Міністерство освіти і науки УкраїниСумський державний університет

3508 Навчально-методичні матеріали«Going in for Law»

з дисципліни «Англійська мова»для студентів спеціальності 8.030401 «Право»

денної форми навчанняЧастина 2

СумиСумський державний університет

2013

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Навчально-методичні матеріали «Going in for Law» з дисципліни «Англійська мова». Частина 2 / укладачі: С. В. Міхно, Т. В. Початко, С. В. Початко, Л. Я. Хмелик. – Суми : Сумський державний університет, 2013. – 117 с.

Кафедра іноземних мов

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ПЕРЕДМОВАДруга частина навчально-методичних матеріалів. “Going

in for Law” (середній та високий рівень) відповідає загальноєвропейським рекомендаціям та програмі з англійської мови для професійного спілкування (АМПС). Навчальні матеріали підібрано у відповідності до основних розділів права та спеціалізованих дисциплін, які вивчаються на юридичному факультеті. Вони передбачають вдосконалення раніше набутих практичних навичок застосування іноземної мови в професійній діяльності юристів.

Метою матеріалів є: читання та переклад текстів по спеціальності, розширення юридичного термінологічного словника, розвиток мовної здогадки на базі інтернаціоналізмів, словотворення та синонімів з виходом на усну комунікацію.

Реалізація цілей здійснюється завдяки спеціально підібраним аутентичним текстам та вправам, методично організованим так, щоб сформувати комунікативну компетенцію у студентів у професійному спілкуванні.

Навчально-методичні матеріали складаються з двох розділів, кожен з яких поділений на три тематично завершені частини. Обидва розділи мають єдину структуру, що дає змогу сформувати поетапний та ціленаправлений розвиток професійних мовленнєвих вмінь та навичок студентів. Структура навчальних матеріалів відповідає дидактичному принципу поступового зростання труднощів – як лексичних, так і граматичних. У системі завдань прослідковується спадкоємність та логічна завершеність. Тому для активного засвоєння нового матеріалу, рекомендовано більшість вправ виконувати письмово та дотримуватися послідовності завдань. Майже всі вправи мотиваційно обумовлені, що проявляється в ситуативному характері як лексичних, так і граматичних завдань. Робота з базовими текстами та післятекстовими завданнями спрощується наявністю термінологічного словника. До кожного розділу підібрано додаткові матеріали з розширеною та деталізованою інформацією згідно пройденої тематики. У додатку вміщено стислий граматичний коментар щодо правил словотворення та граматичних явищ, таблицю часових форм дієслова для активного та пасивного стану.

Під час підготовки навчально-методичних матеріалів було опрацьовано велику кількість першоджерел: підручників та новітніх навчальних посібників, які відповідають сучасним вимогам програми АМПС, з яких запозичено все найбільш цінне, корисне, необхідне та цікаве для майбутніх юристів.

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UNIT 1PART I

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OF UKRAINE

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Read the text and fill in the gaps with the following figures. One figure is odd:

1654 47 million 1996 250 24 1991 603,700TEXT A

POLITICAL MAP OF UKRAINEOn 24th August, 1) ________, Ukraine proclaimed* its

independence from the USSR and began to construct a democratic state. This was a historic moment for Ukraine, as for many years its independence and culture had been in danger.

Since the collapse of Kyivan Rus, Ukraine had been under pressure from Tatar, Polish and Turkish invaders, all of them attempting to bring the people and land under one rule. This threat was reduced with the reunification* of Ukraine and Russia in 2) _________. This event happened at the Pereyaslav Rada under Bohdan Khmelnytsky’s guidance. For more than 3)__________ years Ukraine was part of Russia. In 1922 it became one of the republics of the Soviet Union.

Ukraine is the largest country in Europe. Recent figures show that 4) ___________ citizens* live in Ukraine, giving it the fifth largest population in Europe. Ethnic Ukrainians constitute 72 percent of Ukraine’s population. Other ethnic groups that are widespread in Ukraine are Russians (22 percent), Belarussians, Poles, Jews, Bulgarians, Hungarians and Tatars (less than 1 percent each).

The territory of Ukraine covers 5) ___________ square kilometres. According to the Constitution of Ukraine, the territorial structure of the country is composed of 6) ____________ regions and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, with further subdivision into districts, cities (each having its own districts), settlements and villages. The cities of Kyiv and Sevastopol possess a special status determined by law. Every city has a Mayor and a Mayor’s office.

to proclaim – проголошувати

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reunification – воз’єднанняcitizen – громадянин

Exercise 2 Match the words to their definitions and translate them.1) reunification a) independent and having the power to make

decisions;2) citizens b) those that show their choice or opinion in an

election;3) autonomous c) joining the parts of a divided group, party,

or country together again;4) proclaimed d) people who have a legal right to live in a

particular country;5) deputies e) announced something officially or publicly;6) voters f) members of the Ukrainian Parliament.Exercise 3 Read text A once again and analyse verb structures. Identify their tense forms. For references see the grammar supplement.Speaking task A: answer the questions. Use the map and give a brief presentation on Ukraine to your group.1 Which region do you live in?2 What regions surround it?3 Which countries border on Ukraine?4 How many of them used to belong to the Soviet Union?Exercise 4 Read and translate the text into Ukrainian. Exercise 5 will help you.

TEXT BCONSTITUTION OF UKRAINE

The Constitution of Ukraine was proclaimed and confirmed* on June 28, 1996 by the Verkhovna Rada. According to it Ukraine is the sovereign, independent, democratic and legal state. Ukraine is an unitarian state with single citizenship*.

The land, air space, mineral resources, water and other resources are objects of the property of the Ukrainian people. Ukraine is a republic. The people are the only source of power, which is exercised* directly and through the bodies of state power and local self-governments. The Constitution of Ukraine establishes

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the country’s political system, freedoms and duties of citizens and is the basis for its laws.

According to the Constitution every person has the right to the free development of his or her personality, and has obligations before society.

The Constitution guarantees the rights to life, non-interference in private and family life, personal inviolability and the inviolability of dwelling, free choice of residence, work, rest, education, social security, housing, health protection, medical care and medical insurance, a safe and healthy environment. In Ukraine there are no privileges or restrictions* based upon face, colour of skin, political and other beliefs, gender*, ethnic and social origin*, property*, ownership*, position*, place of residence, language, religion.Citizens have equal* constitutional rights and freedoms and are equal before law. Citizens of Ukraine perform military services in compliance* with the law.

Defense of the Motherland, the independence and territorial integrity of Ukraine, and respect for the state symbols are the duties of citizens. Every person must pay taxes in the order and amount determined* by law. No person may damage the environment and cultural heritage.

to confirm – затверджувати, схвалюватиsingle citizenship – єдине громадянствоto exercise – здійснюватиrestriction – обмеженняgender – статьorigin – походженняproperty – майноownership – власністьposition – посадаequal – рівнийin compliance – у відповідностіto determine – встановлювати

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Exercise 5 Find the English equivalents of the following words and word-combinations in text B. Learn them by heart:

1 Правова держава.2 Джерело влади.3 Місцеве самоврядування.4 Права, обов’язки та зобов’язання.5 Суспільство.6 Невтручання.7 Недоторканість.8 Особисте життя.9 Суспільна захищеність.10 Медичне обслуговування.11 Страхування.12 Довкілля.13 Рівний.14 Податки.15 Культурний спадок.

Exercise 6 Read the text again and say, whether the statements are true or false. Translate them. Correct the false statements.1 All mineral and natural resources belong to the Verkhovna Rada.2 Local self-government is the only source of power in our country.3 All citizens of Ukraine perform military services in compliance with the law.4 The Constitution guarantees only the rights of Ukrainian citizens.5 There are some restrictions in rights based upon colour of skin.6 The Constitution establishes privileges for some groups of population.Exercise 7 Use the words from the box to complete the sentences and translate them.rights sovereign preamble obligations laws

1 The Constitution of Ukraine consists of the __________, 15 chapters and 161 articles.2 The constitution guarantees the citizens the basic civil and political __________.3 Ukraine is a __________ and independent, democratic, social, legal state.

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4 The Constitutional Court resolves issues on constitutionality of __________.5 Chapter II of the Constitution of Ukraine determines the rights and _________ of the citizens of UkraineExercise 8 Complete and translate the sentences. Consult the Constitution of Ukraine if you need.1 Article 29. Every person has right to freedom and personal ___________.2 Article 43 assures the right to _______________.3 Article 48 assures the right to sufficient living ____________.4 Article53 assures the right to _____________.5 Article 68 determines the duty of every person to observe the _________ and laws of Ukraine.Exercise 9 Match the English words with their Russian / Ukrainian equivalents. Learn them by heart:1) anthem; a) стяг, прапор;2) to adopt; b) сміливість, хоробрість;3) stripes; c) свобода;4) banner; d) віршований текст;5) trident; e) додавати;6) seal; f) гімн;7) lyrics; g) справедливість;8) courage; h) символізувати;9) justice; i) приєднуватися;10) liberty; j) печатка;11) to join; k) герб;12) to add; l) смуги;13) to stand for; m) приймати;14) coat of arms; n) тризуб.Exercise 10 Read the text and do the exercises given after it.

TEXT CSTATE SYMBOLS OF UKRAINE

The National Flag first appeared in 1848. The flag has two stripes: a blue one above a yellow one. The colours are symbolic – yellow for wheat in the fields and blue for the sky above them. The flag became a symbol of the all-Ukrainian unity.

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The Ukrainian Anthem is a song called “Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished”. Its lyrics were written by Pavlo Chubynskyi and it was published in 1863. The same year it was set to music by Mykhailo Verbytskyi. The catchy melody and patriotic words made this song very popular among Ukrainians. Article 20 in the Constitution of Ukraine of 1996 defines it as the state anthem.

The National Emblem (Coat of Arms) of Ukraine is a trident – golden Tryzub on a blue shield*. It is the most ancient and dignified of all the Ukrainian symbols. Its history goes back to the first century A. D. The classic shape of the Ukrainian trident was found on the coins of Volodymyr the Great, who ruled in the 10th century. Then it was a mark of authority and a symbol of the ethnic groups which made up the Ukrainian nation.

shield – фонExercise 11 Match the dates to the symbols. 1848 the anthem1863 the emblem10th century the flagExercise 12 Match the names to the nouns they refer to according to text C.Pavlo coinsMykhailo musicVolodymyr wordsExercise 13 Read the text once again and fill in the gaps with the nouns from the list:sky melody text symbol fields

a) yellow _____________b) blue _____________c) patriotic _____________d) catchy _____________e) ancient _____________Speaking task B: answer the questions. Use them as a plan to speak about the Constitution of Ukraine.1 When was the Constitution of Ukraine adopted?2 What article of the Constitution of Ukraine guarantees the right to education?

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3 What are the rights and obligations of the citizens of Ukraine?4 What kind of state is Ukraine?5 What are the State Symbols of Ukraine?6 What is the territorial structure of Ukraine?7 What status does the Crimea have?8 When is Constitution Day celebrated in Ukraine?Creative task: every country has its national symbols. Choose one of the Ukrainian symbols and describe it in details. The texts from additional reading to unit 1 may help you. Look at the Ukrainian banknotes. Are they the same as some years ago? Which regions and landmarks are shown on them? What are they famous for?Exercise 14 Learn the different translations of the word “government”:

− державна владаlegislative government – законодавча владаexecutive government – виконавча владаjudicial government – судова влада

− державне управління, управління, керівництвоa system of a government – система державного управлінняto carry out the government of the state – здійснювати керівництво (керувати) державою

− форма державного правління, державний устрій, політичний ладdemocratic / republican / federal / parliamentary / constitutional government – демократична / республіканська / федеративна / парламентська / конституційна форма правління

− урядLiberal / Labour / Conservative Government – ліберальний / лейбористський / консервативний урядrepresentative / shadow / foreign government – представницький / тіньовий / іноземний урядpowers of government – повноваження урядуto form the government – формувати уряд

− урядовийgovernment investigation – урядове розслідування

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Exercise 15 Match the word-combinations with appropriate Ukrainian translations taking into consideration different meanings of the word “government”. Learn them by heart:1 presidential government; a) чинний, діючий уряд;2 government of the day; b) місцеве самоврядування;3 government offices; c) військова адміністрація;4 local government; d) змішана форма правління;5 government official; e) строк повноважень уряду;6 government(al) department; f) урядовий чиновник;7 government(al) regulation; g) урядове відомство;8 government’s term of office; h) президентська влада;9 military government; i) постанова уряду;10 mixed government; j) тимчасовий уряд;11 organs of government; k) урядові установи;12 parliamentary government; l) розпустити уряд;13 provisional government; m) парламентське правління;14 to dissolve the government. n) органи державного

управління.Exercise 16 Read and translate the text into Ukrainian.

TEXT DSTRUCTURE OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT IN

UKRAINEThe Constitution of Ukraine names three branches of

government – the legislative, which consists of the Verkhovna Rada, the executive, headed by the President with the Cabinet of Ministers as the highest body and the judicial, which is led by the Supreme Court*.

The Ukrainian Parliament has one house (chamber) – the Supreme Council (the Verkhovna Rada). It is represented by 450 people’s deputies, elected for four year terms on the basis of universal, equal, direct suffrage* by secret ballot*. The Verkhovna Rada’s main function is making laws. Law drafting work is performed by its committees. The Verkhovna Rada adopts the State Budget for the period from January,1 till December,31 and controls the execution of it.

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The Cabinet of Ministers – is the highest body of the executive power. It is headed by the Prime Minister who is appointed by the president and approved by the majority of the Verkhovna Rada. The Cabinet of Ministers carries out the fulfillment of the Constitution, as well as acts of the President. It develops and fulfills national programs on the economic, technological and cultural development of Ukraine.

The President is elected directly by voters for a term of five years with no more than two full terms. The President of Ukraine secures state independence, human rights and freedoms. The executive power in regions and districts is exercised by local state administrations. Their heads are appointed* by the President and are responsible to him.

Justice* in Ukraine is exercised entirely by the courts. It is administered by the Constitutional court and by the courts of general jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Ukraine is the highest body of general jurisdiction.

The Autonomous Republic of Crimea has its own parliament and government.

Supreme Court – Верховний Судsuffrage – виборче право, голосуванняballot – виборчий бюлетеньto appoint – призначатиjustice – правосуддя, юстиція, справедливий

Exercise 17 Read the sentences below and mark them T (True) or F (False). Correct the false ones. Translate them.1 The Ukrainian government consists of three branches.2 The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted on August,24, 1991.3 The Cabinet of Ministers is a law-making body.4 There are forty-five people’s deputies in the Verkhovna Rada.5 The executive power is headed by the Supreme Court.6 The Prime Minister secures state independence, human rights and freedom.7 The heads of the local state administrations are elected by the people.

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Exercise 18 Complete the sentences according to text D.1 The executive branch of power is headed by _________________.2 The legislative power belongs to __________________________.3 The judicial power is headed by ___________________________.4 The Supreme Council is the nation’s _______________________.5 Ukraine is divided into twenty-four ________________________.Exercise 19 Use the words from the box to complete the sentences.legislative executive the Cabinet judicial State Budget

1 The highest body of the ________________ branch is the Cabinet of Ministers.2 The national parliament is a _________________ branch of power.3 The Supreme Court heads ______________ power.4 The President appoints _________________.5 The Supreme Council discusses and adopts the________________.Final creative task: make a project on the topic “National Government of Ukraine”. Find more facts about the political life in Ukraine in the newspapers KYIV POST and write about them.Final speaking task: speak on the Structure of Ukrainian Government.Exercise 20 Point out the suffixes in the following words and translate them into Ukrainian. Identify their parts of speech. For references see the grammar supplement.

Lawyer, remarkable, professional, directly, traditional, social, daily, position, manipulate, influence, impression, modify, bargainer, criminal, adjudication, information, settlement, approximately, litigation, considerable, unbiased, non-interference.Exercise 21 Fill in the blanks with the derivatives of the words in italics. Analyse their parts of speech. Translate the sentences. For references see the grammar supplement.1 A person who inhabits a city is its ______________.2 Is he a popular politician? – Yes, his ______________ is great.3 He is the owner of that property. His ______________ can’t be questioned.4 This monument is a great symbol. It _____________ friendship of people all over the world.5 You should divide these facts into classes, that is _________ them.

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Final writing task: now that you have almost completed this part of unit 1 look through it once again to find “noun + noun” combinations. Write them down with the translation.

Note that shareholder is a noun + noun combination. It is written as one word. Share capital is also a noun + noun combination, but it is written as two words. There are no fixed rules for writing noun + noun combinations. Typically they start as separate words, but some of them become so closely associated that they merge into one word. Saxon genitive, for example employees’ handbook; prepositional phrase, for example confirmation of your appointment; noun + noun, for example job description.Suggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these quotations and proverbs mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them:1 A democracy is a government in the hands of men of low birth, no

property and vulgar* employments. (Aristotle).2 In a country well governed, poverty is something to be ashamed

of. In a country badly governed, wealth is something to be ashamed of. (Confucius).

3 Every nation has the government it deserves. (Letter from Russia, 1811, Joseph Marie, Conte de Maistre).

4 Let the people think they govern and they will be governed. (William Penn).

5 In general, the art of government consists in taking as much money as possible from one class of citizens to give to the other. (Voltaire).

6 Your right to swing your arm ends just where the other person’s nose begins.

7 One person’s right is another person’s duty.vulgar – загальнонародний, поширений

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UNIT 1PART II

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Match the following English political terms with their Ukrainian equivalents. Use them to translate text A. Learn them by heart:1) chairman; а) Верховний Суд;2) bishop; b) загальні вибори;3) county; c) гарантії;4) Commander-in-Chief; d) головуючий;5) Supreme Court; e) законодавчий орган;6) constituency; f) головнокомандувач;7) general election; g) палата громад;8) guarantees; h) законопроект;9) voters; i) виборчий округ;10) lawmaking body; j) єпископ;11) bill; k) графство (бр.), округ (ам.);12) House of Commons; l) виборці.Exercise 2 Read the following text and translate it.

TEXT ASTATE SYSTEM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN

IRELANDPART I

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) is a parliamentary monarchy with a constitutional monarch as Head of State. The UK does not have a written constitution. Instead, it is made up of a combination of Acts* of Parliament.

The legislative power in the UK belongs to Parliament which comprises the Monarch, the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

In law the Monarch is head of the legislative, executive and judicial powers, the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and the supreme governor* of the Church of England. But in reality her role is mostly ceremonial.

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The House of Commons consists of 650 Members of Parliament (MPs). They are elected by voters over the age of 18, by secret ballot, in each of Britain’s 650 parliamentary constituencies. The main function of the House of Commons is to make laws.

The Speaker is the chairman in the House of Commons. This is the person who controls discussion and makes sure that the rules of procedure are followed.

The House of Lords consists of about 1200 hereditary* and life peers* and some senior bishops named by the Queen. The main function of the House of Lords is to revise* Bills proposed by the House of Commons. But it cannot reject* them, it can only delay* a Bill from becoming law for six months.

The House of Lords is presided* over by the Lord Chancellor. The Lord Chancellor is also responsible for the administration of justice.

Act (BrE) = Bill (AmE) – законопроект, указ, законsupreme governor – верховний правительhereditary – спадковийpeer – перto revise – переглядатиto reject – відхилятиto delay – відкладатиto preside – головувати, вести засідання

Exercise 3 Read the text again and say, whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false statement and translate them.1 The British monarch is the head of the government.2 There are two Houses in Parliament in the UK.3 The House of Commons is more numerous than the House of Lords.4 The House of Lords can reject the bills for becoming law for seven months.5 The Commander-in-Chief is the chairman in the House of Commons.Exercise 4 Decide which is the odd word in each group and explain why. More than one answer may be possible.1) legislative democratic judiciary executive

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2) court law bills judge3) speaker voter representative member of parliament4) conservative labour democratic liberalExercise 5 Read the second part of the text and translate it.

TEXT ASTATE SYSTEM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN

IRELANDPART II

The executive power in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) belongs to the Government. Its main function is to put laws into effect* and plan policy.

The main political parties in the UK are the Labour and the Conservative parties. The leader of the party which wins the most seats* in the House of Commons at a general election becomes Prime Minister. As a head of Government the Prime Minister appoints about 100 ministers, of which about 20 are in the Cabinet. The Prime Minister (PM) heads cabinet meetings, appoints all government ministers and rules the country in the name of King or Queen.

The judicial power in the UK belongs to Magistrates’ Courts, Crown Courts, County Courts, Courts of Appeal and the House of Lords as the Final Court of Appeal. Magistrates’ Courts deal with minor criminal and civil cases. Crown Courts deal with more serious criminal cases and County Courts deal with more serious civil cases. Courts of Appeal deal with criminal and civil cases.

Along with the national government there are local governments for administrative areas known as counties. The people elect representatives to regional and district councils* which are responsible for housing, education, transport, police and other social services.

There is no standard system of local government. In each county the local authorities* have the freedom to organise and administer services as they think will best suit the area.

to put laws into effect – втілювати закониto win the most seats – набирати найбільшу кількість

місць

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district councils – районні радиlocal authorities – місцеві органи влади

Exercise 6 Read the text again and say, whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false statements and translate them.1 The executive power in the UK belongs to the Prime Minister.2 The main function of the executive power is law enforcement.3 Magistrates’ Courts deal with serious criminal and civil cases.4 Crown Courts deal with minor criminal cases.5 There is a standard system of local government in each county Writing task: write down the answers to the questions according to text A (part I and part II).1 What is the official name of Britain?2 Who is the head of the state?3 Whom does the legislative power in the UK belong to?4 How many Houses are there in Parliament?5 How many members are there in the House of Commons?6 What is the main function of the House of Commons?7 What is the main function of the House of Lords?8 Whom does the executive power in the UK belong to?9 What is the main function of the executive power?10 Who is the head of the Government?11 What are the duties of the Prime Minister?12 What are the main political parties in the UK?13 What types of courts function in the UK?14 What is the final court of appeal in the UK?15 What are the main responsibilities of the local government in the

UK?Speaking task: use the questions from the writing task as a plan to speak about the state system of Great Britain.Exercise 7 Read the text and translate it.

TEXT BNATIONAL SYMBOLS OF GREAT BRITAIN

The National FlagThe flag of Britain, commonly known as the Union Jack,

represents the emblems of three countries under one Monarch. The emblems that appear on the Union Flag are the crosses of three

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patron saints: the red cross of St. George, for England, on a white ground; the white diagonal cross of St. Andrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground; the red diagonal cross of St. Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground.

The final version of the Union Flag appeared in 1801, following the union of Great Britain with Ireland, with the inclusion of the cross of St. Patrick for Ireland. The cross remains on the flag although now only Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom.

Wales is not represented in the Union Flag because when the first version of the flag appeared, Wales had already united with England. The national flag of Wales, a red dragon on a field of white and green, dates from the 15th century. It is called the Welsh dragon.

The National emblem (Royal Crest)The Royal Crest – a lion bearing the Royal crown – is used to

denote articles of Queen’s personal property or goods bearing the Royal Warrant. The lion, “the king of beasts” has been used as a symbol of national strength of the British monarchy for many centuries.

The British National AnthemThe British National anthem was first performed in 1745.

There is no authorized version – the words used are a matter of tradition. On official occasions it is usual to sing the first verse only, the words of which are as follows: “God save our gracious Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God save the Queen! Send her victorious, happy and glorious; long to reign over us! God save the Queen!”Exercise 8 Complete the following sentences using the facts from text B. Translate them.1 There are crosses and colours on the National Flag of the U.K.2 The National Flag of Great Britain is also known as .3 There are symbols of countries on the National Flag of the U.K.4 The National Anthem of Great Britain is more than years old.5 There is a on the Royal Crest of Great Britain.

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Exercise 9 Answer the questions.1 What is the design of the national flag of the UK?2 What is an informal name of the national flag of Britain?3 How is the Welsh flag called?4 Why is Wales not represented in the Union Jack?5 Why is lion used on the national emblem of Great Britain?6 What is the origin of the national anthem of Great Britain?

READING COMPREHENSIONExercise 1 Read and translate the text. Find out: a) information about different types of constitutions; b) parts of the British constitution; c) the differences between the constitutions of the USA and Great Britain.

TEXT CCONSTITUTION – STANDARD OF LEGITIMACY*Every state has a constitution, since every state functions on

the basis of certain rules and principles. The United States has a written constitution but that the constitution of Great Britain is unwritten. In the United States there is a formal document called the Constitution, but there is no such document in Great Britain.

However many parts of the British constitution exist in written form, but important aspects of the American are wholly unwritten. The British constitution includes the Magna Carta*, the Petition of Right Act*, the Habeas Corpus Act*, the Bill of Rights*, the Act of Settlement*, the Parliament Act of 1911, the successive Representation of the People acts (which extended the suffrage), the statutes* dealing with the structure of the courts, the various local, government acts, and many others. These are not ordinary statutes. Even though they were adopted* in the ordinary legislative way, they are not codified within the structure of a single orderly document.

But some codified constitutions are much too detailed. An overlong constitution invites disputes and litigation. It is rarely read or understood by the ordinary citizen in cases in which flexibility* is often preferable. Since a very long constitution says too many things on too many subjects, it must be amended* often, and this makes it still longer. The 1949 constitution of India, with 395 articles, is the

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wordiest of all national constitutions. In contrast, the US Constitution is one of the shortest, containing about 4,300 words, not counting the amendments. Some of the world’s new constitutions, such as those of Japan and Indonesia, are also very short.

legitimacy – законністьMagna Carta – Велика хартія вільностей (1215) The Petition of Right Act – Закон про права громадян, звертатися до суду The Habeas Corpus Act – Закон про процесуальні права громадян, правилах арешту та притягнення до суду (1679)the Bill of Rights – Білль про права (1689)the Act of Settlement – Закон про престолонасдідування (1701)statute – статут, законto adopt – прийматиflexibility – гнучкістьto amend – вносити поправки

Exercise 2 Are the statements true or false according to the text. Correct the false ones. Translate them.1 The British constitution is described as rigid* because it cannot be amended by Parliament in the ordinary legislative way.2 The United States Constitution is one of the longest constitutions.3 Every state functions on the basis of certain rules and principles.4 In the United States there is no formal document called the Constitution.5 No part of the British constitution exists in written form.

rigid – фіксований, не гнучкийExercise 3 Complete the following sentences based on the information from text C.1 Every state has а ...2 The British Constitution includes …3 The British constitution is described …4 However many parts of ...5 An overlong constitution ...

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Exercise 4 Give the main ideas of the text. Make a plan of it in the form of questions and answers. Write down the summary of the text according to your plan.Exercise 5 Read text 3 from “additional reading materials to unit 1” for more information on this topic.Exercise 6 Supply the missing members of these word families. Define their parts of speech: n (noun), v (verb), adj (adjective), adv (adverb). Check your answers with the dictionary. The first word is done for you:Model: 1) economy (n) – economic (adj), economics (n), economy (n), economist (n), economically (adv), to economize (v);2) to govern, 3) to elect, 4) to employ, 5) to educate, 6) to qualify, 7) to corrupt, 8) democrat, 9) nature, 10) to support, 11) to contribute, 12) power, 13) industry, 14) law, 15) to solve, 16) politics.Exercise 7 Read the information and translate it into Ukrainian, taking into consideration the meaning of the modal verbs:

Rules of LawIn Britain you officially become an adult on your eighteenth

birthday. From that age you can vote in elections, borrow money from a bank, and you can be sent to prison. Until you are eighteen there are some things that you aren't allowed to do. Here are some examples. You can’t go into a pub until you are fourteen and if you go in, you must be with an adult. You can go into a pub on your own when you are sixteen, but you can’t buy or drink alcohol till you are eighteen.

You can ride a motorbike when you are sixteen, but you can't drive a car until you are seventeen. You can leave home and you can get married when you are sixteen, but only if your parents agree. When you are eighteen, you can leave home or get married, even if your parents don’t agree.

You aren’t allowed to leave school until you are sixteen.You can get a part-time job when you are fourteen, but you

can’t work in a shop until you are sixteen. You aren’t allowed to work in a cafe or restaurant until you are eighteen.

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Exercise 8A Study the following table, correct the false information and write down the appropriate age for Ukrainian young people.

Young people and the law age in the UK

age in Ukraine

They must go to schoolThey can buy a pet without their parents being thereThey can get a part-time jobThey can leave home without permission of their parentsThey can get married if their parents agreeThey can leave school and work full timeThey can apply for a passportThey can drive a car but not a lorryThey can go to prisonThey can voteThey can drink alcohol in public

512

1215

15161616171716

Exercise 8B Write sentences saying what you needn’t / don’t need to do in your country.– carry an ID card at all times; – be 21 before you can drive;– have a work permit; – have a licence to own a gun;– be 21 before you can marry; – call a police officer sir or madam.Final writing task: now that you have almost completed this part of unit 1 look through it once again to find “noun + noun” combinations. Write them down with the translation.Suggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these quotations mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them:1 That the king can do no wrong is a necessary and fundamental

principle of the English constitution (Sir William Blackstone).2 Democracy means government by the uneducated, while

aristocracy means government by the badly educated (1931, Gilbert Keith Chesterton).

3 You can never have a revolution in order to establish a democracy. You must have a democracy in order to have a revolution (Gilbert Keith Chesterton).

4 If has been said that democracy is the worst form of government, except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time (1947, Winston Churchill).

5 No government can be long secure without a formidable Opposition (Benjamin Disraeli).

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UNIT 1PART III

SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT OF THE USA

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Read and translate the text. Learn the essential law terms by heart.

TEXT APOLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE USA

PART IThe US Constitution names the three branches of

government: the legislative, the executive, the judicial. They are separate and distinct from one another. Each branch serves as a check on the others. There is the system of checks and balances*, which keeps any branch from gaining too much power.

The executive branch of government is headed by the President who is assisted* by the Vice President. The US President is both head of State and government, enforces* federal laws, serves as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The Vice President, elected from the same political party as the President, acts as chairman of the Senate. The President of the USA is chosen in nationwide elections every 4 years together with the Vice-President. The President cannot be elected for more than two terms. The President’s Cabinet is made up of Department Secretaries*. The most important of them is the Secretary of State*, who deals with foreign affairs.

The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states. Each state has its own state government. In some ways the United States is like 50 small countries. The Constitution proclaims a federal system of government of the USA which keeps both the states and the federal power from getting too much power. The federal government is located* in Washington, D.C. The government of the USA acts according to the Constitution which was signed* by the representatives of thirteen original* American states in 1787. The document was written in 1787 and since that time

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twenty six Amendments have been added. The first ten Amendments* are known as the Bill of rights.

the system of checks and balances – система стримувань та противаг

to locate – знаходитися, розташовуватисяto sign – підписати, підписуватиoriginal – першийamendment – поправка (до резолюції, законопроекту)to assist – допомагати, сприятиto enforce – втілювати в життяto veto – накладати вето, заборонятиDepartment Secretaries – міністриSecretary of State – державний секретар, голова зовнішньополітичного відомства

Exercise 2 Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the box. Translate the sentences:

differences judicial Supreme amended Cabinetexecutive veto vote legislative federalist

1 The US Constitution can be ______.2 The Fifteenth Amendment gave black Americans the right to __________.3 The United States has a __________ system.4 The President is the head of the __________ branch.5 The President’s __________ is composed of the department secretaries.6 The __________ branch interprets the laws.7 The __________ Court is the most important body of the judicial branch.8 The President can __________ a law passed by Congress.9 There are no clear __________ between the Republicans and the Democrats.10 The __________ branch is represented by Congress.Exercise 3 Study this table for better understanding the structure of the US government.

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Organization of the United States GovernmentBranch Members How

chosenTerm Powers

Legislative (Congress):SenateTwo Senators from each stateHouse of RepresentativesNumber of Representatives varies according to state population

state election

state election

6 years

2 years

Makes new laws.Sets federal taxes.Overrules Presidential vetoes.Approves treaties.Impeaches the President or any civil officer.Declares war.Approves Presidential appointments and treaties with foreign nations.

Executive Presidentwith Vice President

national election

4 years

Enforces federal laws.Appoints and removes high federal officials.Commands the armed forces.Conducts foreign affairs.Recommends laws to Congress.Approves or vetoes new laws.

Executive Departments

Presiden-tial appoint-ment

no set term

Conducts the administration of the national government.

Independent Agencies

Presiden-tial appoint-ment

no set term

Oversees government regulations.

Judicial Supreme CourtNine justices: a chief justice and associate justices

Presiden-tial appoint-ment

for life

Interprets laws according to the Constitution.Has the power to declare actions of the Executive and Legislative branches unconstitutional.

LowerFederalCourts

Presiden-tial appoint-ment

for life

Decides cases that involve the Constitution and federal laws.

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Exercise 4 Identify whether the statements are true or false. Correct them according to text A and the table above and translate.1 The Congress appoints all federal judges.2 The President may remove any official from office by impeachment.3 The President holds his office for 5 years.4 The Vice President is elected together with the President.5 The Congress approves Presidential appointments.6 26 amendments to the US Constitution are known as the Bill of rights.Exercise 5 Read and translate the text paying attention to the diagram in exercise 7. Learn the essential law terms.

TEXT APOLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE USA

PART IIThe legislative power in the USA is vested* in the Congress,

which consists of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 435 members in the House of Representatives and 100 senators in the Congress. Each state elects two members for the Senate. The Congress is the main law-making body. All important laws are passed by it. The Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of the Congress. The Congress can pass laws over the President’s veto by a two-thirds majority. The Congress has also the power to fix the number of judges sitting in the court, but it can’t change powers given to the Supreme Court by the American Constitution. Every state can make its own laws. A state may pass* stricter laws than the federal government if they don’t contradict* the federal law.

The judicial branch is represented by the several levels of federal and state courts. They interpret* and apply* the laws. The State court system is set up like the federal system. Both federal and state courts have courts of original jurisdiction* (they hear cases first) and courts of appellate jurisdiction* (they hear cases on appeal). Local courts are a part of the state system. The highest federal court is the US Supreme Court (SC). It’s the final court of appeal in all disputes involving the federal law. The Supreme Court

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includes a chief justice* and eight associate justices*, who are appointed for life. They are nominated by a President but must be approved by the Senate. In addition to the Supreme Court the Congress has established eleven federal courts of appeal and below them ninety four federal district courts*. The SC has the “power of judicial review*”. It means the right to declare* laws and acts of the federal, state and local government unconstitutional.

There is one more very important part of the American political scene – the political parties. There are two main political parties in the USA: the Democratic and the Republican. There is little ideological difference between them. Both parties have liberal and conservative wings.

After its 200th birthday the USA still holds the leading position in the world. The country inspired many names – “Land of Opportunity” and “God’s Country”. The USA is often called “the melting pot”, because different nationalities and ethnic groups have assimilated to make a new nation. It is also known as a “nation of immigrants” because the country was developed by generations of immigrants.

to vest – наділяти (правом), надавати праваto pass the law – приймати законto contradict – суперечитиto interpret – тлумачитиto apply – застосовуватиoriginal jurisdiction – загальна юрисдикція, суд першої

інстанціїappellate jurisdiction – апеляційний судchief justice – головуючий у суді СШАassociate justice – судовийfederal district court – федеральний окружний судjudicial review – судовий переглядto declare – проголошувати, признавати

Exercise 6 Read the following statements and decide if they are true or false. Correct the false ones and translate them.1 The law-making body of the American government is called the Congress.

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2 There is an equal number of Senators representing each state in the USA.3 Presidential elections in the USA are held every five years.4 The elected President can serve as long as he wishes.5 The USA nowadays has a two-party political system.6 “Judicial review” is a law column in a newspaper in the USA.Exercise 7 Examine the diagram below to describe the political system of the USA.

The System of Checks and Balances and Separation of Powers*

separation of powers – розподіл повноважень

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The Court can declare presidential

acts unconstitutional

The Presidentcan veto laws

passed byCongress

Congress can pass laws over the

President’s veto by a two-thirds

majority

The Presidentappoints federal

judges

The Court can declare lawsunconstitutional

The Senate must confirm thePresident’s

judicialappointments

PresidentCabinet

(Executive)

Supreme CourtFederal courts

(Judicial)

Congress:House-Senate may reject each other’s bills (Legislative)

Writing task A: answer the questions according to the information given in Text A (Part I and Part II).1 What keeps any branch of government of the USA from gaining too much power?2 The USA has a federalist system. What does it mean?3 Where is the federal government located?4 Who is the head of the executive power in the USA?5 How often do the President's elections take place?6 Who deals with foreign affairs in the USA?7 Where is the legislative power vested?8 How many members are there in the House of Representatives?9 What is the definition for the “judicial review”?10 What political party is in power in the USA now?Speaking task A: use the diagram and questions from writing task A as a plan to speak about the political system of the USA.Exercise 8 Read and translate the text.

TEXT BTHE US CONSTITUTION

A “constitution” in American political language means the set of rules, laws, regulations and customs which together provide the practical norms or standards regulating the work of the government. The document, known as the US Constitution, is only a part of body of rules and customs. Supreme court decisions, interpreting parts of the US Constitution, laws, regulations and customs are part of the basic law (the so-called “live Constitution”).

On September,l7, 1787, after the War of Independence the Constitutional Convention met behind closed doors to formulate a Constitution for the US. The Constitution with some amendments is in force to this day. The US Constitution begins with the words: “We, the people…”. It consists of the Preamble, 7 articles and 26 amendments. The first ten of them are called the Bill of Rights and adopted under the popular pressure in 1791. They guarantee participation in the political process, respect for personal beliefs, personal privacy, etc. According to the Constitution every citizen has rights which can not be violated. The Constitution of the USA is flexible: it can be amended. Its basic principles can be applied and

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interpreted differently at different times. It is the highest form of law in the USA. Below it, in order of authority, are the laws of Congress, state constitutions, state statutes and local statutes.

The Constitution sets up a strict division or separation of powers, classifying governmental powers, as executive, legislative and judicial and entrusting* the performance of each to separate agencies (the President and his Administration, Congress and Su-preme Court). The President has the power to veto acts of the legislature, but that body may override* the veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. Moreover, the Congress may impeach the Chief Executive* and remove him from office. The Congress passes laws, but the President enforces them.

to entrust – доручати, довірятиto override – скасовуватиChief Executive – глава виконавчої владиto enumerate – перераховувати

Exercise 9 Answer the questions according to the information given in Text B and translate them.1 When was the Constitution of the USA adopted?2 What does the Bill of Rights guarantee?3 How many Amendments have been added to the Constitution since 1787?4 What does the Constitution proclaim?5 Why does the US Constitution work as well today as 200 years ago? Exercise 10 Match the following words and word-combinations from the box with their definitions.suffrage ballot county treatyamend constituency term of office Bill of Rights

1 To change or modify for the better, improve.2 The period during which an elected officer performs functions and enjoys privileges.3 The inhabitants of an electoral district.4 The first ten amendments to the US Constitution.5 Agreement made and signed between nations.6 The right of voting in political elections.7 Division of Great Britain, the largest unit of local government.8 A piece of paper used during secret voting.

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Exercise 11 Complete the sentences with the verbs in brackets in the Passive Voice. Analyse the grammar form and translate them. For references see the grammar supplement.Model: In Britain, members of the House of Lords are not elected (not to elect). – Present Simple Passive.1 Slavery (to abolish) in the USA in 1865.2 When senators in the US (to elect), they serve a six-year term.3 The American Declaration of Independence (to write) by Thomas Jefferson.4 An election (to hold) every four years in the USA.5 A new law (just, to pass) in parliament.6 a woman president (to elect) in the future?7 Two changes (to make) to the America Constitution in 1791.Writing task B: complete the following information with the words from the box and translate the completed text.

Separation of powers Federalism Checks and balancesRepublicanism

Intellectual Origins of the Constitution of the USAThe creation of U.S Constitution was a remarkable

achievement by a young nation. However, only one of its four basic political principles was “made in America”. The other three were inspired by ideas that first grew on foreign soil.

. In this form of government, power resides in the people and is exercised by their elected representatives. Government is the common business of the citizens, conducted for the common good. This idea may be traced to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), who advocated a “mixed” constitution that contained principles of democratic and oligarchic government.

. The power of government are shared by a central body and territorial units. Citizens in federal government are subject to two different bodies of law. It is a distinctly American idea, created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

. The responsibilities of government are divided among separate branches. This idea was formulated in a fragmentary way by John Locke. But its fullest exposition came from

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French philosopher Charles-Louis de Secondat Montesquieu (1689-1755).

. The branches of government control each other. This idea was first advanced by two Englishmen, the statesman Henry St. John Bolingbroke (1678-1751) and the jurist William Blackstone (1723-1780)Speaking task B: discuss in what way the Ukrainian system of government differs from British and American systems. Complete the table and use it for references.

Branches of the national government

Ukraine Great Britain the USA

the legislativethe executivethe judicial

Exercise 12 Read and translate the text.TEXT C

NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF THE USAOn June 14, 1777 the Congress of the United States

confirmed the national Flag. The flag of the USA has several popular names: the “Stars and Stripes”, “Old Glory”, the “Star Spangled Banner”. It represents the growth of the nation. The flag has 13 horizontal stripes, 7 red and 6 white, which stand for the original 13 states. In the top left hand corner there are 50 white stars on a blue background: one star for each state. The last star was added when Hawaii joined the US in 1959. Every state has its own flag, its own emblem and its own anthem too. Americans enjoy their flag. The Stars and Stripes are on government offices and public schools, stand by the President’s desk. On the 4th of July, Independence Day, the Stars and Stripes can be seen everywhere – on the streets, on the houses and in the big parades.

The Statue of Liberty is the symbol of American democracy. It stands on Liberty Island in New York. It is one of the first things people see when they arrive in New York by sea. This National Monument was a present from France to the USA. France gave the statue to America in 1884 as a symbol of friendship. Liberty carries the torch of freedom – in her right hand. In her left hand she is

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holding a tablet with the inscription “July 4, 1776” – American Independence Day.

The National Emblem of the USAThe Great Seal of the United States is the official seal printed

on important documents to prove that a document is from the US government. The seal has two sides. On one side there is a picture of a white-headed bald eagle, the national bird of the USA. The eagle became the national emblem of the country in 1782. It has an olive branch – a symbol of peace – in one claw and 13 arrows, according to the number of the original 13 states, in the other. Above the eagle’s head there is a motto in Latin “E Plurilous Unum” which means “Many United”. On the other side there is a picture of a Pyramid with an eye above. Both designs are printed on the back of a one-dollar bill.

The National Anthem of the USAThe words of the National Anthem of the USA “The Star-Spangled Banner” were taken from a poem by Francis Scott Key about a battle between Britain and the USA in 1812. The Anthem is usually sung at the beginning of large public events and especially at professional sports events such as a baseball or a football game. People are expected to stand up and put their right hand over their hearts while the song is being sung in order to show respect and support for their country.Exercise 13 Complete the sentences and translate them.1 The popular names of the American flag are .2 The stars and the stripes on the flag mean .3 When a new state joins the USA another is added to

the flag.4 The national emblem of the USA is a eagle.5 The national anthem of the USA is .Exercise 14 Answer the questions:1 What is the origin of the American flag?2 What are the colors of the American flag?3 How many stripes has the flag got?4 What is the national emblem of the USA?5 Where is the Statue of Liberty placed?6 What country presented the Statue to the USA?

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7 What is the origin of the national anthem of the USA?8 How do Americans show their respect and support for their

country?Final speaking task: speak on the following:1 Why do you think each independent state should have its national symbols? 2 Have you ever seen or heard the national anthem of your country being sung by its citizens? On what occasions?3 What feeling do you think people have when they sing their national anthem?4 On what occasions are national flags hung in the streets?5 Where can you see the national emblem of the country?6 Do you agree that the design of the national flag should be used anywhere and everywhere?7 Can people, in your opinion, become more patriotic if they know more about the history of the state symbols of their country?8 What do you think should be done to make people feel really patriotic?Final writing task: now that you have almost completed this part of unit 1 look through it once again to find “noun + noun” combinations. Write them down with the translation.Suggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these quotations mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them:1 The true Republic: men, their rights and nothing more; women,

their rights and nothing less. (1872, Susan Brownell Anthony).2 The U.S. Presidency is a Tudor monarchy plus telephones. (John

Anthony Burgess (Wilson)).3 The State is made for man, not man for the State. (Albert

Einstein).4 No man is good enough to govern another man without that

other’s consent. (1854, Abraham Lincoln).5 As I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This

expresses my idea of democracy. (1858, Abraham Lincoln).6 The deterioration of every government begins with the decay of

the principles on which it was founded. (Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu).

7 Democracy … is a charming form of government full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a kind of quality to equals, and unequal’s alike. (Plato)

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ADDITIONAL READING MATERIALS TO UNIT 1

1 WE ARE UKRAINIANSExercise 1 Read and translate the text and do the exercises given after it.

Ukraine has a population of 47 million people. It is the second most populous country of the former Soviet Union, after Russia. But its population is diminishing due to emigration and low birth rates.

72% of Ukraine’s population are Ukrainians. Other ethnic groups widely spread in Ukraine are: Russians (22%), Belarussians, Polish, Jews, Bulgarians, Hungarians and Tatars (less than 1% each).

More and more people are moving from villages to towns and cities. There are five cities with a population of more than 1 million. These are: Kyiv, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk and Odessa.

The state language is Ukrainian. It belongs to the Eastern-Slavonic language group. Many people believe that the Ukrainian language is very melodious, the second most melodious in the world, after Italian.

Ukrainians are very kind and hospitable. They welcome visitors open-heartedly and treat them warmly and generously.

Because of a diversity of ethnic groups, Ukrainians do not look alike and cannot be stereotyped to one kind of appearance. However, many think that Ukrainian women are very attractive.

Ukrainians usually have close-knit families of several generations and like to spend time with their family, dining, walking, playing and going on holidays together.Exercise 2 Match these numbers with the words on the right:

five population47 million big cities72% Russians22% Ukrainians

Exercise 3 Mark the sentences T (True) or F (False). Correct the false onces and translate them.1 Ukrainians make up 90% of Ukraine’s population.

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2 The Ukrainian language belongs to the Western-Slavonic language group.3 The Italian language is more melodious than Ukrainian.4 Ukrainian women are quite charming.5 All Ukrainians are very much alike and may be stereotyped to one kind of appearance.

2 THE NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF UKRAINEExercise 1 Read and translate the following text.

The National FlagThe Ukrainian Constitution states that the National symbols

of the country are the National Flag, the National Emblem and the National Anthem. They were adopted by the Verkhovna Rada in 1992. The Ukrainian flag consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width. The top is blue and the bottom is yellow. These are the colours of the sky, the mountains, the rivers and the golden fields of our beautiful country. Blue and yellow (or gold) were symbols of Kyivan Rus long before the introduction of Christianity. These colours can be found on the ancient emblems of the cities of Mirgorod, Lubny, Pryluky and some others. In the seventeenth century the banners of the Cossacks were blue with gold stars or with pictures of saints embroidered in gold.

The National Emblem (Coat of Arms)Similar to other European nations, the National Emblems of

Ukraine have changed during the millennium of Ukrainian history owing to various political, social, cultural and other factors. The contemporary national coat of arms of Ukraine is a trident. The first image of a trident appeared in the ninth century A.D. when Ihor, Prince of Kyivan Rus sent ambassadors to sign a treaty with the Byzantine Emperor and they sealed the document with a trident. As the official emblem of Kyivan princes the trident was stamped on the gold and silver coins and seals of Volodymir the Great (979–1015); the Grand Prince of Kyiv. You can also see it on frescoes and porcelain dishes of that time. Tridents continued to be used as additional dynastic badges until the 15th century, though the image

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of Saint Michael the Archangel was the highest national symbol in the 12th century.

The secrets of the origin and meaning of the Ukrainian trident have still not been completely solved by scholars. The archaeological finds of tridents in Ukraine go back to the first century A. D. Undoubtedly, this emblem was a mark of authority and a mystic symbol of one or several of the ethnic groups which the inhabited ancient Ukrainian territory and which came to compose the Ukrainian nation. It is thought that the trident represented the division of the world into three spheres: the earthly, the celestial and the spiritual – as well as the union of the three natural elements: air, water and earth.

In 1918 the trident was adopted as the national symbol of independent Ukraine. The Soviet Ukraine replaced it with its own coat of arms – a crossed hammer and sickle on a red shield with a red star above it and the rising sun in the base. Sovereign Ukraine adopted the trident as its emblem again in 1992.

The National Anthem of UkraineThe Anthem of Ukraine “Shche ne vmerla Ukraina”

(“Ukraine Has Not Perished Yet”) is of quite recent origin. In 1863 the Lviv journal “Meta” (“The Goal”) published the poem of the scientist and poet Pavlo Chubynsky which was later mistakenly ascribed to Taras Shevchenko. In the same year it was set to music by the Galician composer Mykhaylo Verbytsky, first for solo and later for choral performance. As a result of its catchy melody and patriotic lyrics, the song quickly acquired popularity. In 1865 it was sung at the conclusion of the program at the great Shevchenko celebration in Peremyshl. In 1917 the song was officially adopted as the anthem of the Ukrainian state.

The Soviet Ukraine had no anthem of its own until 1949. Instead “The Internationale” and later “The Hymn of the USSR” were used. In November 1949 an Anthem of the Ukrainian Republic “Zhyvy, Ukraino” was adopted. When Ukraine gained its sovereignty “Ukraine Has Not Perished Yet” became the state anthem again.

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3 CONSTITUTION – STANDARD OF LEGITIMACYExercise 1 Read the text and answer the questions after it.

Constitution is the body of doctrines and practices that form the fundamental organizing principle of a political state. In some states, such as the United States, the constitution is a specific written document. In others, such as the United Kingdom; it is a collection of documents, statutes, and traditional practices that are generally accepted as governing* political matters. In its wider sense, the term “constitution” means the whole scheme whereby* a country is governed. In its narrower sense, “constitution” means the leading legal rules, usually collected into some document. But no country’s constitution can ever be compressed within the one document. It is necessary to consider the extra legal rules, customs, and conventions* that grow up around the formal document.

Written constitutions. In most Western countries the constitution, using the term in the narrower sense, is a scheme of government that has been adopted by the people. Examples are the Constitution of the United States, drawn up in 1787 and ratified in 1789 and still unchanged; the constitution of the Weimar Republic (the Federal Republic of Germany), brought into force in 1949; and the constitutions that France has had since the Revolution. The constitution in these countries is the basis of public law. It is usually enacted* оr adopted with special formalities and special processes are devised* for its amendment*.

The English constitution. In England there is no one document or fundamental body of law that can be described as a “constitution” in the sense that has been discussed above. The absence of any such document has led to the suggestion (perhaps first made by Alexis de Tocqueville) that there is no constitution in England. The English constitution is a part of the ordinary law. But they are in no sense a constitutional code; and without judicial decisions, other statutes, customs and conventions, these statutes would be unworkable*. The sources of English constitutional law are – statutes, judicial precedents, textbooks, lawbooks, the writings of historians and political theorists, the biographies and autobiographies of statesmen, the columns of every serious

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newspaper, the volumes* of Hansard*, the minutiae* of every type of government record* and publication. This is what is meant by saying the English constitution is “unwritten”: it is not formally enacted; its rules have to be sought out in a dozen fields, not in any one code. And it is flexible, and here the contrast is with a rigid constitution. There are no special safeguards* for constitutional rules; constitutional law can be changed, amended, or abolished*. There is no field in which Parliament is forbidden* to legislate*.

From “Britannica”to govern – правитиwhereby – за допомогою якої convention – конвенція, звичай, договірto enact – запроваджувати to devise – винаходити, розробляти amendment – поправка unworkable – незастосовнийvolume – томHansard – розм. Офіційний звіт про засідання англійського парламентуminutiae – дрібниці, деталіrecord – запис, протоколsafeguard – гарантіяto abolish – скасовуватиto forbid – заборонятиto legislate – видавати закони

Exercise 2 Answer the questions according to the information from the text:1 What is the definition of the Constitution?2 What is the US Constitution?3 What is the UK Constitution?4 What does the term “constitution” mean in its wider sense?5 What does it mean in its narrow sense?6 In what countries is the constitution the basis of public law?7 Who first made the suggestion that there was no constitution in England? And why?8 What are the sources of English constitutional law?9 What is meant by saying the English constitution is “unwritten”?

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4 POLITICSExercise 1 Read the information below.

Types of GovernmentMonarchy: a state ruled by a king or queen (the king or queen has power and control). Some countries, e.g. the UK, have a monarchy, but the monarch is not the ruler.Republic: a state governed by representatives (men or women chosen by the people) and a president, e.g. the USA or France. People who believe in this system are republicans.Democracy: a system of government in which leaders are chosen by the people, e.g. France or the United Kingdom. People who believe in this system are democrats.Dictatorship: a system of government in which one person rules the country (one person has total power). This person is called a dictator.

Political beliefsNoun politics Person politician Adjective political

ConservatismSocialismSocial democracyLiberalismCommunism

ConservativeSocialistSocial democratLiberalCommunist

ConservativeSocialistDemocraticLiberalCommunist

People who believe in social democracy are social democrats.It is a democratic government, with liberal beliefs.

Political positionsThe government is very reactionary (they don’t want any

changes). The opposition (the main political party which is not in government) is more radical. They want to make changes to the system. The Prime Minister is quite right-wing (conservative / capitalist), and the leader of the opposition is more left-wing (socialist).

ElectionsIn a democracy, people vote for (they choose in a formal

way) the political party (e.g. social democrats) they want to form the government. They do this in an election (when everyone votes). Quite often elections take place/are held (happen) every five years.

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42% voted for the socialists in the election. (The socialist party got 42% of the votes). They elected a new president last year. The new president was elected last year. The election takes place next week, and the Liberals hope to form the next government.

GovernmentPolitical systems are different all over the world (in every part

of the world). In the UK, when a political party wins a majority (51% or more) of seats (official places in parliament) in an election, they are in power (the government of the country), and their leader (person in control of the party) becomes Prime Minister.

The government must have policies (programmes of action) to run (manage and control) the country. This means, for example, an economic policy (for the economy), and a foreign policy (for actions by the country in other parts of the world).

Note that policy – is a set of ideas or plans that is used as a basis for making decisions, especially in politics, economics or business. Politics – are the actions or activities which people use to achieve power in a country, society or organization.Exercise 2 What kind of political system is being described?1 The country is ruled by a king or queen.2 The country is governed by men and women who are chosen by the people.3 The country is ruled by one person.Exercise 3 Complete the tables. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.

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General noun PersonSocialismDemocracyPoliticsConservatism

socialist

Verb General nounBelieveElectGovernVote

belief

Exercise 4 Translate and match these types of government with their dictionary definitions.a) democracy; 1) government by a small group of people,

often for their own interests;b) totalitarianism; 2) government by the people or the

representatives of the people;c) monarchy; 3) a country in which most of the citizens

are controlled by (secret) political police;d) dictatorship; 4) a political system in which every citizen

is subject to the power of the state, which exercises complete control;

e) oligarchy; 5) a system ruled by someone with complete power, especially if that power was gained by force;

f) tyranny; 6) the system of rule by a king or queen;g) police state; 7) the use of power cruelly and / or

unjustly to rule a person or country.Exercise 5 Rewrite the sentences using the words on the right. The meaning must stay the same. Make any necessary changes.Model: It’s in every part of the world. – It’s all over the world. ALL1 Elections take place every five years. HELDElections .2 The government is socialist. WINGThe government is .3 I’m a democrat. BELIEVEI .4 Who controls the country at the moment? POWERWho .Exercise 6 Fill the gaps in this text about the political system in the UK.

In the UK (1) take place every five years. The (2)  Minister may decide to have one after four years, but five years is the maximum. The country is divided into 650 areas and people in each area can only (3) for one person from one political (4) . The person with the most (5) is the winner, and that person becomes of the 650 members of parliament. The political

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party with a (6)  of the seats in parliament then forms the government, and the (7) of that party becomes Prime Minister. His or her job is then to decide on a number of different (8) to run the country.Exercise 7 Answer these questions about your own country. If possible, ask someone else.1 Which are the main political parties in your country?2 Which party is in power at the moment?3 When were they elected?4 Did you vote in the last election?5 Who is the leader of this party?6 Is this person the President or Prime Minister of your country?7 Do you think you are left-wing, right-wing, or in the centre?8 Do you think your political beliefs will change during your life?Exercise 8 Match the verbs with their complements. Tick the boxes. Make the sentences with these words combinations.

Parliament

Election

A candidate

Your local party

A constituency

Stand forStand asNominated byRepresentResign from

Writing task: now choose a famous politician or leader from our country. Write notes about him / her, an introductory and a concluding sentence and read your presentations aloud to the group.

5 ELECTIONS IN THE UK

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Exercise 1 Read the text and do the exercises after it.In the United Kingdom (the UK), elections are held about

every five years. The UK is divided into 650 political areas, called constituencies, and in each constituency people vote for one person representing the political party they want to see in power. The politician with the most votes becomes the Member of Parliament (known as an MP) for that area. Parliament, therefore, consists of 650 MPs, and the party with the majority of MPs forms the government. The leader of that party also becomes Prime Minister.

GLOSSARY:election – the time when people choose individuals to speak for them and act for them; elect v;hold smth – organize an event such as an election;constituency – one of the areas into which the country is divided for voting in political elections;vote for smb / smth – choose smb / smth in an election; vote n;represent smb / smth – act officially for people or an organization;political party – a group of people with the same ideas who want to win an election (e.g. the Labour Party, the Conservative Party);in power – in political control of the country;politician – a person with a job in politics;parliament – the group of people elected to make the laws in a country;consist of smth – be formed or made up of smth;majority – the largest number or part of smth; opp minority;government – the group of people in control of a country; govern v;prime minister (or PM) – the leader of the government in some countries.Exercise 2 Are these sentences true or false in Britain? Correct the false ones and translate them.Model: The British parliament consists of 650 elected representatives. T1 Elections must be held every four years. ___2 People can only vote for one person in election. ___3 Two or three people may be elected in each constituency. ___4 If you are a Member of Parliament, you are in the government. ___5 The leader of the largest political party in parliament becomes prime minister. ___

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6 The party with the minority of elected MPs forms the government. Exercise 3 Complete the sentences and translate them.Model: PM is an abbreviation of prime minister.1 How often do they hold __________________ for parliament?2 Parliament _______________ of people from a number of different political ______________.3 In the UK, the Conservative Party was in _______________ from 1979 to 1997.4 Who did you ________________ for in the last election?5 Politicians __________________ the people who elect them.6 She had over 50 per cent of the votes, so a ___________________ of the people voted for her.

6 POLITICAL OBJECTIVESExercise 1 Read the information and do the exercises after it.

The government has announced that its first priority will be education, and today the prime minister will focus on the need for more young people to go to university.

A new transport policy will be announced today, which aims to persuade motorists to leave their cars at home.

The government will face strong opposition to their new immigration policy.

An Olympic athlete has been chosen to launch the government’s new fitness campaign.

GLOSSARY:objective – a thing you are trying to do, syns aim, goal;announce smth – say smth officially and in public; announcement n;priority – a thing that is important or that you must do before anything else;focus on smth – give all your attention to smth; focus n;need for smth – a situation in which you must have or do smth;policy – a plan to do smth, agreed by a government, company, etc;persuade smb (to do smth) – give reasons to make smb agree (to do smth);face smth – have to deal with a difficult situation;oppose smth – to disagree with something and try to change it;

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opposition – the main political party in parliament, but not forming the government, is called the Opposition (used with a singular or plural verb);immigration – the process of coming to live in a country that is not your own (the people are called immigrants);emigration – the movement of people from a country;launch smth – start smth new, especially a campaign or product;campaign – (often used in politics or business) a plan to do a number of things with a specific aim.Exercise 2 Underline the correct part of the sentence.Model: If you persuade somebody to do something, they do / don't do it.1 If you announce something, you say it in public / private.2 A priority is important / not important.3 If you face a problem, you avoid it / deal with it.4 If you launch something, you start it / finish it.5 Immigration is the process of coming / going to live in a foreign country.6 If you oppose something, you agree / disagree with it.Exercise 3 Complete the sentences and translate them.Model: Helping poor people is a major priority for the government.1 Do you agree with the government’s economic ______________.2 They’ve launched a _________________ to educate people about the tax system.3 Some MPs already agree with the prime minister, but he still has to ______________ others.4 The USA received a lot of European _______________ in the early twentieth century.5 The main ______________________ of the education policy is to give parents more choice.6 It’s clear that the _____________________ disagree strongly with the government’s policy.7 In his speech, the prime minister will ________________ on health issues.8 The government has expressed the ________________ for change in their education policy.

UNIT 2PART I

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PRACTICE OF LAW

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Read the following text, find out the basic concepts of law. Learn the new legal terms by heart.

TEXT AINTRODUCTION TO LAW: BASIC CONCEPTSWhy do we have laws and legal systems? At one level, laws

can be seen as a type of rule which governs behaviour between people. We can find these rules in nearly all social organizations, such as families and sports clubs.

Law, the body of official rules and regulations*, is generally found in constitutions and legislation*. It is used to govern a society and to control the behaviour of its members. In modern societies, a body with authority*, such as a court or the legislature, makes the law. A law enforcement agency*, such as the police, makes sure it is observed.

In addition to enforcement, a body of expert lawyers is needed to apply the law. This is the role of the judiciary*, the body of judges in a particular country. Of course, legal systems vary between countries, as well as the basis for bringing a case before a court* or tribunal*. One thing, however, seems to be true all over the world – starting a legal action* is both expensive and time-consuming.

rules and regulations – процесуальні норми і положенняlegislation – законодавча діяльність, законодавство,

закон, юрисдикціяauthority – повноваження, повнота влади, керівний орган,

інстанціяlaw enforcement agency – орган забезпечення

правопорядкуjudiciary – судоустрій, суддівський корпусto bring a case before a court – порушувати судову справуtribunal – судова установа, арбітражна установаlegal action – судовий процес, позов, правомірна дія

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Exercise 2 The following terms introduce you to the law and basic legal terminology. Read and translate the definitions. Match the terms below with definitions that follow and learn them by heart.

court govern judge lawyers rule law enforcement agency legal action legal system legislation the judiciary tribunal

Model: a body that is appointed to make a judgement* or inquiry* –tribunal.1 A country’s body of judges.2 An act or acts passed by a law-making body.3 Behaviour recognized by a community as binding* or enforceable* by authority.4 Legal proceedings.5 An official body that has authority to try criminals, resolve* disputes, or make other legal decisions.6 An organization responsible for enforcing the law, especially the police.7 A senior official in a court of law.8 System of rules recognized by a community that are enforceable by established process.9 Members of the legal profession.10 To rule a society and control the behavior of its members.

judgement – слухання справи, судове рішенняinquiry – дізнання, вивчення обставин справиbinding – зобов’язувальнийenforceable – забезпечений правовою санкцією,

примусовийto resolve – вирішувати

Exercise 3 Read the following text for obtaining information. Give it a headline.

TEXT B In order to understand why a particular country has a particular

legal system, it is necessary to look at its history, political structure and social values. When there is political and social upheaval*, one of the main concerns of a new government is to revise the legal system. Britain has had an unusual degree of political continuity*. Despite civil wars and social changes with industrialization, England

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and Wales have retained* many laws and legal principles that originated eight centuries ago. On the other hand, most of the law of Japan was developed within the last century.

Each country in the world, even each state of the United States, has its own system of law. However there are two main traditions of law in the world. One is based on English Common law*, and has been adopted by many Commonwealth* countries and most of the United States. The other tradition, sometimes known as Continental, or Roman law, has developed in most of continental Europe, Latin America and many countries in Asia and Africa, which have been strongly influenced by Europe. Continental law has also influenced Japan and several former socialist countries.

to retain – зберігатиCommon law – загальне право, звичаєве правоupheaval – переворотcontinuity – постійністьCommonwealth – співдружність

Exercise 4 Which is true? Correct the false statements.1 A particular legal system is closely connected with the history, political structure, and social values of the country.2 The legal system is fixed once and forever.3 The law system is a universal thing.4 Roman law has developed in the United States. 5 Japan, being isolated from the Continent, wasn’t influenced by any of the world traditions of law.Exercise 5 Match legal terms with their Ukrainian equivalents. Use them for better translation of text C.1) to influence; a) кодифікувати закони;2) to bring cases before a judge; b) отримувати (збирати)

докази;3) to be different from; c) впливати;4) to codify the law; d) надавати докази;5) to present evidence; e) порушувати судову справу;6) to collect evidence; f) відрізнятися від.

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1) legal system; a) обвинувальна система правосуддя;

2) court structure; b) право, яке засноване на судовій практиці;

3) higher courts; c) правова система;4) lower courts; d) судові прецеденти;5) judge made law; e) слідче судочинство;6) decisions of judges; f) обвинувальне судочинство;7) source of law; g) неупереджене рішення;8) civil law system; h) суди нижчої інстанції;9) judicial precedents; i) суди вищої інстанції;10) impartial decision; j) рішення суддів;11) accusatorial court procedure; k) система цивільного права;12) adversarial system of justice; l) судоустрій;13) inquisitorial procedure; m) джерело права;Exercise 6 Read and translate the text.

TEXT CENGLISH LAW

The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system. The law in Scotland was influenced by Roman law and is different from the law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The English legal system is centralised through a court structure, which is common to the whole country. It is hierarchical, with the higher courts having more authority than the lower ones. There are some important characteristics of English law:

English law is based on the common law tradition. This is a system of judge made law which has continuously developed over the years through the decisions of judges in the cases brought before them. These judicial precedents are an important source of law in the English legal system. Common law systems are different from the civil law systems of Western Europe and Latin America. In these countries the law has been codified or systematically collected to form a consistent body of legal rules*.

English judges have an important role in developing case law* and stating the meaning of Acts of Parliament.

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The judges are independent of the government and the people appearing before them. This allows them to make impartial decisions.

Court procedure is accusatorial*. This means that judges do not investigate the cases. They reach a decision based only on the evidence presented to them by the parties to the dispute. This is called the adversarial* system of justice. It can be compared to the inquisitorial* procedure of some other European systems where it is the function of the judges to investigate the case and to collect evidence

consistent body of legal rules – змістовний збірник нормативних актів

case law – прецедентне правоaccusatorial / adversarial – обвинувальнийinquisitorial – слідчий

Exercise 7 Find the sentences with Passive forms in text C, identify their tense forms, translate them. For references see the grammar supplement.Writing task A: answer the questions in writing. Translate them.1 Which legal systems does the U.K. have?2 What is English law based on?3 What are the differences between common law and civil law systems?4 What is a source of law in the English legal system?5 What is the role of English judges?6 What allows the judges to make impartial decisions?7 What is the adversarial system of justice?8 What is the inquisitorial system of justice?9 What court procedure do we have in Ukraine?Speaking task A: use the answers to the questions as a plan to speak about English law.Exercise 8 Fill in the blanks using the words from the box and translate the sentences.law lawyer Roman common Code jurisprudence

1 The ________________ is one whose principal occupation is related to the making and administration of the law.

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2 The Continent bases its ___________________ upon the university-made civil law.3 The jurisprudence of England and the USA is based upon the judge-made _____________________ law.4 The practice of the civil ______________________ on the Continent consists of several co-ordinate professions.5 The ______________________ civil law originated in codes imposed by the emperors of ancient Rome.6 Napoleon ______________________ is still the model for the legal codes of the modern European states today.Exercise 9 Read the text about different kinds of laws of the USA.

TEXT DLAWS IN THE USA

In our life, we will have to follow the laws of our local community, our state, and the nation. These laws have many sources and are enacted* for many purposes*. The sources of law in the USA include constitutions, statutes, court decisions, and administrative (government) regulations. Laws are made for the purposes of handling* disputes between individuals and dealing with criminal activities.

Constitutional Law. Constitutions are legal documents that explain the powers and limits of government and list the freedoms and rights of the people. The United States has a national constitution, and each state has a constitution that is modeled on the national one.

Statutory Law. A law that is enacted by a legislative (lawmaking) body is a statute. The US national lawmaking body is Congress. Laws passed by Congress apply to entire country. State legislatures enact state laws. Local legislative bodies, such as city councils, make local laws. Statutes can be changed if they are out of date or become unnecessary.

Court Decisions. Starting in the eleventh century in England, from the judges’ decisions, a series or rules based on general custom were developed. This body of law* based on judges’ decisions is called common law. Other judges then applied the rules to cases they were deciding, modifying the rules to reflect the changing

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values of people over time. To prevent too much uncertainty and unfairness, judgments made in earlier cases were written down. These cases established a precedent*.

Much law in the United States today is based on English common law. When there is no statute or when a law is not clear, the precedents established under common law are used by the courts to decide a case. In many cases, statutes are also based on common law.

Today the major role of judges is to interpret and apply existing statutes. Even though there are many laws at both the federal and state levels, sometimes it’s not clear which law is applied in a particular case. When courts decide such cases, they examine the facts of the case and review precedents. Precedents show how previous similar cases were handled. Most of these cases are collected and published so that lawyers and judges can refer to them.

Administrative Law. Administrative law is made and enforced by government agencies. These agencies are set up by legislatures to execute (carry out and enforce) laws that the legislatures have passed. Because of the work they do, the agencies are usually part of the executive branch of government. Once the agencies are set up, they issue rules and orders needed to carry out the statutes passed by lawmakers. These rules and regulations have the force of law.

to enact – приймати, вступати в силуpurpose – мета, задум, намір, призначенняto handle – регулювати, розглядатиbody of law – кодекс законівprecedent – судовий прецедент

Exercise 10 Work with review questions. Answer them in writing. 1 What are the four main sources of law in the United States?2 What purposes are laws made for?3 What legal document is constitution?4 What is a statute?5 What is common law, and what are its origins?6 When are the precedents used by the courts?7 Why are government agencies set up by legislatures?

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Speaking task B: use the questions from exercise 10 and discuss the US laws.Exercise 11 Match the terms below with the definitions that follow. Learn them by heart.

amendment, judicial review, appellate jurisdiction, precedent, checks and balances, common law, constitution, statute

1 Court decisions that are referred to when courts are making decisions in future similar cases.2 System set up in the U.S. Constitution that gives each branch of the federal government the power to influence what the other branches do.3 Change or addition to the U.S. Constitution. 4 Body of law based on judges’ decisions.5 Power of courts to rule whether a statute or act of government is unconstitutional.6 Power of courts to review cases appealed from a lower court. 7 Law enacted by a legislative body.8 Legal document that explains the powers and limits of governments and the rights of the people.Exercise 12 Choose the best alternative to fill in the blank in each of the following sentences.1 ... are not made by governments or written down.A customs B laws C rules D constitutions2 Tom is a person you can ... on .A depend B put C go D rely3 The city bank was ... by teenage computer hackers.A stolen B gone C robbed D kidnapped4 You’re so selfish and do everything for your personal ...A pleasure B benefit C luck D body5 The young teacher failed to ... order in the class.A restore B maintain C organized D bring6 He mustn’t be blamed: it was ...A self-protection B self-control C self-respect D self-confidence 7 ... is a serious crime. A murder B pickpocket C burglar D kidnapper

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Exercise 13 Join two parts of conditional sentences and analyse their types. Translate them. For references see the grammar supplement.1 If this person had not violated the law,

a) the investigator would question them

2 He would have prepared the report

b) if they collect enough evidence

3 If they were in custody, c) he would not have been imprisoned

4 If the police had come in time, d) if they came in time5 The police may charge them with the crime,

e) if they didn’t listen to his testimony carefully

6 They would catch the suspect, f) nothing wrong would have occurred

7 The jury would find him guilty,

g) if he had done the necessary investigation

Exercise 14 Read and translate the text which contrasts the criminal and civil law.

TEXT ESUBJECT MATTER OF LEGAL SYSTEMCRIMINAL LAW VERSUS* CIVIL LAW

Laws differ not only in their origin, but also in their purpose. One way of classifying and understanding the law is by subject matter. Lawyers often divide the law and the legal system into two: criminal law and civil law.

One category is the criminal law – the law dealing with crime in which a case is called a prosecution. The case is instituted by the prosecutor, who takes over the case from the police. The defendant* (or accused) has already been charged with specified crimes. Criminal law spells out punishments of fines or imprisonments for violators.

The civil law is much more wide-ranging. It deals with issues not covered by criminal law, including marriage, divorce, business, civil rights and housing. The civil law also includes the law of contract* and family law and / or intellectual property law. In a civil case, the plaintiff*, normally a private individual or company, brings

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an action* to win compensation. If the case is proven, the defendant* normally pays the plaintiff damages* (money).

versus = vs. – проти, у порівнянні зlaw of contract – договірне правоplaintiff – позивачto bring an action – вчинити позовdefendant – відповідачdamages – збитки, відшкодування, компенсація за збитки

Exercise 15 Put the following terms into the appropriate group below. Two terms can appear in both groups.

compensation contract crime damages family law intellectual property plaintiff police private individual prosecution to bring an action to fine the defendant theftto bring a case the accused to charge someone with something

I Criminal law – to charge someone with something,…II Civil law – plaintiff,…

Exercise 16 Match these bodies of law (1–3) with their definitions (a–c). Write down the translation of the definitions of every body of law.1 Civil law a) area of the law which deals with crimes and

their punishments, including fine and / or imprisonment (also penal law);

2 Common law b) 1) legal system developed from Roman codified* law, established by a state for its regulation; 2) area of the law concerned with non-criminal matters, rights and remedies*;

3 Criminal law c) legal system which is the foundation of the legal systems of most of the English-speaking countries of the world, based on customs and court decisions (also case law, judge-made law*).

codified – зведений в кодексremedies – відшкодуванняcase law / judge-made law – прецедентне право, право, яке

засновано на судовій практиці

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Final speaking task: speak on the difference between civil and common law. Which body of law, civil law or common law, is the basis of the legal system of our jurisdiction? Discuss with your partner what tradition of law has developed in our country. Why?Exercise 17 There are several ways to refer to what a law says. 1) Read the following sentences and translate them.

The law stipulates that corporations must have three governing bodies. The law provides that a witness must be present. The patent law specifies that the subject matter must be “useful”.

These verbs can also be used to express what a law says:The law states / sets forth / determines / lays down / prescribes that...2) Choose a law in our jurisdiction that you are familiar with and explain what it says using the verbs listed above and legal terminology of this part of the unit.Exercise 17 Say what part of speech the given words are. For references see the grammar supplement.really, simply, usually, government, department, local, traditional, national, social, legal, governmental, existence, executive, responsi-ble, leader, wider.Final writing task: now that you have almost completed this part of unit 2 look through it once again to find “noun + noun” combinations. Write them down with the translationSuggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these proverbs mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them.1 Ignorance of the law is no excuse for breaking it.2 Law makers should not be law breakers.3 One law for the rich and another for the poor. 4 The law guards us from all evils but itself.5 The more laws the less justice.6 The more laws the more offenders.7 To know the law and do the right are two different things.8 What is just and right is the law of laws.9 Where law ends tyranny begins.

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UNIT 2PART II

THE COURT STRUCTURE

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Read and translate the following text paying attention to the diagram after it.

TEXT ACOURT SYSTEM OF ENGLAND AND WALES

Every jurisdiction organizes the administration of justice in different ways. In England, the basic division between criminal and civil law is reflected in the court system.

For criminal cases there are two main types of court in England and Wales: Magistrates’ Courts (or courts of the first instance), which deal with about 95 percent of criminal cases and Crown Courts for more serious offences. All criminal cases above the level of Magistrates’ Courts are held before a jury.

There are about 700 Magistrates’ Courts in England and Wales, and near 28,000 unpaid magistrates or Justices of the Peace (JPs). They may not impose a sentence of more than six months imprisonment or a fine of more than 2000 pounds. They refer cases requiring a heavier penalty to the Crown Court. A Crown Court is presided* over by a professional judge. The verdict is reached by a jury of twelve citizens, who are selected at random.

A person convicted in a Magistrates’ Court may appeal against its decision to the local Crown Court, which will hear the appeal without a jury. Appeals against a decision of the Crown Court in special cases go to the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division). The highest court of appeal is the House of Lords. The judges in the House of Lords are known as law lords. They typically sit as a committee to develop and define the law of the land. The decisions of law lords on both criminal and civil matters bind all other courts. Only the government can overturn* a decision of the House of Lords by passing an Act of Parliament.

The lowest court in a civil action is a County Court. There is one in every town in England and Wales. The judges are always

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professionals. They may hear cases such as contract disputes, property matters and so on. Cases involving larger amounts of money are heard by one of the divisions of the High Court. Appeals from the High Court, and most appeals from the County Courts, go to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division).

In addition to the courts mentioned above there are numerous special courts which make decisions in particular types of dispute, for example, juvenile courts* and coroners’* courts.

to preside – головувати, вести засіданняto overturn – скасовуватиjuvenile court – суд у справах неповнолітніхcoroner – коронер, слідчий, який проводить дізнання у

випадках насильницької, раптової чи неприродної смертіExercise 2 Examine the diagram below and describe the English court system.

ENGLISH COURT SYSTEMCourt of Justice of the European Communities

House of Lords

Court of Appeal, Court of Appeal,Criminal Division Civil Division

Crown Court High Court

Magistrates’ Court County CourtExercise 3 Complete the description that refers to each court from the diagram. Translate them.1 Claims of lesser value will start in a County Court. There are 250 of these around the country. They can also deal with divorce and bankruptcy matters.2 Matters of important legal dispute arising in the Crown Court may be appealed to the______________________.3 From the Court of Appeal, there can be an appeal to the_______________________ on fact or law, but usually appeal is only allowed on matters of legal importance.

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4 If the case involves a serious crime, it is heard in the_______________. It has about 70 centres around the jurisdiction.5 In less serious criminal cases (which comprise over 90% of criminal cases), the case is sent for trial in one of over 400________________.6 More substantial civil claims (over around £25,000) are heard in the_________________.7 The___________________was set up under the Treaty of Rome of 1957, by which the European Community was established. The court can overrule all other courts on matters of Community law.8 Under the system of appeals in civil cases, it is possible to appeal from a County Court or the High Court to the__________________.Exercise 4 Courts can be distinguished with regard to the type of cases they hear. Match each of the following types of court (1–9) with the explanation of what happens there (a–i).1 Appellate court (or court of appeals, appeals court)

2 Crown court

3 High court

4 Juvenile court

5 Lower court (or court of first instance)

6 Magistrates’ court

7 Moot court*

8 Small-claims court*9 Tribunal

a) this is where a person under the age of 18 would be tried;b) this is the court of primary jurisdiction, where a case is heard for the first time;c) this is where small crimes are tried in the UK;d) this is where law students argue hypothetical cases;e) this is where a case is reviewed which has already been heard in a lower court;f) this is where cases involving a limited amount of money are handled;g) this is where serious criminal cases are heard by a judge and a jury in the UK;h) this is where a group of specially chosen people examine legal problems of a particular type, such as employment disputes;i) this is usually the highest court in a jurisdiction, the court of last resort.

moot court – навчальний судовий процес

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small-claims court – суд у справах із незначною сумою позовуExercise 5 Read and translate the text. Find out the functions in the court of every official involved in legal action.

TEXT BCOURT PERSONNEL IN GREAT BRITAIN

The largest group of judges in Great Britain are magistrates. They are ordinary citizens who are not legal professionals but are respectable people involved in the running of the legal system. They sit as a group of three (as a “bench”) with a legally qualified* clerk, who can advise on points of law.

In the higher courts, the judges are almost all former barristers. But many cases are also heard by recorders* - part-time barristers from private practice. The grand jury, the common jury and the special jury sit on a criminal case, a civil case, or both. The common jury in the Crown Court consist of 12 people, aged 18 to 70.

The jury are a selected group of laymen* that hear the witnesses in legal disputes and decide the facts. A courtroom trial in which a jury decides the facts is called a trial by jury.

Before each court term, a jury commissioner* or another public officer prepares a panel*, or large initial list, of qualified jurors. For each trial, jurors are selected by lot* from this panel.

Before the trial begins, the jurors swear to decide the facts fairly. They hear the testimony given by witnesses for both sides, including cross-examinations. Then counsel for each side sum up, or summarize the case, and the judge explains the applicable law in his instructions to the jury.

In civil suits for financial damages, the jury must decide who is at fault and must determine the amount of money to be paid. In criminal cases, the jury must decide whether or not the accused is guilty “beyond a reasonable doubt”, and then either return a verdict* of guilty, or acquit* the defendant by a verdict of not guilty. If the verdict is guilty, the judge imposes the sentence, or punishment, within limits that have been fixed by the legislature. Until 1966 in England and Wales all the members of the jury had to be in

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agreement. Now, at least ten of the twelve jury members must agree before a verdict can be given.

legally qualified – юридично правоможнийrecorder – мировий суддя з кримінальних та цивільних прав, протоколістlaymen – непрофесіоналcommissioner – уповноважений, інспекторpanel – склад, список, персоналlot – жеребto return a verdict – виносити вирокto acquit – виправдовувати, звільняти

Writing task A: answer the questions according to text B in writing.1 What is unique in the work of Magistrates?2 How do they qualify as the judges in the higher court?3 What are the recorders?4 What are the jury? What cases do they hear?5 What kinds of the jury do you know?6 How do the jury fulfill their duties?Speaking task A: use the questions from writing task A as a plan to describe court personnel in Great Britain.Exercise 6 Read arguments for or against the jury system. Discuss the problem with your partner using the following questions:

Does a jury system exist in all countries?Must a jury system be introduced in Ukraine?

For Against* It’s the most democratic system, because more than one person is responsible for making decisions.* Nobody can influence a jury.* Female jurors are more sympathetic* Every modern democratic country must employ a jury system.* A jury always consists of honest people.

* A jury consists of people who are not professional lawyers.* Female jurors are too sympathetic.* Ukraine has its own juridical traditions.* Nobody can guarantee that a juror isn’t a criminal himself.* Jurors can be bribed*

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to bribe – пропонувати, давати хабаря, підкуповуватиExercise 7 Transform the verbs from Active Voice into the Passive according to the model. Translate the sentences. For references see the grammar supplement.Model: The Japanese criticized a jury system. (Past Simple Active).

A jury system was criticized by the Japanese. (Past Simple Passive).

1 Usually professional judges make such decisions.2 Special magistrates courts deal with juveniles.3 The jury found the defendant guilty of kidnapping.4 Some countries, like Russia and South Korea, don’t use a jury system.5 The public prosecutor changed his decision.6 Recently the government has appointed the members of the Supreme Court.7 A barrister represents his client in court.Exercise 8 Read and translate the text. Make a diagram of the US court system.

TEXT СORGANIZATION OF FEDERAL AND STATE COURTS

The American court system is complex. It functions as a part of federal system of government. Each state runs its own court system and no two are identical. In addition, there is a system of courts for the national government.

Courts vary in authority (or jurisdiction) from justice of the peace and small claims courts to the supreme courts of various states and the Supreme Court of the United States. State courts have power to decide cases involving state and local laws. Federal courts have power to decide cases involving federal law. These federal courts coexist with the state courts. Individuals fall under the jurisdiction of both court systems. They can sue* or be sued in either system, depending mostly on what their case is about. The vast majority of cases are resolved in the state courts.

There are ninety-four federal district courts in the United States. Each state has at least one district court. The federal courts are organized in three tiers, like a pyramid. At the bottom of the

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pyramid are the US district courts, where litigation begins. In the middle are the US courts of appeals. At the top is the US Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was created by the Constitution. All other federal courts were created by Congress. To appeal means to take a case to a higher court. The courts of appeals and the Supreme Court are appellate courts. With few exceptions, they review cases that have been decided in lower courts. Most federal courts hear and decide a lot of cases. The judges in these courts are known as generalists.

Most litigation occurs in state courts. The structure of state courts varies from state to state. Usually there are minor trial courts for less serious cases, intermediate appellate courts, and courts of last resort. State courts were created by state constitutions.

to sue – подавати позов, скаргу, порушувати справу, переслідуватиExercise 9 Answer the questions according to the information from text C in writing.1 Is the system of state courts similar to that of federal courts?2 In what way are the federal courts organized?3 Where does litigation begin?4 What was the Supreme Court created by?5 What is the court of last resort?6 What does “to appeal” mean?7 In what way are the state courts organized?Exercise 10 Write down words and phrases with the following meanings. Translate them.1) connected with the law, required by the law;2) crimes which are serious and not serious;4) an English lawyer who specializes in arguing cases and representation in any court;5) legal ending of a marriage;6) an English lawyer who gives advice to clients, investigates, prepares documents;10) US lawyers having the right to prosecute.

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Exercise 11 Replace the nouns in italics in the singular form by the plural one. Is this replacement always possible? What nouns are uncountable here? For references see the grammar supplement.1 There wasn’t enough evidence to prove him guilty.2 You should take legal advice before starting divorce proceedings.3 This is a matter I know little about.4 If I pay this debt I shall have no money left.5 A barrister is specialized in arguing cases in a higher court.6 A solicitor deals with petty crimes.7 A US attorney is a powerful political figure.Exercise 12 You’ve learnt a lot about different types of legal professions. Now test yourself matching the following definitions with the law professional titles and translate them.

barristers, High Court Judges, Magistrates, solicitors*, attorneys

PROFESSIONAL TITLES QUIZ1 English lawyers who judge cases in the lower courts.

They’re usually unpaid and have no legal qualifications, but they’re respectable people who are given some training.

2 They make up the largest branch of the legal profession in England and Wales. They are found in every town where they deal with all the day-to-day work of preparing legal documents for buying and selling houses, making wills, etc. These lawyers also work on court cases for their clients, prepare cases for other lawyers to present in the higher courts, and may represent their client in a Magistrates’ Court.

3 Each federal judicial district has this lawyer who is appointed by the President.

4 Only a small proportion of these lawyers doesn’t preside in Magistrates’ Courts. They deal with the most serious crimes, such as those for which the criminal might be sent to prison for more than a year. They are paid salaries by the state and have considerable legal training.

5 They defend or prosecute in the English higher courts. They specialize in representing clients in court. In court, these lawyers wear wigs and gowns in keeping with the extreme formality of the

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proceedings. The highest level of them has the title QC (Queen’s Counsel).

solicitor – повірений, юрисконсультExercise 13 Read and translate the text. Learn the essential law terms given after it.

TEXT DCOURT PROCEDURE* IN THE USA

A court is a tribunal established to administer justice* under the law. It may decide civil disputes or criminal cases. A court may award damages* or administer punishment* for crimes.

There are two different levels of courts: trial courts* and appellate courts. A trial court is the first court to hear a dispute. Witnesses testify* and present information to prove the facts. A trial court consists not only of a judge but also of lawyers, who are officers* of the court necessary for the court’s operation. The words court and judge are often used to mean the same thing. While presiding* over a legal action*, the judge may be referred to as “The Court” or “Your Honor”.

An appellate court sometimes reviews decisions of a trial court when a party claims an error of law was made at the trial level. In most cases, the decision may be appealed to the next higher court, including the state Supreme Court. The decision of the Supreme Court of a state may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Unlike trial courts, appellate courts do not hear witnesses or accept new evidence. They examine the transcript* – the word-for-word written record of what was said at the trial. They also read appellate briefs*, written arguments on the issues submitted by the opposing attorneys. Then the appellate courts listen to oral arguments of the attorneys and may question them about the case. Finally, the appellate courts decide whether the decision should be affirmed* (upheld), reversed* (overturned), amended* (changed), or remanded*, that is sent back to the trial court for corrective action, including possibly a new trial.

procedure – процедура, процес, процесуальні норми, судочинство, провадження справи в суді

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to administer justice – вершити правосуддяto award damages – відшкодовувати збиткиto administer punishment – застосовувати покаранняtrial court – суд першої інстанціїtestify – свідчитиofficer – посадова особа, чиновник, службовецьpreside – головувати, вести засіданняlegal action – судовий процес, позов, правомірна діяtranscript – протоколbrief – письмовий стислий виклад справиto affirm – підтверджуватиto reverse – анулювати, відмінятиto amend – виправлятиto remand – відправляти справу на дослідування

Writing task B: answer the questions in writing.1 What is a court?2 What are the two different levels of courts?3 What does a trial court consist of?4 What is the role of witnesses at the trial?5 What is the role of lawyers at the trial?6 What is an appellate court?7 Do appellate courts hear witnesses or accept new evidence?8 What is a transcript and appellate briefs?9 What is a procedure in appellate courts?10 What are possible decisions of appellate courts?

Speaking task B: use the questions from writing task B and exercise 9 as a plan to discuss a court system of the USA.Exercise 14 Fill in the blanks with words and word-combinations from the box. Translate the text.

decisions analysis equality judicial proceedingscourts the rule of law power

Judicial power in Ukraine belongs exclusively to the 1) in the form of constitutional, civil, criminal and administrative 2) . All 3) proceedings must be public and open. They should be based on the 4) of both parties before law. Ukraine as a state which operates under 5) should have independent judicial

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6) . Its task is a fair and impartial* adjudication* of disputes between individuals and between the state and individuals. Judicial 7) should be reasoned, unprejudiced* and based upon a complete and objective 8) of facts.

impartial – безстороннійadjudication – винесення судового рішенняunprejudiced – неупереджений

Creative task: draw a diagram of court system of Ukraine. Describe the different types of court in our jurisdiction and the areas of law they deal with. Select one type of court in our jurisdiction and explain what kinds of cases it deals with. Use additional texts to this unit. Use Ukrainian names of the courts but use the English language to describe their functions.Exercise 15 Сomplete this diagram with the words and definitions (a–f).a) expert witness;b) appellant;c) person who is sued in a civil lawsuit*;d) officer of the court whose duties include keeping order and assisting the judge and jurors;e) person who pleads* cases in court;f) hypothetical person who uses good judgment or common sense in handling practical matters; such a person’s actions are the guide in determining whether an individual’s actions were reasonable.

prudent – обачнийbailiff – судовий пристав, виконавецьlawsuit – судовий процесto plead – виступати в суді, вести судову справу

Note that the ending -or, -er indicates one who grants; -ee indicates one who receives. Words using these endings include: employer (роботодавець) – employee (службовець, працівник).

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judge

3) ________

defendant/respondent

reasonably prudentperson

Claimant (GrB)Plaintiff (US)

4) __________

clerk advocate

COURT

bailiff

Public official who has the authority to hear and decide casePerson who

initiates a civillawsuit

Person who hasspecialised knowledge of particular subject who is called to testify in court6)

5)

2)

1)

Employee who takes records, files papers and issues processes

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Person who appeals a decision

to a higher court

Exercise 16 Every area of English has its own specialist use of prepositions. Law is no exception. Here are some typical legal phrases. Learn them by heart.

PREPOSITIONS AT LAW1) to accuse someone of smth – звинувачувати когось у чомусь;2) to be liable for smth – бути відповідальним, нести матеріальну відповідальність за щось;3) to sentence smb to a punishment – засуджувати до покарання;4) to claim damages for smth – вимагати компенсації за щось;5) to be entitled to (compensation) – мати право на (компенсацію);6) to bring a case against smb – порушувати судову справу проти когось;7) to be guilty of an offence – бути винним у злочині;8) to fine smb for smth – оштрафувати за щось.Exercise 17 Now complete the following texts with the above written phrases in exercise 16 and translate them in writing. Use each phrase once in the past tense. Write one word in each gap.1 In Court 1, the Police Prosecutor accused Mary Philips _________ disorderly behaviour. A number of witnesses were called to give evidence. Finally, the magistrate decided that Philips ____________ _____________ ___________ the charge but did not _____________ her ___________ prison. Instead, he ___________ her _____________ her behaviour.2 In Court 2, John Peters____________ __________ __________ ____________his employer. He ___________ __________ _________ a serious injury at work. The judge decided that his employer_________ ________ ________ the injury and ruled that Peters___________ __________ ___________ substantial damages.Exercise 18 What do usually lawyers do? Can you answer at once? Complete the text with verbs from the box and translate it in writing. Say whether the list of lawyers’ functions is complete.litigate* negotiate* draft* counsel*

LAWYERS’ MAJOR FUNCTIONS First, lawyers . This means that lawyers offer advice,

even if it is advice their clients would prefer not to hear. Lawyers regularly counsel clients during negotiations and litigation.

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Second, lawyers . This means that they mediate* between competing interests that will be advantageous* to their clients and disadvantageous to their opponents.

Third, lawyers documents. This is probably their most intellectually challenging function.

Fourth, they . This is the skill most people associate with lawyers. But only a small number of all lawyers devote much time to courtroom activities. The majority of attorneys never venture* into a courthouse except to file legal papers with a clerk.

to negotiate – вести перемовини, справу, обговорювати умови

to mediate – виступати посередникомto counsel – морально підтримуватиadvantageous – вигіднийto draft – укладати, складатиto litigate – судитися, виступати в судіto venture – ризикнути

Exercise 19 Combine the nouns in the box with the verbs below to make combinations to describe the work lawyers do. Translate them. Some of the verbs go with more than one noun. Choose three “verb + noun” pairs and write sentences using them.

сases clients contracts corporations* decisionsdefendants disputes law legislation

Advise, draft, litigate, practice, represent, research.corporation – корпорація, акціонерна компанія, юридична

особаListening task: several different words can be used to refer to a “lawyer”. But “lawyer” is a wide term which refers to all professionals working in the legal profession; it does not refer to a specific job. Listen to three law students in the UK talking about the kind of work they would like to do when they have completed their law studies. Write the correct word for “lawyer” in the gaps.

LAWYERSAnna: So, what are you two planning to do later, when you’ve completed your degree? Daniel; Well, right now, I’m planning to become a 1) ____________, because I’d really like to plead cases in court.

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Anna: You’ve been watching too many of those American films, when the handsome young 2) ___________ wins the case against the big, bad corporation!Daniel: Very funny. I just like the idea of arguing a case. I think it’d be exciting. What about you? Anna: Actually, I’d like to work for a big corporation and advise them on their legal affairs, as 3) _____________. I’ve heard the work can be very challenging. What are your plans, Jacob?Jacob: I’m thinking about becoming a 4) ______________. I’m not that interested in pleading cases in court. I’d rather do research and give legal advice – I think that’d suit me better.Final speaking task: discuss these questions:1 Does your native language have more than one word for lawyer? Do they correspond to the different English words for lawyer mentioned above? If not, how do the concepts differ?2 What is each type of legal practitioner in your jurisdiction entitled to do?3 What English term do you use to describe your job or the job you would like to do?Final writing task: now that you have almost completed this part of unit 2 look through it once again to find “noun + noun” combinations. Write them down with the translationSuggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these quotations and proverbs mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them.1 You yourself are guilty of a crime when you do not punish crime.

(Publilius Syrus).2 There is no crime without a precedent. (Seneca).3 It is better to risk saving a guilty person than to condemn an

innocent one. (Voltaire).4 Let the punishment fit the crime.5 Let the punishment be equal with the offence. (Marcus Tullius

Cicero).6 The greatest incitement to crime is the hope of escaping

punishment. (Marcus Tullius Cicero).7 Judge not that you be not judged.8 Revenge is a kind of wild justice. (Francis Bacon)9 We easily forget crimes known only to ourselves.10 Who demands justice must administer justice.

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UNIT 2PART III

A CAREER IN LAW

READING WITH A PURPOSEExercise 1 Read and translate the text. Find out the peculiarities of every legal professional mentioned in the text.

TEXT ALEGAL PROFESSIONALS

Most countries have different groups of lawyers which take particular examination to qualify* to do particular jobs. In England and Wales, the legal profession is split into two distinct branches: solicitors and barristers.

Solicitors undertake legal business for lay clients and deal directly with the public. Solicitors work in law firms (also known as practices), and as legal advisers in commercial organizations. They carry out all types of legal work, but have limited rights of audience*. They are only able to act as court advocates in lower courts, dealing generally with more minor cases. However, solicitors may increase their rights of audience by qualifying as a solicitor-advocate. To become a solicitor-advocate, a solicitor must pass rigorous* advocacy* examinations. If successful, the solicitor will have similar rights of audience to those of barristers. The work of solicitors in England and Wales is regulated by the Law Society. Their position is regulated by Acts of Parliament.

Barristers advise on* difficult legal problems and conduct legal proceedings in any higher courts. They are experts on advocacy and in interpretation of the law. Barristers are professional court advocates and have rights of audience in all the courts. They may work in law firms or as legal advisers in commercial companies. But more often they work in chambers*, as independent court advocates. The work of barristers in England and Wales is regulated by the Bar Council. Barristers must have an accepted educational standard and pass legal examinations as well as solicitors. These exams are conducted by the Council of Legal Education. After passing the examinations a barrister may become a member of the Inns of Court*.

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Speaking about English lawyers, it is necessary to note that the Bench of judges is recruited from the barristers alone. The highest appointments in the legal profession and the title QC (Queen’s Counsel*), are made from barristers as well.

The terms “solicitor” and “barrister” are also employed in South Africa, Canada and former British colonies, such as Australia and New Zealand. The separate Scottish legal profession is divided into solicitors and advocates.

In the USA and in many other countries, the usual term for a qualified lawyer is attorney-at-law or simply attorney. The ninety-four US attorneys are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. There are also district attorneys* (D. A.), also called prosecuting attorneys or prosecutors. They are hired by the city, county, state or federal department to represent the government side in criminal cases. They have to collect and present evidence in court to prove a defendant’s guilt.

to qualify – отримати право, кваліфікуватиrights of audience – право виступати в судіrigorous – з високими вимогамиto advise on – консультуватиadvocacy – адвокатська діяльність, адвокатура, захистchamber – адвокатська контораInns of Court – адвокатські корпорації, гільдії (у Лондоні)Queen’s Counsel – королівський адвокатdistrict attorney – окружний прокурор

Exercise 2 Complete the following sentences using the information from the text. Translate them.1 English lawyers are divided into .2 Barristers conduct legal proceedings in the .3 A solicitor deals directly with .4 have limited rights of audience.5 will increase their rights of audience after successful passing advocacy examinations.6 The position of solicitors is regulated by .7 are professional court advocates.8 US district attorneys collect and present evidence in court to .

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Exercise 3 Look through text A again and point out all modal verbs and their equivalents. For references see the grammar supplement.Exercise 4 Fill in the blanks with modal verbs or their equivalents. Translate the sentences.1 Only a solicitor deal with public.2 A solicitor represent his client in the lower courts.3 Future solicitors go through a period of professional training with a practicing solicitor.4 After the period of training a solicitor pass the necessary exams.5 To become a solicitor-advocate they pass advocacy exams.6 A barrister have an accepted educational standard.7 A barrister pass legal exams conducted by the Council of Legal Education.8 Having passed legal examinations a barrister become a member of the Inns of Court.9 To take the case to the higher courts the solicitor ask barrister’s advice.10 The Senate approve the President decision to appoint the US district attorneys.Exercise 5 Look through text A once again and point out the verbs in the Passive Voice. For references see the grammar supplement.Exercise 6 Every legal system needs professionals to provide legal services. Below is a list of tasks carried out by solicitors and barristers. Classify them into the appropriate column.

advising clients on general legal issuesadvising clients on specialist legal issues

advising on litigation advising on tax mattersadvocacy in all courts advocacy in the lower courts

commercial work conveyancing of housesdealing with commercial transactions

drafting of documents in connection with litigationmaking wills preparing cases

share* and other property dealings*I Solicitors II Barristers

advocacy in the lower courts advocacy in all courtsshare – частка, акція

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dealings – ділові стосункиExercise 7 Read and translate the text. Then agree or disagree with the statement: “It’s very difficult to become a lawyer”. Give your reasons according to your own experience.

TEXT BENTERING LEGAL PROFESSION

How does someone become a lawyer?In some countries in order to practice as a lawyer it is

necessary to get a university degree* in law. However, in others, a degree may be insufficient*, professional examinations must be passed*. In Britain, the main requirement* is to pass the Bar Final examination* (for barristers) or the Law Society Final examination* (for solicitors). Someone with University degree in a subject other than law needs first to take a preparatory course*. Someone without a degree at all may also prepare for the final examination, but this will take several years. In most countries, lawyers will tell you that the time they spent studying for their law finals* was one of the worst periods of their life! This is because an enormous number of procedural rules covering a wide area of law must be memorized. In Japan there are relatively few lawyers. The examinations to become an attorney, a public prosecutor or a judge are particularly hard: less than 5 percent of candidates pass. Even after passing the examination, though, a lawyer is not necessarily qualified. A solicitor in England, for example, must then spend two years as an articled clerk*. During this time his work is closely supervised* by an experienced lawyer, and he must take further courses. A barrister must spend a year as a pupil.

The rate at which the legal profession grows is terrific. At the end of the 21st century the number of lawyers will probably outpace* the rate of population growth. Why is the career in law so popular? In the USA the average salary* of experienced lawyers in private practice is more than $100,000. Lawyers’ salaries are substantially greater than those of many other professionals. The glamour of legal practice strengthens* the attraction of its financial rewards.

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the Bar Final examination – іспит, який здається при вступі до Колегії Адвокатів

the Law Society Final examination – іспит, який надає право стати членом Спілки юристів (профспілки солістерів)

degree – звання, ступіньinsufficient – недостатнійto pass – здавати (іспити) requirement – вимога, необхідна умоваto take a course – пройти курс навчанняfinals – випускні іспити articled clerk – клерк-стажер (без оплати) to supervise – спостерігати, керуватиto outpace – випереджати, перевищуватиsalary – заробітня плата to strengthen – підсилювати, закріпляти

Exercise 8 Circle а), b) or с) to complete and translate the sentence.1) The British lawyers are required .

a) to pass professional exams;b) to work as a clerk for 5 years after graduating from a university;c) to wear black suits.

2) The requirements for barristers and solicitors are .a) identical;b) partially identical;c) different.

3) In Japan the professional law exams are .a) difficult to pass;b) not practised;c) easy to pass.

4) A barrister must work for a year as .a) an articled clerk;b) a pupil;c) an attorney.

5) The average salary of an experienced lawyer is .a) very low;b) ridiculous;c) much higher than those of other professionals.

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Exercise 9 Tick the true / false (T / F) statements according to text B. Correct the false ones.1 The legal profession is extremely popular all over the world.2 A future lawyer must pass various professional exams.3 A solicitor in England must spend half a year as an articled clerk.4 The final exam for barristers is called the Bar Final examination.5 Japan has a large number of lawyers.Exercise 10 Choose the correct definition of the term “an articled clerk”:a) an inexperienced lawyer;b) a lawyer who failed his final exam;c) a post which a solicitor in England has for two years after passing Law Society Final exam.Writing task A: answer the questions according to the information given in texts A and B.1 What is unique about the English legal system?2 What kind of problems does a solicitor deal with?3 How do they qualify as solicitors?4 What are the barristers experts in?5 When must people ask barrister’s advice?6 How do they qualify as barristers?7 What countries are barristers found in?8 What legal professionals are found in the USA?9 How are the US attorneys appointed?10 What is special about the Japanese legal system?Speaking task A: use the answers from writing task A as a plan to speak about the peculiarities of legal professions in different countries.Exercise 11 Read about the requirements for entering the legal profession in the UK and the USA.

TEXT СLEGAL EDUCATION: A CALL TO THE BAR*

In English-speaking countries, the Bar is a term for the legal profession itself, while a bar association is the association which regulates the profession. A person who qualifies to practise law is

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admitted to the Bar; on the other hand, to disbar a lawyer is to make him or her unable to practise law.

STUDYING LAW IN THE UKIn the UK, a legal education usually begins with the

completion of a bachelor degree in law, known as an LLB, which usually takes three years. It is the first academic stage, which provides a general theoretical introduction to the law. In the subsequent* vocational stage, a person who wishes to become a barrister joins one of the Inns of Court before beginning the Bar Vocational Course. The completion of this stage is marked by a ceremony – the call to the Bar. A third stage, known as pupillage, is a year-long apprenticeship*, usually at a set of barristers’ chambers, which customarily consists of groups of 20 – 60 barristers. Similarly, a person wishing to become a solicitor must also complete three stages: the first stage involves gaining a law degree; the second stage requires passing a one-year Legal Practice Course (LPC); and the final stage entails working for two years as a trainee solicitor with a firm of solicitors or in the legal department of a local authority or large company.

STUDYING LAW IN THE USAIn the USA, a legal education comprises four years of

undergraduate study followed by three years of law school. A law-school graduate receives the degree of juris doctor* (J. D.) In order to qualify as a lawyer, a law-school graduate must pass the bar examination.

Note that in British English, the noun is spelled practice and the verb practise; in American English both the noun and the verb are spelled practise.

a call to the bar – прийом до адвокатуриsubsequent – наступнийapprenticeship – учнівствоjuris doctor (J. D.) – ступінь бакалавра права

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Exercise 12 Find terms with the word BAR in text C which match these definitions. Translate them.1) a lawyer who is qualified to plead on behalf of clients;2) in the UK, a training course which enables people who wish to become barristers and who have registered with the Inns of Court to acquire the skills and knowledge to prepare them for the specialised training of the pupilage;3) a ceremony held at the end of this training course, when a candidate enters the profession;4) organisation regulating the legal profession;5) in the USA, an important test taken by law-school graduates which, when passed, qualifies a person to practise law;6) granted entrance to the legal profession;7) to compel a lawyer to stop practising law due to an offence committed.Exercise 13 The legal training for solicitors (who provide general legal advice to clients) and barristers (who present cases in the upper courts) is different. The following short texts describe the stages in legal training, but the steps are mixed up. Put the steps into the correct category and order and translate them in writing.1 PRACTICE AND CONTINUING EDUCATIONThe next stage is to obtain a “tenancy”*: becoming an assistant to a practising barrister.2 GETTING THE QUALIFICATIONSThe next step is to acquire some legal training specific to the work of a barrister.3 DEVELOPING PRACTICAL SKILLSNext the intending solicitor has to enter a two-year training contract with a firm of solicitors to gain practical experience in a variety of areas of law.4 GETTING THE TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE: PUPILLAGEThis is the “apprenticeship” served by trainee barristers, who are known as pupils. It usually takes a year and consists of a mixture of assisting and observing experienced barristers, as well as more practical experience.

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5 GETTING THE ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONSThe quickest and most common route to qualification is by means of a qualifying law degree.6 GETTING THE VOCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONSThey will have to undertake the Legal Practice Course, which is the professional training for solicitors. The course teaches the practical application of the law to the needs of clients.7 GETTING THE ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONSThe first part of training to become a barrister is known as the academic stage, which provides a general theoretical introduction to the law.

I Training for solicitors II Training for barristers5

tenancy – орендаWriting task B: 1) write whether legal education in our country is more similar to the UK or the US model; 2) describe the necessary stages of legal training in Ukraine.Exercise 14 Read the text below and answer these questions. Give it a headline.1 Which courses do law students in the UK have to take?2 Which optional courses might a student who wants to work in a big law firm take?3 Which core courses are typical in our country?4 How long does it take to complete a law degree in Ukraine?

TEXT DThe study of law is intellectually stimulating and challenging,

and can lead to a variety of interesting careers.In the UK and the USA, law degree programmes usually take

three years. In the UK, these programmes typically include core (compulsory) subjects such as criminal law, contract law, tort* law, land law, equity* and trusts*, administrative law and constitutional law. In addition, students often take courses covering skills such as legal writing and legal research.

There is also a variety of optional (elective) courses available. Since many law students go on to become lawyers, students often take courses that will be useful to them during their future careers.

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Someone wishing to run a small partnership* or to work alone as a sole practitioner* in a small town may decide to take subjects such as family law, employment law and housing law. Those wishing to work in a large law practice will consider subjects such as company law, commercial law and litigation and arbitration.

Many universities also offer courses on legal practice. Courses like this give students the opportunity to experience the work of a lawyer before deciding on a career in the law. Another way of finding out more about law in practice is to get involved with a voluntary advice centre or law clinic. These clinics offer free legal assistance to the local community and provide a useful introduction to some of the day-to-day work of a lawyer.

For students wishing to work in a commercial practice, knowledge of foreign languages is essential. When law firms hire new recruits, they generally look at four things: education, personality, work experience and language ability. Since English is the language of the international legal community, law firms increasingly expect graduates to have a good command of English.

tort – цивільне правопорушення, делікт, цивільно-правовий делікт

equity – право справедливостіtrusts – довірча власність, майно, яким управляють за

дорученням, довірчі майнові відносиниpartnership – товариство, партнерствоpractitioner – адвокат (юрист), який займається

практикоюExercise 15 Read the text again and decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.1 A course in family law is usually included among the core subjects at law schools in the UK.2 Some law degree programmes offer courses in some of the important skills that lawyers need in order to do their work, such as legal writing or legal English.3 Law clinics give law students the opportunity to learn about the legal problems of the medical profession.

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4 Today, commercial law firms expect recruits to be completely fluent in English.Exercise 18 When you record vocabulary, you should write down not only single words, but also collocations. How many collocations with the words “legal” (e.g. legal writing) and “law” (e. g. law firm) can you find in text D?Exercise 19 Complete these sentences by inserting either “law” or “legal”. Translate them.1 Instruction in legal English is becoming compulsory in a growing number of law faculties all over the world.2 After university, my work as a trainee solicitor gave me useful experience in commercial litigation, and I was offered a good position in a large firm.3 During my studies, I volunteered at a local clinic, where I provided free assistance to people who could not afford to pay for a lawyer.4 Some of the most important courses a student completes during his studies of the law are skills courses, such as courses in  writing and research.Listening task: listen to the discussion and tick what each speaker says he / she did on his / her legal English course. Analyse your legal English.

Most universities now offer language courses for lawyers, and in some countries these courses are compulsory. Some courses in legal English focus on the study of Anglo-American legal systems and associated terminology. Others offer a more practical introduction to the language skills lawyers will need during their future careers.

You are going to hear a discussion between two law students, Heidi from Germany and Pavlo from Ukraine. They are each spending a semester studying law in England and are discussing the English courses they were required to take as part of the law degree programmes in their respective countries.

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Heidi’s course(Speaker 1)

Pavlo’s course

(Speaker 2)

Your English course

worked on writing skills for lawyerspractised legal research skillslearned about other legal systemsstudied terminologygave presentationspractised speaking about own legal system

Listen to the conversation again and then discuss with a partner which course (Heidi’s or Pavlo’s) most resembles your experience of legal English so far.Speaking task B:I Discuss these questions with a partner. Look at the sample responses.

LAW FIRMS AND COURSES1 What type of law firm do you (think you would like to) work in?

I’d like to work as a sole practitioner, as I’d prefer to be my own boss. – I think a big law firm would be exciting.2 Which optional courses are you taking / did you take during your studies?

This semester, I’m taking an elective course in environmental law. – I took a course on human rights law when I was in law school.II Reading texts in a foreign language often means encountering unfamiliar words. Discuss these questions with a partner.1 What is the best way to deal with unfamiliar words in a text?2 Read the following list of strategies and discuss how useful they are. What factors might affect the strategy you use? Try to understand the new word with the help of surrounding

words. Look up every unknown word in a dictionary. Ignore the unknown word and read on.

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Look up some new words, ignore others. Analyse the unknown word: ask what part of speech it is (a noun

or an adjective, for example); if it has a root or a prefix (Latin or French, for example) that may help you understand it; if it has a positive or negative meaning, etc.

Keep these strategies in mind when reading in English.Exercise 20 This exercise highlights some typical problems that learners of English have and gives some practical solutions. Read information about each character (1, 2, 3, 4) and their problems.

1 Stephanie, a talented junior lawyer, is a perfectionist. She can write beautiful English, but takes too much time checking for mistakes. She knows many rules of English grammar, but she doesn’t like speaking English in public because she is ashamed of her mistakes. Her boss speaks English fluently, which makes Stephanie feel embarrassed. At meetings with native speakers, she prefers to let her boss speak.

2 Jung Hwan is a law student. He has to read a lot for his studies, but has great problems understanding written English. He checks lots of technical jargon in his law dictionary, but still doesn’t understand what the text is trying to say. His listening is even worse: he understands lots of individual words, but cannot follow fluent speech at all. He has a very strong accent, which means that he is reluctant to speak.

3 Borys works in a large law firm. He speaks fairly fluently in English, but he makes lots of mistakes, including very basic ones. He can usually get his message across, but his boss is concerned that his carelessness in English creates a bad impression with international clients. His writing is terrible.

4 Mara is studying law and business administration. She has been studying English for years, but cannot get through a psychological barrier stopping her from speaking fluently. She always worries that she has misunderstood what the conversation is about, and that she will say something irrelevant or embarrassing. She knows lots of words, but forgets them when she wants to speak. By the time she has thought of the right word, the conversation has usually moved on to another topic.

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Exercise 21 Choose solution cards (A–K) with the advice to Stephanie, Jung Hwan, Borys and Mara from Exercise 20. You may give your own ideas. Say which of these techniques you are going to try.

A Don’t be afraid of making mistakes. The biggest mistake is to say nothing. If you say nothing, people will surely think you’re useless. Compared to that, grammar mistakes are nothing.

B Don’t be ashamed of your English, especially in front of monolingual native speakers. Be proud that you’re bilingual.

C Don’t just learn complicated new words. Short words, even ones which you think you know, are also worth learning. There’s a difference between recognizing a word when you see it and being able to use it fluently. If you can’t use it but ought to, it’s worth learning.

D Don’t try to translate from your own language when writing. Most sentences can be copied from other pieces of writing, with only small details changed. Keep a bank of useful phrases and sentences for writing and use them in your own writing.

E As you write, keep your sentences short and simple. Make sure every sentence has a subject at the beginning and a verb in an appropriate tense. When you’ve finished writing, check again for mistakes, or get a colleague to check with you.

F Learn some good interrupting phrases, like “Can I just say anything?”. If you can use these fluently, you’ll have time to think of the best way to continue.

G Learn words systematically. If you set yourself a target of ten words a day, you can easily learn 3,000 in a year. In other words, you could double your vocabulary.

H Listen as much as you can in English. Watch DVDs with subtitles in English, and then again without the subtitles. Find the lyrics to pop songs you like.

I Make a list of your mistakes so you can make sure you don’t keep making them.

J Read as much as you can in English, not just for your work or studies. If you read for fun (e.g. novels, websites), don’t spoil the fun by checking lots of words.

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K Speak as much as you can in English. Find a friend who is also learning and chat together. It’ll feel strange at first, but it’s free and fun. Don’t worry too much about mistakes, but experiment with new words and structures.Exercise 22 Choose the words from the box which can be combined with the word LAWYER to describe different types of lawyers. Translate them. Say what each one does.

bar corporate defence government patentpractitioner public-sector judge tax trial

Model: tax lawyer – юрист, який спеціалізується на податкових питаннях.Exercise 23 Read and translate the text.

TEXT EFUTURE OF LAW FIRM

Now there is a clear understanding that whatever your career is, it will involve the use of computational devices. More and more people are coming to law schools – programmers, system analysts, consultants – all deciding law is interesting to them.

Law students are now comfortable with tech*. One can’t be an active member of this profession without these technologies. Either you are doing it, or someone has got to be doing it for you. At the IBM* Centre for Law and Computers in Vancouver the scientists are working on expert systems. In a system called Whiplash you can feed in the details of a particular case. The program then asks questions. Then it will look at a history of other cases and say, “I think your case is worth this many dollars”. Also under development is Trade Ref, a system that gives consultation about trade law. Scientists in Ann Arbor have developed a program that will ask you the facts about your case and apply law to it. And still computers can have a limited impact on lawyers. Computers can support lawyers but they can’t make them better orators.

Tech. = technologyIBM = International Business Machines Corporation,

Американська корпорація, розробник та виробник ЕОМ, зовнішніх пристроїв та програмного забезпечення

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GRAMMAR REVISIONExercise 1 Look through the text once again and point out all the verbs in Active Voice.Exercise 2 Fill in the following table:The computers can. The computers can’t.123etc.Final speaking task: say what you have learned about the role of computers in legal profession. How are you comfortable with tech?Final writing task: complete the text with the modal verbs from the box. Some verbs are used several times. Translate the text in writing. For references see the grammar supplement.

must can should may are toPERSONAL ATTRIBUTES OF LAWYER

Lawyers 1) be able to write and speak clearly and with precision. Trial lawyers in particular 2) be persuasive speakers. Lawyers 3) be able to think logically and analyze complicated legal documents. Because of the complexity of the law, lawyers 4) be thorough in their research of the law. Because of the role lawyers play in law enforcement, they 5)  live up to a high standard of ethical conduct.

Lawyers 6) be willing to work hard and put in long days. They 7) continue to study and learn since the law changes all the time.

Lawyers 8) be able to understand all types of people. They 9) have to defend people they dislike or positions they disagree with. Lawyers 10) also be objective, putting aside their personal feelings so that they 11)  serve their clients well.

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REVIEW VOCABULARY TESTExercise 1 Now as you have almost completed this part, here is a test to check your knowledge of the legal terms covered in this unit. Use the clues on the left to complete the words on the right. Translate them.1 A country’s body of judges J U D I C I A R Y2 Senior official in a court of law __U__ __E3 System of laws which evolved from the tribal and local laws in England C__ __M__ __ L__ __4 System of laws which evolved in the 8th century ВС

R__M__ __ __A__5 The branch of law dealing with crime C__ __ __I__A__ L__ __6 Person who institutes a criminal case P__ __S__C__T__ __7 Person who makes a claim in a civil case __L__ __N__I__F8 The defendant normally pays this to the plaintiff __ __M__G__S9 Panel of 12 people who decide whether the accused committed a crime __ __ __Y10 Lawyer who presents a case to a higher court__ __R__I__T__R11 Lawyer who advises clients __O___I__ __T__R12 Untrained lawyer who presides over the lowest criminal court

__A__ __S__R__T__13 Person against whom a civil case is brought D__ __E__D__ __T14 An act passed by a law-making body __ __G__S__A__I__ __15 The control resulting from following a community’s system of rules A__ __H__R__ __ __16 “Apprenticeship” served by trainee barristers P__ __I__L__G__17 Becoming an assistant to a practising barrister T__ __A__ __Y18 Court which hears appeals from the Court of Appeal

H__ __ __E __F L__ __ __SExercise 2 Some words can have several meanings. Choose the best explanation (a or b) for each of these words or phrases as they are used in the presentation.1 a partnera) one of the owners of a partnership (e.g. a law firm);b) someone’s boyfriend, girlfriend, husband or wife;

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2 an associatea) a person whose position at work is slightly lower or less complete than the full official position described (e.g. an associate director);b) a person who is closely connected to another person as a companion, friend or business partner;3 a bonusa) a pleasant, additional thing;b) extra money given as a reward in addition to the expecting money;4 benefitsa) a helpful or good effect, or something intended to help;b) things employees receive in addition to money (e.g. medical insurance);5 to practisea) to do something regularly in order to become skilled at it;b) to work in an important skilled job for which a lot of training is necessary.Exercise 3 Analyse the suffixes and parts of speech of the family words. For references see the grammar supplement.

Law – lawful – lawless – unlawful, practice – practical – unpractical, to produce – productive – unproductive – production, logic –logical – illogical, to act – active – inactive, to move – movement – movable – immovable, regular – irregular – irregularity, judge – to judge – to misjudge, to inform – to misinform – misinformation.Suggested activity in conclusion: decide what you think these proverbs mean. Think of examples to illustrate some of them.1 An eye for eye and a tooth for tooth.2 Honesty is the best policy.3 Prevention is better than cure.4 Sooner or later the truth comes to light.5 The truth is the best advocate.6 Truth never fears investigation.7 We should consult three things in all our actions: justice, honesty

and utility.8 When the cat is away the mice will play.Final creative task: make a project to highlight the main points which make your profession so attractive. Use the appropriate proverb or quotation. You may start like this:

“I have chosen law as a career because…”

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ADDITIONAL READING MATERIALS TO UNIT 2

1 LAW IN SINGAPOREExercise 1 Read and translate the information about law in Singapore, taking into consideration the meaning of the modal verbs and their equivalents.

Singapore welcomes visitors and tourists. Please respect the laws of this country. Here are some points to remember:

SMOKING: Cigarette smoking is a danger to health. It is prohibited in lifts, cinemas, theatres, all government offices and on buses. Fines are up to $500.

LITTER: Singapore is Garden City of Asia – clean and green. Dropping litter in public places is forbidden. You can be fined up to $500 for dropping litter – even if it is a sweet wrapper or a cigarette end.

LONG HAIR: Male visitors should not have hair longer than the top of shirt collar. Long-haired men will be served last of all in government offices.

DRUGS: You can be fined or put in prison for possessing illegal drugs. The penalty for possessing and trafficking more than 15 grams of heroin or morphine is death.

GAMBLING: Only official horserace betting and lotteries are permitted. No other forms of gambling are allowed – even in private houses.

JAYWALKING: You must always use the pedestrian crossings. You can be fined $50 for crossing the street less than 50 metres from a crossing, or for crossing on the red man. These laws also apply to children who are old enough to be in the street on their own. Exercise 2 Read the text and again and mark whether the statements are true, false or not mentioned. Correct the false sentences.1 Foreign tourists do not have to follow Singapore laws.2 It is illegal to smoke in Singapore.3 You can be fined up to $50 for smoking on a bus.4 Dropping litter carries the death penalty.

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5 It is illegal to have long hair in Singapore.6 Women with long hair are served last in government offices.7 You can be executed for buying and selling heroin.8 You are only allowed to gamble in your own home.9 Children are not allowed to cross the road on their own. 10 You should cross the road only when the pedestrian light is green.Exercise 3 Find words in the text to complete these tables:

Smoking in cinemas is

f ________________________

p ________________________

i ________________________

You are not ____________________It is i _____________________

tosmoke in cinemas

You ___________________ not

Exercise 4 Make as many true sentences about Singapore’s laws as you can. Use the information from the previous exercise.

… is illegal.You are not allowed to …You must not…

Exercise 5 These sentences all mean the same. One is informal, the others are formal. Which do you think is the informal one?1 You are not allowed to smoke in cinemas.2 Smoking in cinemas is forbidden.3 It is illegal to smoke in cinemas.4 Smoking in cinemas is prohibited.5 You mustn’t smoke in cinemas.Exercise 6 Give the informal version as in example:1 Smoking in cinemas is forbidden. – You mustn’t smoke in cinemas.2 Crossing on the red man is prohibited. – You mustn’t cross on the red man.Creative task: what do you think of Singapore’s laws? What are the laws in our country for these things? Make a set of your own laws to keep your environment clean and green.

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2 LAW IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIESExercise 1 In pairs, read about some strange laws and customs. Four of these are false. Discuss with your partner which ones you think they are.1 In China, when you use chopsticks you shouldn’t leave them

upright in the bowl. It brings bad luck.2 In Sweden, if you drink and drive, you have to go to prison for

six months.3 In Argentina, when you get on a train you should shake hands

with all the other people in the carriage.4 In France, you are not allowed to call a pig “Napoleon”.5 In Scotland, boys have to wear a kilt to school.6 In Brazil, you should never make the “OK” sign with your

thumb. It is very rude.7 In Germany, every office must have a view of the sky.8 In the Middle East, you shouldn’t admire anything in your hosts’

home. They will feel that they have to give it to you.9 In Singapore, you mustn’t eat chewing-gum. It’s against the law.10 In India, you shouldn’t thank your hosts at the end of a meal. It

is an insult.11 In Japan, women mustn’t wear trousers to work.12 In the UK, parents don’t have to send their children to school.

They can teach them at home if they prefer.13 In Russia, men should take off their gloves to shake somebody’s

hand.14 In Iceland, you mustn’t take dogs into the city centre.15 In Thailand, you shouldn’t touch a person’s head (even of a

child). The head is sacred.16 In Australia, women mustn’t sit on the top floor of a bus, only

downstairs.17 In Samoa, it is against the law for a man to forget his wife’s

birthday.18 In Switzerland, you aren’t allowed to clean your car or cut the

grass on a Sunday.19 In the USA, you shouldn’t tip taxi drivers. It is considered an

insult.

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20 In Italy, if you give flowers you should give them in odd numbers, e.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. it is bad luck to give, for example, two flowers.

Exercise 2 Which of these customs and laws would you like to have in our country? Choose your top three.

3 IT MUST BE TRUE…Exercise 1 Read and translate the brief information from tabloids*.

An Argentinian housewife has been arrested for holding* a washing machine repair man hostage*. Terra Populares, 44, was so enraged* by her faulty* appliance* that she held a gun to the repair man’s head and forced him to sign a statement swearing* that the machine would never break again.

* * * * *Rich Americans have come up with a novel* form of

excitement: designer kidnaps*. For a few hundred dollars, organisers will discuss your preferred type of abduction*. Then, a few days later, masked men will drag you into the back of a van, and keep you captive for the agreed period. Organiser Brock Enright has conducted 24 such kidnappings; one client asked to be shoveled* into a hole and forced to stay there for days.

* * * * *An American man has devised* a foolproof* plan to ensure*

that his relatives visit his grave after his death. Grover Chestnut, of Montana, has left instructions for an ATM machine to be installed* in his headstone*. The machine will be programmed to dispense* $300 once a week to each of his heirs*.

* * * * *Police are searching for a female driver who whizzed* along

the motorway while eating a steak-and-chip* dinner with a knife and fork. Drivers on the M27 reported a woman driving erratically*, and upon closer inspections*, saw her carving* up her steak with cutlery* from a plate balanced on her lap*.

* * * * *

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Scotland Yard has launched* a manhunt* for “Jack the Sipper*”. Police are searching for a man who targets* London cafes, engaging* diners* in small talk, distracting them, and then slurping* their tea when they’re not looking. By the time victims realize their cups are empty, the man has fled*.

* * * * *Restaurants in Kerala, India, have banned* a man with a giant

appetite from joining in their “all you can eat” offers*. Restaurant windows are plastered in posters* which read “Beware* of P. K. Rappai” along with pictures of the 18.5-stone* man, who eats enough rice and spicy lentils* for 20 people.

* * * * *An Italian boss has been arrested for charging* an illegal immigrant rent to live in a car. The 35-years-old Tunisian refugee* was found living in an old estate car* which had been decorated with a bed, small desk and portable TV. “I was happy there and really thought I could settle down,” he said

tabloid – бульварна газетаto hold – утримуватиhostage – заложник, заручникenraged – розлютований faulty – зіпсований appliance – прилад to swear – присягатися novel – оригінальний designer kidnap – спроектоване викрадення abduction – викрадення captive – полонений to shovel – засовувати, закопуватиto devise – придумати foolproof – розм. нескладнийto ensure – забезпечити to install – установлювати headstone – надгробний каміньto dispense – роздавати heir – спадкоємець

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to whiz – проноситися зі свистом steak-and-chip – біфштекс зі смаженою картоплеюerratically – безладно inspection – спостереження to carve – різати cutlery – ножові виробиlap – коліна to launch – починати manhunt – переслідування to sip – потягувати (маленькими ковтками), сьорбатиtarget – робити мішеннюto engage – залучати diner – той, хто обідає to slurp – поглинати to flee (fled / fled) – зникнути ban – забороняти offer – пропозиція poster – оголошення to beware – остерігатися stone = 6, 35 кг lentil – сочевиця to charge – брати, просити (ренту)refugee – біженець estate car – легковий автомобіль з кузовом “універсал”

4 COURT SYSTEM OF UKRAINEExercise 1 Read the text and translate it.

Court system of Ukraine has undergone substantial changes since its independence. But this system isn’t sufficient for democratic and constitutional state* yet. Court system consists of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine and courts of general jurisdiction. Courts system of general jurisdiction consists of unspecialized courts and specialized courts, commercial and specialized administrative courts*. The Constitutional Court has jurisdiction only over constitutional matters. Courts’ system of general jurisdiction has a hierarchical structure. This system consists of first-instance local

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courts (district, town, regional and territorial), appellate courts and the Supreme Court of Ukraine. The Supreme Court of Ukraine reviews judgments rendered by the appellate courts and it is the highest authority of the court system of Ukraine.

Article 127 of the Constitution of Ukraine declares that justice in Ukraine is administrated by professional judges and jurors. There are four kinds of procedure in Ukraine: civil process, criminal process, administrative and commercial procedures.

Criminal cases are examined in first-instance local courts by a single judge*. Cases of grave crime* are examined by two judges and three jurors playing role of judges. In appeal and cassation instances criminal cases are heard by three judges. Commercial disputes in court of first instance are heard by a single judge and in high instances by three judges or more but odd number. New Civil Procedural Code provides for hearing civil matters by a single judge or a single judge and two jurors having legal status of judges in court of first instance. Civil matters in high instances are heard by three or more judges. Administrative cases are disposed by a single judge in court of first instance as a rule. But in complex cases there must be three judges in composition of the court.

The legality of the courts’ activities is controlled by the Procurator’s Office. This office exercises general supervision over the observance of laws by executive organs, official and individual citizens. The Procurator-General of Ukraine is appointed by the President and approved by the Verkhovna Rada.

The reform of Ukrainian court is far from normal completion. There are no juries in the sense of common-law in Ukraine. The very goal of the Ukraine’s court reform, that is transformation of inquisitorial judicial proceedings into adversarial ones, is not attained. There are many failures in this reform but there are some achievements. For instance: enforcement of court’s disposition of civil and commercial cases has become more civilized.

No person can be regarded guilty or subjected to legal punishment, before the decision of the court. All Ukrainian citizens are equal before the law.

constitutional state – правова держава

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commercial court – господарський судsingle judge – одноосібно суддеюgrave crime – тяжкий злочин

Exercise 2 Read the text again and say, whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false statements.1 Ukrainian judicial system contains district and regional courts, the Supreme Court, military tribunals and The Procurator’s office.2 Most of the criminal and civil cases are examined in the Supreme Court.3 The Constitutional court hears the most serious cases.4 The Procurator’s office supervises the legality of courts’ activities.5 The Procurator-General of Ukraine is appointed by the President.6 There are adversarial judicial proceedings in Ukraine.

5 WISE ADVICE TO DISTRICT ATTORNEY(After R. Traver)

Exercise 1 Read the text and answer the questions, get ready to discuss it.

Judge Belden called me to his office just before my circuit court term as D. A.* “Shut the door and sit down”, he said, slowly filling his pipe. I sat watching the man.

Despite his advancing years he was as erect and slender as a young man. His powerful neck and shoulders were a heritage from his early days of hard physical labour. (He had put himself through law school and had worked hard at all kinds of jobs after he got out). He had the head of Roman emperor, with deep-set blue-grey eyes, a strong curving nose, a firm chin, and a full, mobile mouth. His thin-ning hair was white, as was his mustache and a small beard. This man radiated awareness and good will.

As he sat there he looked more like a judge than any man I ever knew. In the long professional years that lay ahead together I was to find that he was more like a judge than any judge I ever knew. I was to find that he was wise, patient, humorous, and simple – a fine lawyer and a gentle man. I was also to find that he was my friend, that judge Belden was every inch a man...

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“Young man”, he said, “you are embarking on a tough job, a poorly paid job, and one in which you will receive far more criticism than praise. Criticism is the lot of all men in public life, but particularly that of a public prosecutor”. He paused and added dryly, “I know that is so because I was prosecutor of this country before you were born. On the other hand, few people will know whether you are doing a good job and fewer yet will care. I know and I will care”. He held out his hand and smiled. “Good luck, Johnny.”

“Thank you, Judge Belden,” I said. I was thrilled that this grand old man of the law should care what happened to this young D. A. He had seen so very many.

“Another thing,” Judge Belden continued, “you will lose cases that you will think you should have won. At first it will be hard. But you will have to learn to take these things easily”. The Judge smiled, perhaps recollecting his early days as prosecutor. “You will have to learn to do this because you will be dealing with that strange and wonderful – and unpredictable – beast, the jury.” I sat there visualizing a writing creature with twelve heads, all mechanically repeating. “Not guilty.” “And remember this,” he continued, “jurors in criminal cases always ask themselves not one but two questions: “Is the defendant guilty? If so, do we want to see him punished?” Remember this and your way may be easier. The road will be rocky at best. Now let’s get to work, Johnny.”

D. A. = District Attorney (U. S.), окружний прокурор1 How does the author describe Judge Belden’s appearance?2 Do you think that the author likes Judge Belden? What

makes you think so?3 Why did the author visualize the jury like a writing creature

with twelve heads?4 What wise advice did judge Belden give to a young D. A.?

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GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT A

FORMATION OF TENSES IN ACTIVE VOICE

IndefiniteI або II

Continuousto be  + IV

Perfectto have  + III

Perfect Continuousto be  + IV

Pres

ent

I, we, you, they +  I

he, she, it +  I-s

I ask

I   + am IVhe, she, it + 

is IVwe, you, they 

+ are IV

I am asking

I, we, you, they + have IIIhe, she, it + has III

I have asked

I, we, you, they + have been IV

he, she, it + has been IV

I have been asking

Past

I, he, she, it, we, you, they + II

I asked

I, he, she, it + was IV

we, you, they + were IV

I was asking

I, he, she, it, we, you, they + had III

I had asked

I, he, she, it, we, you, they+ had been IV

I had been asking

Futu

re

I, we, he, she, it, you, they  + will I

I will ask

I, we, he, she, it, you, they 

+ will be IV

I will be asking

I, we, he, she, it, you, they + will 

have III

I will have asked

I, we + shall have been IVhe, she, it, you, they + will 

have been IV

I will have been asking

Futu

re in

 the 

Past

I, we, he, she, you, 

they+ would I

I would have been asking

I, we, he, she, it, you, they

+ would be IV

I would be asking

I, w,e he, she, it, you, they

+ would have III

I would have asked

I, we, he, she, it, you, they+ would have been IV

I would have been asking

I = infinitiveII = past simpleIII = past participleIV = -ing form

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT B

103

FORMATION OF TENSES IN PASSIVE VOICE

to be + Participle II

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE NOTE: the action is done to the subject

IND

EFIN

ITE

Present

Past

Future

ask (s)

asked

will ask

amis askedare

was askedwere

will be asked

He asks /He is askedВін запитує /Його запитують

CO

NTI

NU

OU

S

Present

Past

Future

amis askingare

was askingwere

will be asking

amis being askedare

was being askedwere

He is asking /He is being askedВін зараз запитує /Його зараз запитують

PER

FEC

T

Present

Past

Future

havehas asked

had asked

will have asked

have been askedhas

had been asked

will have been asked

He has asked /He has been askedВін вже запитав /Його вже запитали

MODAL VERBS IN PASSIVE VOICE

can / couldmay / might

must / have toshould / would

needn’t

be done, have been donebe made, have been made

be written, have been writtenbe painted, have been paintedbe invited, have been invited

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT CWORD FORMATION

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Formation of Nounsverb + suffix = noun

to execute tion execution приведення до виконанняto examine examination допит, слідствоto impeach ment impeachment обвинувачення, недовіраto argue argument довід, доказto plead er pleader адвокат, захисникto mug mugger грабіжникto grant ee grantee стипендіатto defend ant defendant підсуднийto defend ce defence захисник, захистto seize ure seizure конфіскація майнаto acquit al acquittal виправданняto proceed ing proceeding розгляд справи в суді

verb без зміни наголосу – nounto judge judge суддяto assault assault словесна образа

verb зміна наголосу – nounto sus'pect 'suspect підозрюванийto con'vict 'convict засуджений

noun + suffix = nounarson ist arsonist підпалювач, палійrobber y robbery крадіжкаowner ship ownership право власності

adjective + suffix = nounjust ce justice справедливістьuseful ness usefulness користь

noun + noun = nounlaw maker lawmaker законодавецьlaw making lawmaking видання законівbirth day birthday день народження

Formation of Adverbsadjective + suffix ly= adverb

legal ly legally законним шляхомinadequate ly inadequately неадекватно

Grammar supplement C continuationFormation of Adjectives

105

noun + suffix = adjectivecontroversy ial controversial суперечливийtradition al traditional традиційнийstatute ory statutory заснований на законіfault y faulty помилковийfault less faultless безпомилковий

verb + suffix = adjectiveto legislate ive legislative законодавчийto indict able indictable що підлягає судовому

переслідуваннюto supervise ory supervisory спостережний, контролюючий

Prefixes and Word Formationprefix + adjective = adjective (with a negative meaning)

un lawful unlawful незаконнийin capable incapable неправоздатнийim material immaterial неістотний, несуттєвийil legal illegal нелегальнийir rational irrational нелогічний

prefix + noun = noun (with a negative meaning)in action inaction бездіяльністьnon compliance non – compliance недотриманняmis representation misrepresentation перекручення

prefix + noun / verb = noun / verb (a repetitive action)re hearing rehearing повторне слухання

to hear to rehear заслухати повторноprefix + noun / verb = noun / verb

counter action counteraction протидіяto act to counteract протидіяти

prefix + noun / adjective = noun / adjectiveinter dependence interdependence взаємозалежність

national international міжнароднийprefix + noun = verb

en act to enact узаконитиim prison to imprison ув’язнюватиin trust to intrust доручати

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT DWORD COMBINATION

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adjective law процесуальне право

LAW

international trade law

міжнародне торгове право

business law торгове право law of association акціонерне правоcommercial

lawlaw merchant law of obligations доказове право

case law прецендентне право

law of property речове право

civil law цивільне право maritime law морське правоconflict of laws колізійне право patent law патентне право

contract law договірне право registration law закон про реєстрацію актів

law of contract

tax law податкове право

criminal law кримінальне право

Roman law римське право English law англійське право

right of action право пред’явлення

позовуRIGHT

right to property

право на власність

right of defence право на захист fundamental human rights

основні права людини

right to work право на працю right of asylum право на притулокright to

educationправо на освіту

arbitration court арбітражний суд

COURT

court of appeal апеляційний суд

criminal court кримінальний суд

court of chancery суд лорда-канцлера

supreme court верховний судlower court суд нижчої

інстанціїcourt of first

instanceсуд першої інстанції

magistrates’court

мировий суд court of second instance

суд другої інстанції

juvenile court суд у справах неповнолітніх

court of supervisory

instance

суд наглядової інстанції

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT E

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SPECIFIC NOUNS

Note that nouns in English can be divided into countable and uncountable. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form; uncountable nouns have only one form. Law is a countable noun; legislation is an uncountable noun.

Collective nouns such as police, jury can be used either in the singular or the plural. In other words we can say both:

the police interrogate ...the police interrogates ...We use the noun in a plural form when we view them as a

group of individuals; we use the noun in the singular form when we view them as a single collective entity.

1 Police are searching for the killer.2 The jury find the prisoner not guilty.Some specific nouns such as evidence, information, news,

money, advice can be only in the singular:1 It is unexpected evidence.2 The information was received through the Internet.3 The news speaks for itself.4 The money was transferred yesterday.5 His advice was very helpful.

Note: a piece of evidencea piece of informationa piece of advice

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT FMODAL VERBS

108

Modal verbs are used to show the speaker’s attitude to the action. We use them with other verbs. There are 10 modals: can, may, must, shall, will, would, should, ought to, need, dare. Modal verbs are not “complete” verbs. They are called defective (except dare and need) because they lack component tenses, the passive and have some other peculiarities:

1 We can’t use them as “to”-infinitives: to go, to speak.2 We don’t use the “to”-infinitives after modals:3 There is no –(e)s in the 3rd person singular:

In their first use modal verbs have basic meanings which are given in the dictionaries:can / could – ability I can lift 25 kg / I can type;shall / will / would – prediction It will rain soon;may / might – permission You may leave early;should / ought to – duty You should do as you are told;must – total obligation You must be quiet;needn’t – no obligation You needn’t wait.

The second use of modal verbs is to express degrees of certainty or uncertainty.

Futurewill (’ll) – He’ll be there now, certainly. Він напевно зараз там буде. (100%).should – Не should be there now, I think. Він, певно, там буде, я думаю. (75%).may – Не may be there now, but I’m not sure. Він, можливо, буде там, але я не впевнений. (50%).might – Не might be there, but I doubt it. Він навряд чи буде там, я маю сумнів. (75%).won’t (will not) – Не won’t be there, I’m sure. Його там не буде, я певний. (100%).

Presentmust / will – They must know it, they were told. Вони напевно знають про це, їм сказали. (100%).should – They should know it, it was announced. Вони, певно, знають, про це повідомляли. (75%).may – They may know it, I’m really not sure. Вони, можливо, знають про це, але я не впевнений. (50%).might – They might know it, but they were out. Вони навряд чи знають про це, їх не було. (75%).

Grammar supplement F continuation

109

can’t – They can’t know it, it was announced right now. Вони напевно не знають, про це тільки що повідомили. (100%).

Pastmust + Perfect Infinitive – They must have arrived by now, it’s already 9 o’clock. Вони, напевно, вже приїхали, вже 9 година. (100%).should + Perfect Infinitive – They should have arrived by now, I think. Вони, певно, вже приїхали, я так думаю. (75%).may + Perfect Infinitive – They may have arrived by now, but the trains are often late. Вони, можливо, вже приїхали, але потяги часто запізнюються. (50%).might + Perfect Infinitive – They might have arrived by now, but I doubt it. Вони навряд вже приїхали, я маю сумнів. (75%).can’t + Perfect Infinitive – They can’t have arrived by now, it’s too early. Вони, напевно, ще не приїхали, ще надто рано. (100%).

Questions and NegativesCan you play chess? I can’t understand a word. May I leave earlier?

The Contracted FormsCan’t, couldn’t, mustn’t, needn’t, oughtn’t, mayn’t, shouldn’t.

Modal Verbs and Their EquivalentsModal verb Present Past FutureEquivalentcanto be able to…

canam able to…is able to…are able to…

couldwas able to…were able to…

will be able to…

Modal verb Present Past FutureEquivalentmayto be allowed to…

mayam allowed to…is allowed to…are allowed to…

mightwas allowed to…were allowed to…

---will be allowed to…

Modal verb Present Past FutureEquivalentmusthave to…

be to…

musthave to…has to…am to…is to…are to…

had to…had to…had to…was to…were to…were to…

will have to…will have to…will have to…

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT G

110

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Conditional sentences may express real and unreal condition. They are introduced by the conjunctions: if, in case, provided, unless, suppose.

Condition Subordinate clause Principal clause

I Real

If it looks like rain,If I have more time,If he is working on Friday,

we’ll stay at home.I’ll come over.he won’t be able to go with us.

Present Indefinite/Present Continuous

Will (Shall)

+ Inf.

Unr

eal

II Present / Future

If I were you,If I had more time,If you knew him better,If it were not raining,

I would go there myself.I would come over.you wouldn’t think so.I could go out.

Past Indefinite/Past Continuous

wouldcouldmight

+ Inf.

III PastIf you had gone there,If you had earned enough money last summer,

you would have seen him.we could have gone to the South.

Past Perfect wouldcouldmight

+ have + Participle II

1 “If” is the most common.“In case” and “provided” are chiefly used in sentences of real condition.

If the weather is fine, we shall go outside. Якщо погода буде гарна ми підемо на вулицю.Unless has a negative meaning.

I’ll come tomorrow unless it rains.Я прийду завтра якщо не буде дощу.Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition.

Suppose he wrote to you, would you answer? – Уявіть, він написав би вам, ви б відповіли?2 There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition:a) the condition refers to the past but the consequence refers to the present;

Grammar supplement G continuation

111

If you had taken medicine yesterday, you would be well today. Якби ти вчора випив ліки, сьогодні б почувався добре.b) the condition refers to no particular time and the consequence to the past.

If he were not so absent-minded, he would not have missed the train yesterday. Якби він не був таким неуважним, він би не спізнився вчора на поїзд.3 In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbs “might” and “could” are often used instead of “would”; they fully retain their modal meaning.

If I had a big garden I would (could, might) grow a lot of flowers. Якби в мене був великий сад, я б вирощував (міг би вирощувати) багато квітів.4) In adverbial clause of condition the verbs had, were, could, should are often introduced without any conjunction. In these cases we find inversion.

If I had time, I would come over.Якби в мене був час, я б зайшов.

Had I time, I would come over.Був би час, я б зайшов.If she were in New York, she would certainly call you. Якби

вона була у Нью Йорку, вона б звісно зателефонувала б тобі. Were she in New York, she would certainly call you. Була б

вона у Нью Йорку, вона б звісно зателефонувала б тобі.Study this example:

“I’ll phone you when I get home” is a sentence with two parts: the main part: “I’ll phone you” and the when-part: “when I get home”. The time in the sentence is future (“tomorrow”), but we use a present tense (I get) in the when-part of the sentence. We do not use will in the when-part of the sentence.

Some more examples:We’ll go out when it stops raining (not when it will stop).When you are in Kyiv again, visit us (not When you will be).

The same thing happens after while / before / after / as soon as / until or till:I’m going to read a lot while I’m on holiday, (not while I will be)I’ll probably go back home on Sunday. Before I go, I’d like to visit the museum.Wait here until (or till) I come back.

GRAMMAR SUPPLEMENT H

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ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS COMMONLY USED IN WRITING AND PRINTING

A.A.A. • (referred to as: «Triple A») Automobile Association of America…AAAA • American Association of Anonymous Alcoholics. A.B.C. • American Broadcasting Corporation.A.C. / D.C. • Alternating current – direct current.A.I.D.S. • Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.A.M. • Ante meridiem (morning).A.O.K. • Absolutely.Note: This is used as a stronger form of «OK».A.S.A.P. • As soon as possible.B.A. • Bachelor of Arts degree.B.B.C. • British Broadcasting CorporationB.L. • Bachelor of Law.B.S. • Bachelor of Science degree.C.B.S. • Columbia Broadcasting System.C.D. • 1. Compact disc 2. Certificate of Deposit.C.E.O. • Chief Executive Officer.C.I.A • Central Intelligence Agency.C.I.D. • Criminal Investigation Department.C.J. • Chief Justice.C.N.N. • (television) Cable News Network.3-D • Three dimensional.D.C. • District of Columbia. This refers to Washington, D.C.D.J. • Disk jockey.D.Q. • (sports term) Disqualified.D.U.I. • (traffic citation) Driving under the influence.D.W.I. • (traffic citation) Driving while intoxicated.E.E.C. • European Economic CommunityE.R. • Emergency room.E.S.P.N. • Entertainment Sports Network.f.a.c. • fast as canF.B.I. • Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Grammar supplement H continuation

113

F.C.C. • Federal Communications Commission.F.D.R. • Franklin Delano Roosevelt.F.M. • (radio) Frequency modulation.F.O. • Foreign OfficeF.Y.I. • For your information.G.I. • 1 Gastrointestinal • 2 Government Issue.G.M.T. • Greenwich Mean TimeG.Q. • Gentleman's Quarterly magazine.Note: This is a common adjective to describe a man who is very handsome and stylish like the models in G.Q. magazine • He's very G.Q.; He's very handsome.HL • House of Lords.HO • Home Office.HR • House of Representatives.ICJ • International Court of Justice.I.D. • Identification.I.O.U. • I owe you.Note: This is a piece of paper that one gives after borrowing money to insure reimbursement.I.Q. • Intelligence quotient.J.F.K.-John F. Kennedy.jr. • junior.K.O. • (boxing term) Knock out.LA. • Los Angeles.L.C.D. • Liquid crystal display.Ltd. • limited.M.A • Master of Arts degree.M.C. • Master of ceremonies.M.P. • 1 Mounted police / Military police. • 2 Member of Parliament.M.S. • Master of Science degree.NATO • North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationN.F.L. • National Football League.N.H.L. • National Hockey League.N.B.A • National Basketball Association.O.K. • All right, all correct (used as an affirmation; also “okay”).O.T. • Overtime.

Grammar supplement H continuation

114

P.C. • Personal computer.P.I. • Private investigator.P.M. • 1 Post meridiem (evening). • 2 Prime Minister.P.O. • Post office.P.S. • Postscript.Note: This is added to the end of a correspondence when the writer decides to add a closing remark. If an additional remark is to be added, the initials “P.P.S.” are added.Q.C. • Queen’s Counsel.R.& B. • (music) Rhythm and blues.R&R. • 1 Rest and relaxation • 2 Rock and roll.R.I.P. • Rest in peace.Note: It is common to see these initials on tombstones.S.G. • Solicitor-general.S.O.S. • (nautical term) Save our ship.Note: This is also used as s general distress call.S.P. • Justice of the Peace.Т.А. • Teaching assistant.T.G.I.F. • Thank God it's Friday.T.L.C • Tender loving care.T.V. • Television.U. • University.U.F.O. • Unidentified flying object.U.H.F. • Ultra high frequency.U.K. • United Kingdom.U.N.O. • United Nations Organization.U.S.A • United States of America.V.H.F. • Very high frequency.V.I.P. • Very important person.V.P. • Vice president.V.W. • Volkswagen.W.W.I. • World War 1.WWII. • World War 2.

REFERENCES

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CONTENTS

Передмова ………………...…………….………………..... 3Unit 1

Part I System of Government of Ukraine…………..... 4Part II System of Government of Great Britain……... 15Part III System of Government of the USA…………. 24

Additional Reading Materials to Unit 11 We Are Ukrainians…….…………………………... 362 The National Symbols of Ukraine….……………... 373 Constitution – Standard of Legitimacy………...….. 394 Politics……….………………………………......... 415 Elections in the UK……….………...……………... 456 Political Objectives……….………………….......... 46

Unit 2Part I Practice of Law……….………………………... 48Part II The Court Structure….……………………….. 59Part III A Career in Law….………………………….. 74

Additional Reading Materials to Unit 21 Law in Singapore…………………………………... 922 Law in Different Countries……….………………... 943 It Must Be True………….……..…………………... 954 Court System of Ukraine……….……...…………... 975 Wise Advice to District Attorney………..………..... 99

Grammar Supplement A Formation of Tenses in ActiveVoice …………………………...…………….…………....... 101Grammar Supplement B Formation of Tenses inPassive Voice………………………………………………... 102Grammar Supplement C Word Formation …………………. 103Grammar Supplement D Word Combination ……………….. 105Grammar Supplement E Specific Nouns……………………. 106Grammar Supplement F Modal Verbs ……………………… 107Grammar Supplement G Conditional Sentences……………. 109Grammar Supplement H Abbreviations and Contractions Commonly Used in Writing and Printing ……………………………… 111References……………………………………………………….. 114

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