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Lewis-Palmer High School Guide for Punctuation Rules

COMMAS

1. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so) that joins

two independent clauses of a compound sentence.

Ex. School will start this Monday, and I am excited to meet my new teachers.

Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that does not join two

independent clauses of a compound sentence.

Incorrect example: I studied for my test, and scored a perfect 100 percent.

2. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins items in a series (defined as a

series consisting of three or more words).

Ex. I had bacon, eggs, toast, and orange juice for breakfast.

Please note that the comma before the coordinating conjunction is called an Oxford

comma. With traditional American English, the use of this comma is not optional: it

must be used before the coordinating conjunction that is joining the items in a series;

however, in journalism and British English, the Oxford comma is omitted.

Incorrect use of the Oxford comma in American English: My favorite subjects are

English, math and science.

3. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause (also called a subordinate clause) that

introduces a complex or a compound-complex sentence. Adverb or subordinate clauses begin

with subordinating conjunctions.

Ex. Since it rained five inches in one hour, the area is experiencing extreme flooding.

Do not place a comma before a subordinating conjunction that introduces an

introductory adverb clause located at the end of a complex or a compound-complex

sentence.

Incorrect example: I had only studied for one hour, before I took the exam.

Please note: You many begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction because as

long as “because” introduces an adverb clause at the beginning of a complex or a

compound-complex sentence.

Ex. Because I have a job and saved my money, I was able to purchase my own car.

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Please note: Make sure that the adverb clause is not an elliptical clause. When you begin

a dependent clause with a subordinating conjunction, a noun functioning as the subject of

the dependent clause must always follow the subordinating conjunction. The use of

elliptical clauses is grammatically incorrect.

Example of an elliptical clause: When studying, I prefer to listen to music.

Correction: When I study, I prefer to listen to music. (The subject has correctly been placed

after the subordinating conjunction that introduces the dependent adverb clause.)

4. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are two or more

adjectives of equal rank that modify the same noun.

There are two ways to determine whether the adjectives are coordinate. The first way

is to separate the two adjectives with the word “and.” If the word “and” can be inserted

between the adjectives, the adjectives are coordinate and must be separated with a

comma.

Ex. “I own a big, black dog” can be read as “I own a big and black dog.” Because you can

insert the word “and” between the two adjectives, you must separate these coordinate

adjectives with a comma.

The second way is to interchange the order of the adjectives. The same sentence can

read: “I own a black, big dog.” By interchanging the adjectives without changing the

meaning of the sentence, one recognizes that the adjectives are coordinate and must be

separated with a comma.

Please note in the sentence “ I love my pale blue jacket,” that the adjectives pale and

blue are not coordinate and, therefore, should not be separated with a comma as the

sentences “ I love my pale and blue jacket” and “I love my blue pale jacket” do not make

sense.

5. Place a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase and/or phrases that are four or

more words long.

Ex. At the beginning of every class, the teacher takes attendance. (Use a comma

because the introductory prepositional phrases consist of six words.)

Ex. After school I walk home every day. (No commas are needed because the

introductory prepositional phrase is only two words long.)

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Please note: Do not place commas around internal prepositional phrase unless they are

used parenthetically. (Refer to Rule #12 for comma usage with parenthetical

expressions.)

Incorrect usage: My favorite teacher, in elementary school, was Ms. Blackwell.

6. Place a comma after an introductory adverb or adverb phrase.

Ex. Recently, I learned that I have developed an affinity for classic literature.

Ex. Often times, I disagree with my father’s viewpoints about politics.

7. Place a comma after an introductory participle or participial phrase or an introductory

infinitive or infinitive phrase that functions as an adjective.

Ex. Defeated, the team left the court. (Introductory participle)

Running down the hall, the student slipped and fell. (Introductory participial phrase)

To succeed, one must be willing to take risks. (Introductory infinitive functioning as an

adjective)

To do one’s best, one must exert himself. (Introductory infinitive phrase functioning as

an adjective)

To do one’s best is to take pride in one’s work. (No comma is needed because the

introductory infinitive phrase is functioning as a noun or as the subject of the sentence.)

8. Place a comma around an internal nonessential or nonrestrictive participial phrase. A

nonessential or nonrestrictive phrase is not essential to the meaning of the sentence: it simply

provides additional information that can be omitted from the sentence without changing the

meaning of that sentence.

Ex. The band playing old music captivated the audience’s attention. Because the

participial phrase “playing old music” distinguishes this particular band from all other

bands, the phrase is restrictive or essential and cannot be removed from the sentence

without changing the meaning of the sentence; therefore, no commas have been used.

Ex. Mr. Smith, acting his usual self, often uses sarcasm to emphasize his point. In this

sentence the essential point is that Mr. Smith often uses sarcasm to emphasize his

point. The phrase “acting his usual self” offers only additional, unnecessary information

that can be omitted from the sentence without changing its meaning; therefore, no

commas have been used around this nonessential or nonrestrictive participial phrase.

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9. Place a comma after an introductory interjection that expresses a mild emotion or after

introductory words such as oh, yes, no, or well.

Ex. Wow, that feat was an incredible. (introductory interjection expressing a mild

emotion)

If the interjection expresses a stronger emotion, place an exclamation point after it.

Ex. Wow! I cannot believe that you lied to me (introductory interjection expressing a

stronger emotion.)

Ex. Well, I agree with you.

10. Place a comma after a noun of direct address (a noun that names or directly speaks to the

reader.)

Ex. Class, please be quiet.

Ex. I believe, Bill, that you have clearly expressed your viewpoints.

11. Place commas around a nonessential or nonrestrictive relative clause (also called an

adjective clause.) Relative clauses begin with relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which,

and that) or relative adverbs (common relative adverbs are why, where, and when). If the

clause is nonessential of nonrestrictive, it could be omitted with no loss of clarity and would not

change the meaning of the sentence if it were omitted.

Ex. Elizabeth Blackwell taught at the school which was affiliated with the New York

Infirmary. In this case no comma is needed as the clause is essential because it

identifies the school where Ms. Blackwell taught.

Ex. Mr. Anderson, who is our principal, is visiting the Bahamas during his summer

vacation. Commas are needed here as the clause provides additional information about

Mr. Anderson. We do not need the clause to clarify or to provide any additional

information about Mr. Anderson.

Ex. The town where I live is quite rural. No commas are needed because the clause is

restrictive as it identifies the particular town in which the person lives.

12. Place commas around parenthetical expressions. Parenthetical expressions provide

additional, nonessential information that is often used to create sentence variety. There are

four types of parenthetical expressions: a conjunctive adverb used parenthetically (the

conjunctive adverb is not joining two independent clauses), a short subject-verb pattern used

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to create sentence variety, a nonessential prepositional phrase used parenthetically, or an

nonessential internal adverb or subordinate adverb clause used parenthetically.

Ex. I do, therefore, plan to contact you this Friday. (Conjunctive adverb used

parenthetically.)

Ex. This task, I believe, is quite challenging. (Short subject-verb pattern used

parenthetically.)

Ex. Bill, for the first time in life, was quite confident about his decision. (The

prepositional phrase is nonessential as it provides additional, unnecessary information

about Bill.)

Ex. It was evident, although it was somewhat surprising, that the teacher was confused

by the students’ questions. (The adverb clause is nonessential as it provides additional,

unnecessary information which would not change the meaning of the sentence if the

clause were removed from the sentence.)

13. Place commas around an absolute phrase. An absolute phrase is a group of words

consisting of (1) a noun or pronoun followed by a participle and any of its modifiers, (2) a

prepositional phrase in which the preposition has been dropped, (3) a noun followed another

noun in which to be has been omitted, and (4) a noun followed by a noun which is followed by a

participle.

Example of number 1: Their reputation as winners secured by victory, the New York

Liberty charged into the semifinals.

The two superstars signed autographs after the movie premiere, their faces beaming

brightly.

Example of number 2: He walked quietly down the street, his hands in his pockets.

Coach Hastings strolled onto the courts, her arms crossed and a large silver whistle

clenched between her teeth.

Example of number 3:

The season over, the team was mobbed by the fans in Times Square.

Stars all their adult lives, they seemed accustomed to the attention.

Example of number 4: I disapprove of his behavior, his rude comments mocking the

other students in class.

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14. Place commas around a nonessential or nonrestrictive appositive or appositive phrase. A

nonessential appositive merely adds information about the noun or pronoun that it renames

while an essential appositive limits or defines the noun or pronoun that it renames.

Ex. Toni Morrison’s fifth novel, Beloved, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1988. Since the word

“fifth” identifies which particular novel is being described, the appositive merely adds

additional information about that novel and is, therefore, nonessential.

Ex. Toni Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye is about an African American girl who longs to

have blue eyes. If you were to remove the title of the novel, you would not be able to

address which novel is being described; therefore, the appositive is essential, and no

commas should be used.

15. Use a comma to replace an omitted word or words.

Ex. Studies show that women are more inclined to try to build rapport; men, to give

direct orders. A comma is used to replace the implied, omitted words, “are more

inclined.”

16. Use commas around antithetical phrases that begin with words such as not and unlike.

Ex. American women, unlike American men, tend to earn lower salaries.

Ex. The substance, not the style, is important.

17. Place commas around a title or a business abbreviation.

Ex. Joe Smith, CEO of Blair Enterprises, is known throughout the world.

18. Place a comma after an informal salutation of a friendly letter and the closing of any

letter.

Ex. Dear Mary,

I am pleased to learn that your health has improved.

Your friend, Amy

19. Place commas between the day of the month and the year of the month. If you have used

the year in a date within the sentence, place a comma after the year.

Ex. I was born on October 15, 1942. (The comma separates the day from the year.)

Ex. The results were published on December 1, 2012, and were not highly regarded by

the general public. (The comma is placed after the year in a date within a sentence.)

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20. Use a comma to separate the street, city, and state in addresses and place names.

Ex. Lewis-Palmer High School is located at 1300 Higby Road, Monument, CO.

21. Use commas in numbers consisting of more than three digits to denote thousands; do not

use commas in numbers consisting of more than three digits if the digits denote calendar years.

Ex. In 1999 (no comma because the digits indicate a calendar year) the population of

Eureka, California, was almost 150,000 (a number that denotes thousands and which

has more than three digits).

22. Use a comma to introduce an informal quotation.

Ex. My teacher told the class, “There will be a pop quiz on adverbs on Thursday.”

Please note: If you are introducing a formal quote, use a colon, not a comma.

Ex. John F. Kennedy exclaimed: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what

you can do for your country.”

23. Place commas around tag questions. Tag questions are rhetorical questions located at the

end of a statement.

Ex. Andy should be allowed to vote, should he not?

Ex. They do not expect us to finish, do they?

COMMON MISUSES OF COMMAS

1. Do not use a comma to separate two independent clauses. This type of error is called a

comma splice.

Ex. of misuse: I love vanilla ice cream, chocolate ice cream is my favorite, though.

2. Do not place a comma between the subject and the verb of an independent clause or

between the verb and the object of an independent clause.

Ex. of misuse: The students at the pep assembly, cheered loudly for the state

championship team. (Misuse of a comma separating the subject from the verb.)

Ex. of misuse: The teacher awarded, the students with a day off. (Misuse of a comma

separating the verb and its object.)

3. Do not place a comma before an indirect quotation. An indirect quotation is not a direct

quotation: it is a paraphrasing or an interpretation of a direct quote or statement.

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Ex. of misuse: The report concluded, that dieting sometimes can be more harmful than

overeating.

4. Do not place commas around the words such as when an explanation follows.

Ex. of misuse: You have several structural errors in your paper such as, parallel

structure, dangling participles, and elliptical clauses.

FOR THE MOST PART, WRITERS TEND TO BE “COMMA HAPPY” BY

USING TOO MANY NEEDLESS COMMAS. IF YOU DO NOT KNOW THE

RULE JUSTIFYING THE PLACEMENT OF A COMMA, MORE THAN

LIKELY, NO COMMA SHOULD BE USED.

SEMI-COLONS

1. Use a semi-colon to separate two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.

Ex. I enjoy math; I tend to like science much better. (The two independent clauses are

related in meaning as they both name subjects that the writer enjoys.)

2. Place a semi-colon before a conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

Ex. I have been saving my money to purchase a car; however, I still need to save two-

thousand more dollars.

Please note that conjunctive adverbs must join independent clauses; if they do not join

two independent clauses, they are then parenthetical expressions.

3. Place a semicolon before a coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses if

either of those clauses contains a comma.

Ex. Before you send in your application, make sure that you carefully proofread it; and

then you can submit it electronically.

Ex. I have lived in twelve different states; but my favorite place to live is Colorado

Springs, Colorado.

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4. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series if one or more of those items contain

commas.

Ex. The teams who are expected to be playoff contenders are Denver, who has an

experienced quarterback; New England, the defending Super Bowl Champions; and

Green Bay.

Ex. The custody case involved Amy Vandemeer, the child; Ellen and Mark Hansen, the

adoptive parents; and Ruth and Andrew Vandemeer, the maternal grandparents.

5. Use a semicolon to separate a series of independent clauses (three or more).

Ex. I awakened; I ran down the stairs; and I saw a brand new bicycle under the

Christmas tree.

6. Place a semicolon before and a comma after words such as namely, i.e., that is, in fact, on

the contrary, for example, and for instance when an explanation follows.

Please note that this explanation does not need to be a complete sentence.

Ex. I am proud of how responsible you have recently been; for example, your calling your

parents when you knew that you were going to be late.

COMMON MISUSES OF SEMICOLONS

1. Do not use a semicolon to separate an independent clause from a phrase or dependent

clause.

Ex. of misuse: Daniel likes to search the Web for travel stories about Route 66; a route

he would like to travel himself one day. (This semicolon has been misused as it is

separating an independent clause from an appositive phrase.)

Ex. of misuse: Pygmies are in danger of extinction; because of encroaching

development. (This semicolon has been misused as it separates an independent clause

from a prepositional phrase.)

2. Do not use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses when the second clause

explains or defines something in the first clause.

Ex. I forgot my lunch money: I was so focused on getting to school early to study for my

test that I forgot to ask my parents for money. (Because the second independent

defines or explains why the writer forgot his money, the independent clauses must be

separated by a colon.)

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JUST REMEMBER: SEMICOLONS WILL ALWAYS SEPARATE

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES UNLESS THEY ARE USED TO SEPARATE

ITEMS IN A SERIES THAT ALREADY CONTAIN COMMAS.

COLONS

1. Use a colon to introduce a list.

Ex. You will need the following materials for class: a three-ring binder filled with loose-

leaf paper, a folder, pens, and pencils.

Never place a colon after a list that is introduced by a verb or a preposition.

Incorrect example: The ingredients include: flour, eggs, vanilla, water, and blueberries.

(The list is introduced by a verb.)

Incorrect example: The camping supplies consist of: a tent, a sleeping bag, a flashlight, and

various cooking utensils. (The list is introduced by a preposition.)

2. Use a colon after an independent clause when an explanation or definition follows: this

explanation may or may not be an independent clause.

Ex. Ben was pleasantly surprised with the results of the competition: he had won the

award for creativity. (The second independent clause explains why Ben was surprised.)

Ex. Soul food has a deceptively simple definition: the ethnic cooking of African

Americans. (The words ethnic cooking of African Americans explain what the definition

is.)

Ex. Soul food has one distinct disadvantage: fat. (The word fat explains or defines the

disadvantage.)

3. Use a colon to introduce a formal quote or a long quotation.

Ex. Douglas Adams remarked: “First, we thought that the PC was a calculator…then, we

discovered graphics, and we thought it was a television. With the World Wide Web,

we’ve realized it’s a brochure.” (The colon introduces a long quotation.)

Ex. Gandhi stated: “Be the change that you wish to see in the world."

4. Use a colon after the salutation of a formal business letter.

Ex. Dear Mr. Saunders:

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Ex. To whom it may concern:

5. Use a colon between numerals that indicate hours and minutes.

Ex. 10:20 a.m. 9:30 p.m.

6. Use a colon between the chapter and verse from a religious work.

Ex. Job 3:2-4 (the bible); Qur’an 75:22 (the Qur’an); Mishnah Bikkurim 3:6-7 (the

Talmud)

COMMON MISUSES OF A COLON

1. Do not place a colon after a verb, preposition, or the words such as or including to introduce

a list.

Ex. of misuse: The best-known soul dishes are: fried chicken and barbecued spareribs.

(incorrectly placing a colon after a verb)

Soul food recipes can be found in: mainstream cookbooks as well as in specialized

references. (incorrectly placing a colon after a preposition)

Many Americans have not tasted delicacies such as: chitlins and black-eyed peas.

(incorrectly placing a colon after the words such as)

Soul food is popular in many Southern states including: Alabama, Louisiana, and

Georgia. (incorrectly placing a colon after the word including)

HYPHENS

1. Use a hyphen between syllables in a word when part of that word must be carried over to the next line. Use the following guidelines to avoid incorrectly dividing words at the end of lines: Do not divide words that are one syllable long. (Pearl cannot be divided.)

Leave at least two letters on the first line and three letters on the second line. If a word cannot be divided in this manner, do not divide it. (Ex. a-bus-er) Correct divisions: pi-ano and ici-cle

2. Use hyphens in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

Ex. thirty-two forty-five sixty-six

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3. Use hyphens to write out fractions.

Ex. My modem is only one-third as fast as my father’s modem. 4. Use hyphens in compound nouns.

Ex. great-grandfather brother-in-law 5. Hyphenate a compound adjective that appears before the noun that it modifies; if the compound adjective appears after the noun that it modifies, it is not hyphenated.

Ex. The well-groomed dog won the competition. (The compound adjective appears before the noun that it is modifying.)

Ex. The dog is well groomed. (The compound adjective is not hyphenated because it is placed after the noun that it modifies.)

6. Use a hyphen with the prefixes of suffixes ex-, quasi-, and –elect.

Ex. ex-patriot quasi-modern president-elect 7. Do not use a hyphen with the prefixes pre-, pro-, or re-.

Ex. preplanning professional recovery 8. Use a hyphen with any prefix or suffix that has been added to a proper noun or proper adjective.

Ex. post-Reagan administrations anti-American sentiment 9. Use a hyphen with any prefix of suffix that creates a word with a double vowel or triple consonant.

Ex. ultra-agitated (double vowel) bell-like (triple consonant) 10. If you must break an electronic address--for instance, in a source citation--do so only after a slash. Do not use a hyphen as the readers may perceive any added hyphen as part of the electronic address.

Use http://library.miami.edu/staff/lmc/ socrace.html

Do not use http://library.miami.edu/staff/lmc/soc- race.html

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DASHES

1. Use dashes to set off explanatory, supplementary, or parenthetical or nonessential material in sentences. Also, use dashes to indicate shifts or hesitations in sentences. The dash is mainly a mark of interruption: it signals a shift, interruption, or break in your sentence. In your papers form a dash with two hyphens (--) or use the character called an em dash (check the character maps or help file for inserting an em dash) on your word processor. Do not add extra space around or between the hyphens or around the em dash.

Ex. Marty was troubled by the bane of every Web surfer--a frozen screen. (explanation)

Ex. The novel--if one can call it that--appeared in 1999. (shift or hesitation)

Ex. Though they are located close together--separated by only a few block--the two neighborhoods could theoretically be located in different countries. (parenthetical or nonessential)

Ex. The patient undergoes a battery of tests--CAT scan, bronchoscopy, perhaps even biopsy. (explanation)

Please note that in many cases a colon rather than a dash could be used; the dash is simply more informal.

COMMON MISUSES OF DASHES

1. The use of too many dashes is too confusing, too choppy, or too “wordy.”

Ex. of misuse: In all of his life--87 years--my great-grandfather never allowed his pictures to be taken--not even once. He claimed the “black box--the camera--would steal the show. Revised sentence: In all of his 87 years, my great-grandfather did not allow his picture to be taken even once. He claimed that the “black box”--the camera--would steal the show.

PARENTHESES

1. Uses parentheses to enclose parenthetical expressions. Parenthetical expressions include explanations, facts, digressions, and examples that may be helpful but are not essential to the meaning. Parentheses de-emphasize parenthetical expressions and, therefore, should be used sparingly.

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Ex. The population of Philadelphia (now about 1.5 million) has declined since 1950. (parenthetical expression providing explanatory or supplemental information)

2. Use parentheses to enclose labels for lists within sentences.

Ex. Outside the Middle East, the countries with the largest oil reserves are (1) Venezuela, (2) the Soviet Union, and (3) Mexico. (using enumeration to label a list in a sentence)

3. Use parentheses to set off supplementary or explanatory information that is added to a sentence.

Ex. Tech support asked the customer to bring his CPU (central processing unit) in to be repaired. (explanatory information)

Please note that a complete sentence enclosed in parentheses within another sentence does not begin with a capital letter or end with a period.

Ex. Instead, the customer brought in a packing box (tech support had told him the CPU was the box that held the disk drive). (The period is placed outside the parentheses as the sentence within the parentheses is explanatory information related to the original sentence.)

4. A parenthetical sentence that stands alone is punctuated and capitalized like any other sentence.

Ex. Andrea compiles a list of sites that feature job-hunting tips. (See Appendix B.) (parenthetical sentence standing alone)

Please note that, more often than not, writers tend to

overuse parentheses. The use of parentheses should be

avoided in formal, expository writing.

ELLIPSIS

1. Use an ellipsis mark to indicate an omission from a quotation. The ellipsis mark consists of three periods with spaces between each period (. . .).

Examples: A. Omission of the middle of the sentence: Wilson writes, “Natural ecosystems . . . maintain the world exactly as we would wish it to be maintained.”

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B. Omission of the end of the sentence without source citation: Wilson writes, “Earth is our home . . . .” (The period for the end of the sentence precedes the ellipsis mark.)

C. Omission of the end of the sentence with a source citation: Wilson writes, “Earth is our home . . .” (Jones 27). (The period for the end of the sentence follows the source citation.)

D. Omission of parts of two or more sentences: Wilson writes, “At the heart of the environmentalist world view is the conviction that human physical and spiritual health depends on sustaining the planet . . . where humanity and its ancestors existed for all the millions of years of their evolution.”

E. Omission of one or more sentences: As Wilson puts it, “At the heart of the environmentalist world view is the conviction that human physical and spiritual health depends on sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state . . . . When we debase the global environment and extinguish the variety of life, we are dismantling a support system that is too complex to understand.” (The period at the end of the first sentence precedes the ellipsis mark for the omission of the following sentence or sentences.)

F. Omission from the middle of a sentence through the end of another sentence: “Earth is our home . . . . When we debase the global environment and extinguish the variety of life, we are dismantling a support system that is too complex to understand.”

G. Omission of the beginning of a sentence in which a complete sentence follows: Original quotation: “At the heart of the environmentalist world view is the conviction that human physical and spiritual health depends on sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state."

Bracketed capital letter: “[H]uman physical and spiritual health,” Wilson writes, “depends on sustaining

the planet in a relatively unaltered state." (No ellipsis mark is needed because the brackets around the H indicate that the letter was not capitalized in the original quote; and, thus, the beginning of the sentence has been omitted.)

Small letter:

According to Wilson, “human physical and spiritual health depends on sustaining the planet in a relatively unaltered state." (No ellipsis mark is needed because the small h indicates that the beginning of the sentence has been omitted.)

H. Use of a word or phrase: Wilson describes the earth as “our home.” (No ellipsis mark is needed when you use a word or phrase from a quotation.)

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2. Use a separate line of an ellipsis mark across the full width of the quotation to show that one of more lines of poetry or paragraphs of prose from the quotation have been omitted.

Ex. In “Song: Love Armed from 1676, Aphra Behn contrasts two lover’s experiences of a romance:

Love in fantastic triumph sate, Whilst bleeding hearts around him flowed, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . But my poor heart alone is harmed, Whilst thine the victor is, and free (lines 1-2, 15-16). 3. In fiction or informal writing, an ellipsis mark indicates that a thought trails off.

Ex. Evan could have kicked himself. If only he had apologized . . .

BRACKETS

The main use of brackets is to indicate that you have altered a quotation to explain, clarify, or correct it. 1. Use brackets to enclose an explanation or comment added to quoted material.

Ex. In 1981 Bill Gates said, “640K [of RAM] ought to be enough for anybody.” (added explanation)

2. Use brackets to correct a grammatical error that appears in a direct quotation.

Ex. “Everyone forgot their [his] permission slip.” 3. Use brackets to enclose parenthetical material that appears within parentheses.

Ex. The number of job listings on the Web is growing each month (See page 35 [figure 3] for a detailed chart.) (The parenthetical information “figure 3” is additional material that appears with a sentence that already appears within parentheses.)

Sometimes, writes will use sic to indicate an error in someone’s writing or to note that there are nonstandard errors in a passage; however, the use of sic should be avoided.

Ex. of misuse: According to the newspaper report, “The car slammed thru [sic] the railing and into oncoming traffic.” Correction: According to the newspaper report, “The car clammed thru [through] the railing and into oncoming traffic.”

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SLASH

1. Use a slash between options, between lines of poetry that extend to the next line in a text, and in electronic addresses.

Ex. Some teachers oppose pass/fail courses. (indicating an option)

Ex. Many readers have sensed a reluctant acceptance of death in Frost’s lines, “The woods are lovely, dark and deep. / But I have promises to keep (13-14).

(The slash indicates a break between two lines of poetry. Please note that you space both before and after the slash only when you are separating lines of poetry.)

Ex. http://www.stanford.edu/depts./spc/spc.html (electronic address)

APOSTROPHES

1. Use an apostrophe to show the possessive form of a noun or pronoun. If you want to use the plural possessive form of a noun or pronoun, first pluralize the noun or pronoun and then make it possessive.

TYPE OF POSSESSIVE EXAMPLES

SINGULAR NOUN author’s book; boy’s toy (one boy)

Add an ‘s to the singular noun to make it possessive. PLURAL NOUN ENDING IN S: senators’ votes; the Smiths’ house

If the noun ends in s, form the possessive by adding only an apostrophe, not ‘s.

PLURAL NOUN NOT ENDING IN S people’s choice; children’s; boys’ track team (several boys)

Be sure to make the noun plural before you make it possessive.

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COMPOUND NOUN Singular: brother-in-law’s Plural: brothers-in-law’s With the possessive of compound nouns, pluralize the principal noun and then make the last word in the compound construction possessive. TWO NOUNS INDICATING JOINT OWNERSHIP Singular: Gilbert and Sullivan’s television store Plural: fathers and daughters’ picnic With the possessive form indicating joint ownership, the second noun is possessive. TWO NOUNS INDICATING INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP Singular: Doug’s and Amy’s notebooks Plural: students’ and teachers’ handbooks To indicate separate ownership with two nouns, make each noun possessive. INDEFINITE PRONOUN everyone’s responsibility; one another’s problem Add an ‘s to make the indefinite pronoun possessive. INDEFINITE PRONOUN WITH ELSE someone else’s turn; no one else’s story Add an ‘s to else to make it possessive. 2. Use the possessive form of nouns expressing measurements of time or amounts when they precede other nouns.

Ex. one month’s rent two months’ delay one dollar’s worth ten dollars’ worth (Remember to make the noun plural before you make it possessive.)

3. Use an apostrophe in contractions to show the omission of letters.

Ex. didn’t for did not she’ll for she will can’t for cannot

Please note that you should avoid the use of contractions in formal, expository writing.

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4. Use an apostrophe to indicate where sounds have been omitted in poetry or in dialects.

Ex. best o’ things “The flighty purpose never is o’ertook.” 5. DO NOT use an apostrophe to indicate the plural form of individual letters or numerals.

Ex. I received 5 As on my report card.

Ex. I have five 5s in my social security card.

Ex. There was abundant wealth in the United States during the 1920s. 6. Use an ‘s to form the plural of an abbreviation containing periods.

Ex. My teacher holds three Ph.D.’s in math. 7. Place any mark of punctuation such as a comma, period, exclamation point, semicolon, colon, etc. after the apostrophe.

Ex. The software was the girl’s, but the computer was her parents’.

COMMON MISUSES OF APOSTROPHES

1. Form the possessive of a classical or biblical name that ends in s by adding only an apostrophe.

Ex. Mars’ Xerxes’ Jesus’ Moses’ 2. Never use an apostrophe with a possessive personal pronoun. (It is hers, his, theirs, yours, ours, and its, not her’s, his’, their’s, your’s, ours’, or it’s.) Please not the possessive form of it is its (no apostrophe); it’s means “it is.” 3. DO NOT use an apostrophe to form the plural of nouns. “The books are here,” not “The books’ are here” (Books should be pluralized and not possessive.) “The Joneses have a five-bedroom home,” not “The Joneses’ have a five-bedroom home.” (Joneses should not be possessive.)

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QUOTATION MARKS

Quotation marks, either double or single, enclose direct quotations from speech or writing, enclose certain titles, or highlight words used in a special sense. 1. Use double quotation marks to enclose direct quotations.

Ex. "Life," said the psychoanalyst, "remains quite complex."

DO NOT use quotation marks with an indirect quotation in which you are paraphrasing what someone said or wrote.

Ex. of misuse: The psychoanalyst implied that "life is quite complicated." Correction: The psychoanalyst implied that life is quite complicated. (No quotation marks are needed because the writer is not directly quoting the psychoanalyst.)

Please note that when you quote a single speaker for more than one paragraph, place quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph; but only place quotation marks at the end of the last paragraph.

2. Use single quotation marks to enclose a quote within a quote.

Ex. "In formulating any philosophy," Woody Allen writes, "the first consideration must always be what can we know? Descartes hinted at the problem when he wrote, 'My mind can never know my body, although it has become quite friendly with my leg. ' "

(The words in bold have been placed within single quotation marks because they are a

quote within a quote. Please note the order of the end punctuation: a period to indicate the end the sentence, single quotation marks to indicate the end of the quote within the quote, and double quotation marks to indicate the end of the main quotation.)

3. Quotation marks may enclose words being used in a "special sense." These words would include slang words, unusual expressions, technical terms, and definitions of words.

Ex. My father said that my mother is the "bees' knees." (slang)

Ex. On movie sets movable "wild walls" make a one-walled room seem to appear as a four-walled room on film. (unusual expression)

Ex. A "bitstorm," the digital equivalent of gridlock, occurs when there is too much on-line traffic." (technical term)

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Ex. Most people know that RAM stands for "random access memory." (definition)

4. Always place commas and periods inside quotation marks.

Ex. "I will," he asserted, "try my best." (comma inside the quotation marks)

EXCEPTION: place a period or comma after a parenthetical source citation that immediately follows a quotation.

Ex. One critic calls the essay "outrageous" (Olms 26). (Period for the end of the sentence follows the citation.)

Ex. Partly because of "the cool calculation of its delivery" (Olms 27), Swift's satire still chills a modern reader. (Comma is placed after the citation.)

5. Colons and semicolons are always placed outside quotation marks.

Ex. A few years ago the slogan in elementary education was "learning by playing"; now, educators are concerned with teaching basic skills. (Semicolon is placed outside the quotation marks.)

Ex. Everyone knows the meaning of "basic skills": reading, writing, and arithmetic. (Colon is placed outside the quotation marks.)

6. Place dashes, question marks, and exclamation marks inside quotation marks if the mark of punctuation is part of the quotation.

Example in which the mark of punctuation is part of the sentence and is, therefore, placed inside the quotation marks:

"But must you --" Marcia hesitated to tell him what she was really feeling. "Go away!" I yelled. Did you say, "Who is she?"

(When both your sentence and the direct quotation end with a question mark or exclamation point, use only one mark of punctuation.)

Example in which the mark of punctuation is not part of the direct quote and is, therefore, placed outside the quotation marks:

One evocative line in English poetry --"After many a summer dies the swan" -- was coined by Alfred, Lord Tennyson.

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Who said, "Now cracks a noble heart"? The woman called me "stupid"!

COMMON MISUSES OF QUOTATION MARKS

DO NOT USE QUOTATION MARKS TO INDICATE THE TITLE OF YOUR

PAPER OR A COMMON NICKNAME.

Ex. of misuse: As President "Jimmy" Carter preferred to use his nickname. (DO NOT place "Jimmy" in quotation marks as it is a well-known nickname of President Carter.)

PLACING TITLES IN QUOTATION MARKS, UNDERLINING

TITLES, OR ITALICIZING TITLES

PLACE THE FOLLOWING TITLES IN QUOTATION MARKS:

Song Short story Short poem Article in a periodical Essay Page of document on a web site Episode of a television or radio program Subdivision of a book Minor plays

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UNDERLINE OR ITALICIZE THE FOLLOWING TITLES:

Underlining and italicizing are the same thing: if you are handwriting a title, underline it; if you are typing a title, place it in italics; BUT NEVER DO BOTH. Major plays Books Web sites Computer software Pamphlets Long musical works Television and radio programs Long poems Periodicals Published speeches Movies and videos Works of visual art Ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and trains Foreign words that have not been assimilated into the English language Newspapers

LEVELS OF MASTERY

FRESHMAN: BLACK

SOPHOMORES: ORANGE

JUNIORS: GREEN

SENIORS: BLUE

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