. Adult
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Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
Curvatures of the spine Primary curvatures are present at birth and are
convex posteriorly Secondary curvatures are associated with a child’s
later development and are convex anteriorly Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and lordosis)
are often congenital
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Figure 5.18 Abnormal spinal curvatures.
(a) Scoliosis (b) Kyphosis (c) Lordosis
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Skeletal Changes Throughout Life
Osteoporosis Bone-thinning disease afflicting
50 percent of women over age 65 20 percent of men over age 70
Disease makes bones fragile, and bones can easily fracture
Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also known as “dowager’s hump”)
Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a female skeleton
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Figure 5.36 Osteoporosis.
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Figure 5.37 Vertebral collapse due to osteoporosis.
Age 40 Age 60 Age 70