lem's science poject

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ScienceProject

Submitted to: Ms. Gertrudes P. Soliven

Submitted by: Lemuel B. Concepcion


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I. Instruments used to gather information about the outer spaceThere are many commonly available instruments that are designed and modified to work in

micro-gravity and at extreme temperatures. Here are four common instruments you'll be familiar

with. Mans quest to unravel the mysteries surrounding space has led to the unprecedented

growth in space science in the last century. There are a number of instruments used in outerspace exploration for the detailed study of different cosmological objects. These four tools you

will be familiar with, as they are also used on Earth. However, any instrument used in space is

specially designed to endure harsh conditions.

1. Telescopes:

The oldest instrument used in space exploration may be the telescope; the most

relied upon instrument of astronomers since the invention of the refracting telescope.

It was Galileo who revolutionized space science with his insightful observations

which he made using his modified refracting telescope.

The increasing difficulty in handling the refracting telescope forced scientists tolook for alternative instruments, and Sir Isaac Newton brought a radical change in

telescopes by replacing the primary lens in the refracting telescope with a mirror and

thus the era of reflecting telescopes began. In the following centuries differentscientists made valuable contributions in modifying the reflecting telescope.

The invention of radio telescopes made it possible to study radio waves from

distant objects in space. Advances in optical astronomy included the development ofmulti-mirror telescopes. Even though these were all used to explore space, they were

all based on the Earth. By the mid 20th century, space scientists were able to place the

first space telescopes in orbits above the Earth, thereby drastically changing ourperception of the space.

In 1989, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) was launched, followed byhistoric reflector telescope theHubble Telescopein 1990, the Compton Observatory

in 1991, Chandra Observatory in 1999 and Spitzer Telescope in 2003. The James

Webb Space Telescopewhich will be launched in 2013 is expected to produce betterviews of the deep space. Solar telescopes, another type of telescope, are used

extensively in the study of the Sun
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.

Refracting Telescope

Hubble Space Telescope

James Webb Space Telescope


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2. Cameras:

Another invaluable instrument in space exploration is cameras. They are used to

take high resolution images of the surface and surroundings of cosmic bodies.

Navigation cameras and hazard cameras help control stations on Earth guide robots

across the surface of the planets. Microscopic imagers are specifically designed totake pictures of soil and rocks with very high precision to advance the study of

planetary geology.

3. Spectroscope:Spectrometers are another scientific instrument which astronomers dependon

greatly to learn more about the characteristics and composition of different cosmicbodies. Every space probe is fitted with spectrometers of different capabilities. For

instance Mars exploration rovers, Spirit and Opportunity are equipped with a

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, Mssbauer spectrometer and AlphaParticle X-Ray Spectrometer, each with different purposes. The cameras and

spectrometers of different capabilities are used in all missions.
http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/48844.aspx?p=2


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4. Robots:One of the greatest challenges of space exploration is the highly hostile

environmental conditions, which make human exploration practically impossible in

most cosmic environments. Scientists overcome this obstacle by developing different

types of space robots. There are different types of space robots like flybys, rovers,robotic arms, humanoids and orbiters.

Flyby humanoid

Orbiter rover
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II. Characteristics of Stars1. Age

2. Chemical composition

3. Diameter

4. Kinematics

5. Magnetic field

6. Mass

7. Rotation

8. Temperature

1. AgeMost stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. Some stars may even be

close to 13.7 billion years oldthe observed age of the universe. The oldest star yet

discovered, HE 1523-0901, is an estimated 13.2 billion years old.

The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars

have greater pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The

most massive stars last an average of a few million years, while stars of minimum mass

(red dwarfs) burn their fuel very slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years.

2. Chemical composition

When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71%

hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavierelements. Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron

content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are

relatively easy to measure. Because the molecular clouds where stars form are steadily

enriched by heavier elements from supernovae explosions, a measurement of the

chemical composition of a star can be used to infer its age. The portion of heavier

elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system.

The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with

only 1/200,000th the iron content of the Sun. By contrast, the super-metal-rich star

Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, while the planet-bearingstar 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron. There also exist chemically peculiar stars that

show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum; especially

chromium and rare earth elements.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HE_1523-0901http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_Herculishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_earth_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peculiar_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_Herculishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu_Leonishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HE_1523-0901http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Chemical_compositionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star#Age


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3. Diameter

Stars vary widely in size. Due to their great distance from the Earth, all stars

except the Sun appear to the human eye as shining points in the night sky

that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun is also a star, but it

is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight. Otherthan the Sun, the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus, with an angular

diameter of only 0.057 arcseconds.

Stars range in size from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km

(25 mi) in diameter, to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation, which has a

diameter approximately 650 times larger than the Sunabout 900,000,000 km

(560,000,000 mi). However, Betelgeuse has a much lower density than the Sun.

4. Kinematics

The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the

origin and age of a star, as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy.

The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the

Sun, and the traverse angular movement, which is called its proper motion.

Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star's spectral lines, and is

given in units ofkm/s. The proper motion of a star is determined by precise astrometric

measurements in units of milli-arc seconds (mas) per year. By determining the parallax of

a star, the proper motion can then be converted into units of velocity. Stars with high

rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun, making them goodcandidates for parallax measurements.

Once both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to

the Sun or the galaxy can be computed. Among nearby stars, it has been found that

population I stars have generally lower velocities than older, population II stars. The

latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy. Comparison of the

kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification ofstellar associations. These

are most likely groups of stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular

clouds.

5. Magnetic field

The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior

where convective circulation occurs. This movement of conductive plasma functions like

a dynamo, generating magnetic fields that extend throughout the star. The strength of the

magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star, and the amount of

magnetic surface activity depends upon the star's rate of rotation. This surface activity
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produces star spots, which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal

surface temperatures. Coronal loops are arching magnetic fields that reach out into the

corona from active regions. Stellar flares are bursts of high-energy particles that are

emitted due to the same magnetic activity.

Young, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity becauseof their magnetic field. The magnetic field can act upon a star's stellar wind, however,

functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation as the star grows older. Thus,

older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of

surface activity. The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical

manner and can shut down altogether for periods. During the Maunder minimum, for

example, the Sun underwent a 70-year period with almost no sunspot activity.

6. Mass

The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface

gravity. Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than main sequence stars, while

the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface

gravity can influence the appearance of a star's spectrum, with higher gravity causing a

broadening of the absorption lines.

Stars are sometimes grouped by mass based upon their evolutionary behavior as

they approach the end of their nuclear fusion lifetimes. Very low mass stars with masses

below 0.5 solar masses do not enter the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) but evolve

directly into white dwarfs.Low mass stars with a mass below about 1.82.2 solar masses

(depending on composition) do enter the AGB, where they develop a degenerate helium

core. Intermediate-mass stars undergo helium fusion and develop a degenerate carbon-

oxygen core.Massive stars have a minimum mass of 710 solar masses, but this may be

as low as 56 solar masses. These stars undergo carbon fusion, with their lives ending in

a core-collapse supernova explosion.

7. Rotation

The rotation rate of stars can be approximated through spectroscopicmeasurement, or more exactly determined by tracking the rotation rate ofstar spots.

Young stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than 100 km/s at the equator. The B-

class star Achernar, for example, has an equatorial rotation velocity of about 225 km/s or

greater, giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50% larger than the distance

between the poles. This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km/s

where the star would break apart. By contrast, the Sun only rotates once every 25 35
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_minimumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_burning_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achernarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_burning_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_minimumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_loophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starspot


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days, with an equatorial velocity of 1.994 km/s. The star's magnetic field and the stellar

wind serve to slow down a main sequence star's rate of rotation by a significant amount

as it evolves on the main sequence.

8. Temperature

The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of

energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the

star's color index. It is normally given as the effective temperature, which is the

temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per

surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative value,

however, as stars actually have a temperature gradient that decreases with increasing

distance from the core. The temperature in the core region of a star is several

million kelvins.

The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energization or ionization of

different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The

surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption

features, is used to classify a star.

III. ConstellationsEver since people first wandered the Earth, great significance has been given to

the celestial objects seen in the sky. Throughout human history and across many different

cultures, names and mythical stories have been attributed to the star patterns in the night

sky, thus giving birth to what we know as constellations.

When were the first constellations recorded? Archaeological studies have

identified possible astronomical markings painted on the walls in the cave system at

Lascaux in southern France. Our ancestors may have recorded their view of the night sky

on the walls of their cave some 17 300 years ago. It is thought that the Pleiades star

cluster is represented alongside the nearby cluster of the Hyades. Was the first ever

depiction of a star pattern made over seventeen millennia ago? (Rappenglck 1996)

The ancient Greeks were the first to describe over half of the 88 constellations recognised

by the IAU today. Forty eight of the constellations we know were recorded in the seventh

and eighth books of Claudius Ptolemys Almagest, although the exact origin of these

constellations still remains uncertain. Ptolemys descriptions are probably strongly

influenced by the work of Eudoxus of Knidos in around 350 BC. Between the 16th and

17th century AD, European astronomers and celestial cartographers added new
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constellations to the 48 previously described by Ptolemy; these new constellations were

mainly new discoveries made by the Europeans who first explored the southern

hemisphere.

Andromeda Antlia Apus

Aquarius Aquila Ara

Aries Auriga Botes

Caelum Camelopardalis Cancer

Canes Venatici Canis Major Canis Minor

Capricornus Carina Cassiopeia

Centaurus Cepheus Cetus

Chamaeleon Circinus Columba

Coma Berenices Corona Austrina Corona Borealis

Corvus Crater Crux

Cygnus Delphinus Dorado

Draco Equuleus Eridanus

Fornax Gemini Grus

Hercules Horologium Hydra

Hydrus Indus Lacerta

Leo Leo Minor Lepus

Libra Lupus Lynx

Lyra Mensa Microscopium

Monoceros Musca Norma

Octans Ophiuchus Orion

Pavo Pegasus Perseus
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Perseus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pegasus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pavo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Orion.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ophiuchus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Octans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Norma.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Musca.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Monoceros.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Microscopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Mensa.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lyra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lynx.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lupus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Libra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lepus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Leo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Lacerta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Indus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydrus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hydra.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Horologium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Hercules.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Grus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Gemini.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Fornax.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Eridanus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Equuleus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Draco.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Dorado.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Delphinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cygnus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crux.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Crater.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corvus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Borealis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Corona_Austrina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Coma_Berenices.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Columba.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Circinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Chamaeleon.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cetus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cepheus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cassiopeia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Carina.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Capricornus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canis_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Canes_Venatici.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Cancer.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Camelopardalis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Caelum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Bootes.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Auriga.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aries.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ara.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquila.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Aquarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Apus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Antlia.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Andromeda.html


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Phoenix Pictor Pisces

Piscis Austrinus Puppis Pyxis

Reticulum Sagitta Sagittarius

Scorpius Sculptor Scutum

Serpens Sextans Taurus

Telescopium Triangulum Triangulum Australe

Tucana Ursa Major Ursa Minor

Vela Virgo Volans

Vulpecula

IV. Galaxies

Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is typical: it has hundreds of billions of stars, enough gas and

dust to make billions more stars, and at least ten times as much dark matter as all the stars and

gas put together. And its all held together bygravity.

Like more than two-thirds of the known galaxies, the Milky Way has a spiral shape. At

the center of the spiral, a lot of energy and, occasionally, vivid flares. are being generated. Basedon the immense gravity that would be required explain the movement of stars and the energy

expelled, the astronomers conclude that the center of the Milky Way is a supermassive black

hole.

Other galaxies have elliptical shapes, and a few have unusual shapes like toothpicks or

rings. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) shows this diversity. Hubble observed a tiny patchof sky (one-tenth the diameter of the moon) for one million seconds (11.6 days) and found

approximately 10,000 galaxies, of all sizes, shapes, and colors. From the ground, we see very

little in this spot, which is in the constellation Fornax.
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/28/image/c/http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1925-ssc2008-10b-A-Roadmap-to-the-Milky-Way-Annotated-http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/blackhole_slumber.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/07/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2004/07/http://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://chandra.harvard.edu/xray_sources/blackholes_sm.htmlhttp://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2008/blackhole_slumber.htmlhttp://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1925-ssc2008-10b-A-Roadmap-to-the-Milky-Way-Annotated-http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2005/sgra/http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2009/28/image/c/http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vulpecula.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Volans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Virgo.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Vela.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Minor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Ursa_Major.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Tucana.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum_Australe.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Triangulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Telescopium.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Taurus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sextans.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Serpens.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scutum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sculptor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Scorpius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagittarius.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Sagitta.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Reticulum.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pyxis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Puppis.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Piscis_Austrinus.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pisces.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Pictor.htmlhttp://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Phoenix.html


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Galaxy Constellation Origin of name Notes

Milky Way

GalaxySagittarius(centre)

This is the galaxy that containsEarth, it is

named after the nebulosity in the night sky that

marks the densest concentration of stars of our

galaxy in the sky, which appears to blur

together into a faint glow, called theMilky

Way.

Andromeda Andromeda

Commonly justAndromeda, this, called

theAndromeda Galaxy,Andromeda

Nebula,Great Andromeda Nebula,Andromeda

Spiral Nebula, and such, has been traditionally

called Andromeda, after the constellation in

which it lies.

Bode's

GalaxyUrsa Major

Named forJohann Elert Bodewho discovered

this galaxy in 1774.

Cartwheel

GalaxySculptor

Its visual appearance is similar to that of a

spoked cartwheel.

Cigar

GalaxyUrsa Major Appears similar in shape to acigar.

Comet

GalaxySculptor

This galaxy is named after its unusual

appearance, looking like a comet.

The comet effect is caused by

tidal stripping by its galaxy

cluster,Abell 2667.

Hoag's

ObjectSerpens Caput

This is named afterArt Hoag, who discovered

thisring galaxy.

It is of the subtypeHoag-type

galaxy, and may in fact be

apolar-ring galaxywith the ring in

the plane of rotation of the central

object.

Large

Magellanic

Cloud

Dorado/Mensa Named afterFerdinand Magellan

This is the fourth largest galaxy in

theLocal Group, and forms a pair

with theSMC, and from recent

research, may not be part of the

Milky Way system of satellites at

all.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensa_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorado_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar-ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoag-type_galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Hoaghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpens_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoag%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2667http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculptor_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Elert_Bodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode%27s_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way_Galaxy


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Small

Magellanic

Cloud

Tucana Named afterFerdinand Magellan

This forms a pair with the LMC,

and from recent research, may not

be part of the Milky Way system

of satellites at all.

Mayall's

ObjectUrsa Major

This is named afterNicholas U. Mayall, of

theLick Observatory, who discovered it.[6][7][8]

Also calledVV 32andArp 148,

this is a very peculiar looking

object, and is likely to be not one

galaxy, but two galaxies

undergoing a collision. Event in

images is a spindle shape and a

ring shape.

Pinwheel

GalaxyUrsa Major Similar in appearance to apinwheel (toy).

Sombrero

GalaxyVirgo Similar in appearance to asombrero.

Sunflower

GalaxyCanes Venatici

Tadpole

GalaxyDraco

The name comes from the resemblance of the

galaxy to atadpole.

This shape resulted from tidal

interaction that drew out a long

tidal tail.

Whirlpool

GalaxyCanes Venatici

From thewhirlpoolappearance this

gravitationally disturbed galaxy exhibits.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlpool_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpole_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sombrero_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_(toy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinwheel_Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_148http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VV_32&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_U._Mayallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayall%27s_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucana_(constellation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud


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V. The Universe

The universe is a huge wide-open space that holds everything from the smallest

particle to the biggest galaxy. No one knows just how big the Universe is. Astronomerstry to measure it all the time. They use a special instrument called a spectroscope to tell

whether an object is moving away from Earth or toward Earth. Based on the informationfrom this instrument, scientists have learned that the universe is still growing outward inevery direction.

Scientists believe that about 13.7 billion years ago, a powerful explosion calledthe Big Bang happened. This powerful explosion set the universe into motion and this

motion continues today. Scientists are not yet sure if the motion will stop, change

direction, or keep going forever.

VI. Space probes and their missions

Suisei

Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Suisei was part of an internatinal fleet of six Halley's comet

explorers called the Halley Armada. Suisei received its name (meaning Comet in Japanese) after launch.

It was the second of two Japanese probes launched toward Halley during the 1986 encounter. On March

8, 1986, at 13:06 UT, SUISEI approached 151,000 km in the side of the Sun away from halley's Comet,

returning ultraviolet images of the 20-million-kilometer hydrogen gas coma.

Giotto

Designed to study Comet P/Halley, Giotto was the first deep space probe launched by theEuropean Space Agency (ESA). Originally put forward as part of a joint NASA/ESA comet mission, the

United States eventually pulled out. There was little leeway for delays if the ESA planned to continue

alone. If the opportunity was missed, the next chance at Halley's Comet would be 75 years later.

Vega 2

Vega 2 - The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals:

to place advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the

Venusian atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley.

Vega 2 was the second of a set of twin missions. Discover Vega 2 mission to Venus.

Vega 1

The Vega project was an ambitious deep space Soviet mission with three major goals: to place

advanced lander modules on the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two each) in the Venusian

atmosphere, and, by using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining buses past the Comet Halley. It was a

cooperative effort among the Soviet Union and Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic

Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany.
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Redstone Rockets

The Redstone rocket was developed by Dr. Werhner von Braun and a group of US rocketry

specialists. On January 31, 1958, a modified four-stage Redstone rocket, known as Jupiter-C, lifted the

first American satellite, Explorer I, into orbit. A Redstone rocket also launched the Mercury capsules on

their sub-orbital flights in 1961, inaugurating America's human spaceflight program.

Beagle 2

Beagle 2's main mission was to search for signs of life - past or present - in the Martian soil. It

was also equipped to look for signs of water and study Mars' geology and atmosphere. Beagle 2 was

equipped with a robot sampling arm and a small "mole" (Planetary Undersurface Tool, or PLUTO) which

can be deployed by the arm and was capable of moving across the surface at a rate of about 1 cm every

5 seconds using a compressed spring mechanism.

Deep Space 2

The Deep Space 2 (DS2) project was a New Millenium mission consisting of two probes which

were to penetrate the surface of Mars near the south polar layered terrain and send back data on thesub-surface properties.

Fobos 1

Fobos 1, and its companion spacecraft Fobos 2, were the next-generation in the Venera-type

planetary missions, succeeding those last used during the Vega 1 and 2 missions to comet P/Halley. Each

spacecraft, with a newly designed bus, carried twenty-four experiments provided by thirteen countries

and the European Space Agency.

International Sun-Earth Explorer 3

The International Sun-Earth Explorer 3's was the 3rd of a trio of spacecraft sent into space tostudy interplanetary space. Among its accomplishments was being the first spacecraft orbit at a libration

point as well as the first to detect the solar wind approaching Earth. Later, it was renamed International

Cometary Explorer and sent to study comet Giacbini-Zinner and comet Halley. It was the first spacecraft

to fly past a comet, flying through the tail of comet Giacobini-Zinner.

Mars Astrobiology Field Lab Rover (AFL) Mission Information

The Mars Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL) will provide a major advance in astrobiology. The

mission will perform mutually confirming tests and measurements of biosignatures for past and present

habitation.

Mars Climate Orbiter

Mars Climate Orbiter was the second probe in NASA's Mars Surveyor program and was designed

to function as an interplanetary weather satellite and a communications relay for Mars Polar Lander.

The orbiter carried two science instruments: a copy of an atmospheric sounder on the Mars Observer

spacecraft lost in 1993, and a new, lightweight color imager combining wide- and medium-angle

cameras.
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Mars Global Surveyor

Mars Global Surveyor was the first successful mission to the Red Planet in two decades. The

Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) was designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the

surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. This

data will be used to investigate the surface processes, geology, distribution of material, internal

properties, evolution of the magnetic field, and the weather and climate of Mars.

Mars Observer

Seventeen years after the successful Viking 1 and Viking 2 missions, Mars Observer, the first of

the Observer series of planetary missions, was designed to study the geoscience and climate of Mars. It

was designed to carry out a high-resolution photography mission of the Red Planet over the course of a

Martian year (687 days) from a 378 x 350-kilometer polar orbit.

Mars Odyssey

The 2001 Mars Odyssey is the remaining part of the Mars Surveyor 2001 Project, which

originally consisted of two separately launched missions, The Mars Surveyor 2001 Orbiter and the MarsSurveyor 2001 Lander. The lander spacecraft was cancelled as part of the reorganization of the Mars

Exploration Program at NASA. The orbiter, renamed the 2001 Mars Odyssey, will nominally orbit Mars

for three years.

Mars Pathfinder Mission Information

The rover was named in honor of Sojourner Truth, a 19th century abolitionist and champion of

women's rights. The name was suggested by Valerie Ambroise, 12, of Bridgeport, CT. Other suggestions

included Sacagawea, Athena and Thumbelina. Sojourner rover operated for 84 days - 12 times longer

than its designed lifetime of seven days. The Mars Pathfinder was the second of NASA's low-cost

planetary Discovery missions to be launched.

Mars Polar Lander Mission Information

The Mars Surveyor '98 program is comprised of two spacecraft launched separately, the Mars

Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander. The two missions were designed to study the Martian

weather, climate, and water and carbon dioxide budget, in order to understand the reservoirs, behavior,

and atmospheric role of volatiles and to search for evidence of long-term and episodic climate changes.

The last telemetry from Mars Polar Lander was sent just prior to atmospheric entry on 3 December

1999.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mission Information

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is designed to orbit Mars over a full martian year and

gather data with six scientific instruments, including a high-resolution imager. The science objectives of

the mission are to: characterize the present climate of Mars and its physical mechanisms of seasonal

and interannual climate change; determine the nature of complex layered terrain on Mars and identify

water-related landforms.
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Mars Sample Return Lander Mission Information

In the second decade of the century, NASA plans additional science orbiters, rovers and landers,

and the first mission to return samples of Martian rock and soil to Earth. Current plans call for the first

sample return mission to be launched in 2014, and a second in 2016. Options that would significantly

increase the rate of mission launch and/or accelerate the schedule of exploration are under study,

including launching the first sample return mission as early as 2011.

Mars Science Laboratory Mission Information

Mars Science Laboratory will be a long-range, long-duration mobile lab. Its mission will be to

continue the study of Martian geology from the surface and pave the way for a possible future sample

return. The lab will be delivered to Mars on the first of a new generation of smart landers.

Mars Scout 2 Mission Information

This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small

lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the

current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Marsin 2007.

Mars Scout 3 Mission Information

This next generation Mars Scout could take one of many forms - an airplane, balloon or small

lander. Scout missions are designed by the science community and will be shaped by discoveries of the

current fleet of Mars spacecraft. The first Mars Scout is Phoenix, which is scheduled to launch for Mars

in 2007.

Nozomi Mission Information

Nozomi was Japan's first mission to another planet. Nozomi means hope in Japanese. Beforelaunch, it was known as Planet-B. The orbiter weighed 541 kg (1,193 pounds), including fuel. Intended to

be Japan's first Mars orbiter, Nozomi was Japan's fourth "deep space" probe. Nozomi was to be inserted

into a highly eccentric Mars orbit with a periapsis 300 km above the surface, an apoapsis of 15 Mars

radii, and an inclination of 170 degrees with respect to the ecliptic plane.

Opportunity Mars Rover Mission Information

Opportunity traveled roughly 491 million km (305 million miles) on its journey to Mars. On the

surface, the rover moves at a top speed of 5 cm (2 inches) per second. Opportunity's panoramic camera

will reveal Mars at about the same height as an adult person. Both rovers carry a unique camera

calibration target in the shape of a sundail. Opportunity found the strongest evidence yet that liquid

water once existed on the surface of Mars. It is one of the two rovers launched to Mars in mid-2003.
http://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/opportunitymiss.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/nozomimission.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout3info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marsscout2info.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marslabinfo.htmhttp://space.about.com/od/spacemissions/p/marssampret.htm


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VII. Achievements in space explorations

Date Achievement Details

07/05/1687 Publication of Principia

The English astronomer Sir Isaac newton publishes

the Philosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This

three-volume work outlines Newton's three laws of

motion as well

December 17, 1904First Exposition of Rocket

Mechanics

The British mathematician William Moore

publishes Treatise on the Motion of Rockets. This work

features the first exposition of rocket mechanics based on

Newton's third law of motion.

March 17, 1905 Publication of Principia

Russian rocket scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky publishes

The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction

Devices. This is the first serious work to be published that

shows space exploration to be theoretically possible.

March 28, 1905 Goddard's Rocket Patents

U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard receives two

landmark patents for rockets. The first described a multi-stage rocket and the second described a rocket fueled with

gasoline and liquid nitrous oxide. These two patents would

become major milestones in the history of rocketry.

April 2, 1905Goddard's Famous

Publication

Robert Goddard publishes A Method of Reaching Extreme

Altitudes. The book describes Goddard's mathematical

theories of rocket flight and his research into solid-fuel

and liquid-fuel rockets. It is regarded by many as one of

the most important works in the science of rocketry and is

believed to have influenced the work of German rocket

pioneers Hermann Oberth and Wernher von Braun.

April 7, 1905Soviet Rocket Society

Established

The Soviet Union establishes the Society for Studies ofInterplanetary Travel. This group would soon be renamed

the Society for the Study of Interplanetary

Communications and would become the first Soviet rocket

society.

March 16, 1926First Liquid Fueled Rocket

Launched

U.S. rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard launches the first

liquid fueled rocket from his Aunt Effie's farm in Auburn,

Massachusetts. The 4-foot high rocket dubbed "Nell"

reaches an altitude of 41 feet and a speed of about 60

miles per hour. The flight lasts only 2 1/2 seconds, but

paves the way for the U.S. rocket program.

April 10, 1905 Rocket Club

The Verein fr Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel) is

formed as an association of amateur rocket enthusiasts inGermany. This group brings together many of the

engineers who would eventually make important

contributions to space flight.


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April 16, 1905 Aggregate Rocket Series

Work begins in Germany on the Aggregate series of

rockets. Under the direction of German rocket scientist

Wernher von Braun, this program eventually leads to

development of the V-2 rocket, one of Nazi Germany's

most powerful weapons of destruction.

April 25, 1905 First Suborbital Flight

After two previous failures, Germany successfully launches

their V-2 rocket. It is the first man-made object to achieve

sub-orbital spaceflight, reaching an altitude of 100 km (62

miles). The V-2 is the progenitor of all modern rockets

including the U.S. Apollo program's Saturn V moon rocket.

May 10, 1946 First U.S. High Altitude Flight

The U.S. military achieves its first high-altitude space flight

using a rebuilt German V-2 rocket. Launched from the

White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, the flight

reaches an altitude of 70 miles.

May 22, 1946First American-Designed

Rocket Reaches Space

The United States launches its first American-designed

rocket. Known as the Wac Corporal, the rocket reaches the

edge of space at an altitude of 50 miles after being

launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in NewMexico.

February 20, 1947 First Animals in Space

Fruit flies become the first animals in space as a V-2 rocket

is launched from the White Sands Proving Ground. Inside

are several vials containing fruit flies, rye seeds, and

cotton seeds. The flight reaches an altitude of 60 miles,

and the payload is later retrieved intact.

August 21, 1957First Intercontinental Ballistic

Missile

The Soviet Union launches the first Intercontinental

Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Known as the R-7 Semyorka, it

travels a total distance of 6000 km (3728 miles). A

modified version of this missile would be used later to

launch the world's first artificial satellite,

October 4, 1957 First Artificial Satellite

The USSR beat the United States into space by launching

Sputnik 1. At 184 pounds, it was the world's first artificial

satellite. Sputnik transmitted radio signals back to Earth

for only a short time, but it was a major accomplishment.

November 3, 1957 First Live Animal in Space

Following the success of Sputnik 1, the Soviets launched

Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957. The spacecraft contained

a pressurized container that housed a dog named Laika.

The capsule contained a controlled atmosphere, food

supply, waste collection system and biological sensors.

Laika lived 8 days until the food supply ran out, and proved

that animals could survive in space.

January 31, 1958 First American Satellite

America launched its first satellite. Weighing only 30

pounds, Explorer 1 was launched into orbit by the Army on

a Jupiter-C rocket. The satellite contained several scientific

instruments. This mission discovered the radiation belts

surrounding the Earth.


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October 1, 1958 NASA is BornThe National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is

founded, taking over the responsibilities of the existing

National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics.

January 2, 1959First Spacecraft to Achieve

Solar Orbit

The Russian satellite Luna 1 is launched in an attempt to hit

the Moon. The spacecraft misses the Moon and is flung out

into space by the Moon's gravity. It becomes the first man-made object to achieve an orbit around the Sun.

September 12, 1959First Spacecraft to Impact on

the Moon

The Russian satellite Luna 2 is launched. On September 13, it

becomes the first man-made object to hit the Moon. The

spacecraft was sterilized to avoid contaminating the Moon

with terrestrial bacteria.

October 4, 1959 First View of Moon's Far SideThe Russian satellite Luna 3 is launched, orbiting the Moon

and photographing 70 percent of the Moon's far side.

April 1, 1960 First Weather Satellite

Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, is launched by

the United States. Two television cameras in the satellite

returned views of clouds above the Earth. Tiros 1 was only

operational for 78 days, but proved that satellites could be

useful tools for surveying weather conditions from space.

April 12, 1961 First Man in Space

Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin became the

first human to venture into space. The Vostok 1 spacecraft

made one complete orbit around Earth in 108 minutes, and

reached altitudes of 112 to 203 miles. The flight lasted only

one hour and 48 minutes.

May 5, 1961 First American in Space

On May 5, 1961, Astronaut Alan Shepard became the first

American to be launched into space. Shepard's suborbital

flight lasted only15-minutes, during which time he

experienced about 5 minutes of "weightlessness" and tested

the maneuvering capability of his Mercury capsule.

May 25, 1961President Kennedy's Historic

Speech

Just 20 days after Shepard's flight, President John F. Kennedy

made his historic speech to Congress. He challenged the

nation to land "a man on the Moon and return him safely to

Earth" before the end of the decade.

February 20, 1962 First American in Orbit

Astronaut John H. Glenn was launched into orbit aboard an

Atlas D rocket, where he became the first American to orbit

the Earth. Glenn made a total of 3 complete orbits, and the

flight time was 4 hours and 56 minutes.

March 18, 1965 First Space Walk

Commander Pavel I. Belyayeu and Pilot Alexei A. Leonov into

Earths orbit were launched into orbit aboard Voskhod 2.

Alexei Leonov performed the first, tethered space walk

outside of his spacecraft while in Earths orbit. This historic

venture into space lasted a mere 12 minutes.

July 14, 1965 First Close-up Images of MarsMariner 4 arrived at Mars and gave scientists their first views

of the planet at close range. The resulting photos showed no

sign of the famous "canals" and no evidence of life.


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February 3, 1966first Spacecraft to land on

the Moon

The Russian spacecraft Luna 9 completed a 250,000-mile trip

and successfully became the first spacecraft to soft-land on

the Moon. Luna 9 transmitted pictures of the Moon's surface

back to Earth. The mission demonstrated that the Moon's

surface was strong enough to support the weight of a large

spacecraft.

June 2, 1966 First American Spacecraft onthe Moon

Surveyor 1 became the first American spacecraft to soft-land

on the Moon. After a journey of 63 hours and 36 minutes,

Surveyor 1 successfully landed only 9 miles off its target in

the Oceanus Procellarum. The spacecraft transmitted more

than 11,000 high-resolution photographs before its energy

sources were depleted.

January 27, 1967 First U.S. Space Tragedy

During a routine test on the launch pad, a spark caused a fire

to start in the crew compartment of the command module.

Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed in this

tragic incident. It was later determined that faulty wiring

caused the spark, and the pure oxygen environment in the

capsule was to blame for the rapid spreading of the blaze.

April 23, 1967 First Spaceflight CasualtySoviet Soyuz 1 is launched, carrying Vladimir M. Komarov. On

April 24 it crashed, killing Komarov, the first spaceflight

fatality.

October 18, 1967 First Venus ProbeThe Soviet probe Venera 4 sends a descent capsule into the

Venusian atmosphere, returning data about its composition.

September 15, 1968 First Moon OrbitThe Soviet Zond 5 is launched. It becomes the first spacecraft

to orbit the Moon and return.

October 11, 1968 First Manned Apollo MissionApollo 7 is the first manned Apollo mission with Walter M.

Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and Walter Cunningham. It orbited

the Earth once.

December 21, 1968 First Manned Moon Orbit

Apollo 8 is launched with Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr.

and William A. Anders, the first Apollo to use the Saturn V

rocket, and the first manned spacecraft to orbit the Moon,

making 10 orbits on its 6-day mission.

July 20, 1969 First Manned Moon LandingApollo 11 makes the first successful soft landing on the

Moon. Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, Jr. become the first

human beings to set foot on another world.

April 11, 1970 Apollo 13 Launch

Apollo 13 is launched, suffering an explosion in its SM oxygen

tanks. Its Moon landing is aborted, and the crew, James A.

Lovell, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr. and Fred W. Haise, Jr., returns

safely after several harrowing days in space.

September 12, 1970First Automated Return of

Lunar Soil

The Soviet Luna 16 is launched, conducting the first

successful return of lunar soil samples by an automatic

spacecraft.

November 17, 1970 First Robotic Lunar Mission

Luna 17 lands on the Moon, with the first automatic robot,

Lunokhod 1. Driven by a five-man team on Earth, the craft

travels over the lunar surface for 11 lunar days (322 Earth

days). During this time, it returns 20,000 TV images and 206

high-resolution panoramas in addition to performing a host

of experiments including soil analysis.


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December 15, 1970 First Landing on Venus

The Soviet Venera 7 is the first probe to soft-land on Venus,

transmitting for 23 minutes. The spacecraft send back a few

images of the planet's surface before succumbing to the

extreme heat and pressure of Venusian atmosphere.

April 19, 1971 First Space StationThe Salyut 1 space station is launched by the U.S.S.R. It

remains in orbit until May 28, 1973.

June 6, 1971First Occupation of Space

Station

Soyuz 11 carried Cosmonauts G.T. Dobrovolsky, V.N. Volkov,

and V.I. Patsayev to Salyut 1, the first manned occupancy of

an orbital station. Tragically, on June 29, the Cosmonauts

died upon Soyuz 11's reentry.

July 30, 1971 First Lunar Rover Mission

Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin drive the

first moon rover while exploring the Moon's surface. The next

year, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt drives a similar

rover.

November 13, 1971First Spacecraft to Orbit

Another Planet

American space probe Mariner 9 (launched May 30, 1971) is

the first spacecraft to orbit another planet, Mars. Over the

next year, it maps 100 percent of the Martian surface.

December, 1972 First Black Hole CandidateAstronomers designate Cignus X-1 as the first probable black

hole This binary star system emits strong bursts as X-rays as

matter is crushed out of existence by the black hole.

May 14, 1973 First U.S. Space StationThe United States launches Skylab, the first U.S. space

station. It will be occupied by three crews and be an

important arena for a number of scientific experiments.

May 25, 1973 First Skylab CrewThe United States launches Skylab 2, carrying the first crew to

visit Skylab. The crew repairs damage sustained by Skylab

station during its launch.

July 17, 1975 First International SpaceRendezvous

American Apollo (18) and Soviet Soyuz 19 dock in what is the

first international spacecraft rendezvous. Known as theApollo-Soyuz Test Project, this important mission proved that

U.S. and Russian crews could work together successfully in

space.

October, 1975 First Surface Images of VenusSoviet Venera 9 and 10 send the first pictures of the Venusian

surface to Earth.

July 20, 1976 First Surface Images of MarsThe first pictures of the surface of Mars are sent back to

Earth by Viking 1, the first U.S. spacecraft to successfully land

a on another planet.

September, 1976

Discovery of Water Frost on

Mars

Viking 2 lands on Mars on the Plain of Utopia, where it

discovers water frost and sends back stunning images of theMartian surface.

August-September, 1977Launch of Historic Voyager

Missions

The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft leave Earth to meet

with Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980.


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December, 1978 U.S. Probes Arrive at VenusTwo U.S. Pioneer spacecraft reach Venus. One drops four

probes into the atmosphere, while the other maps the

surface.

March 5, 1979 Voyager 1 Arrives at JupiterThe U.S. Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at

Jupiter and begins sending back amazing images of the giant

planet and its moons.

July 9, 1979 Voyager 2 Arrives at JupiterThe U.S. Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at

Jupiter and

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