life below zero: microorganims of the cryosphere
DESCRIPTION
'Life below zero: microorganisms of the cryosphere’ is a project born from the encounter of two personal passions, being microbiology and polar environments. It is simply described as a project that has focused on the smallest life forms that inhabit one of the biggest components of the Earth, the cryosphere.TRANSCRIPT
MICROORGANISMS OF THE CRYOSPHERE
Issue 1 · June 2016
Issue 1 · June 2016
EDITOR’S LETTER
1 · LIFE BELOW ZERO
EDITOR: Adriana Sanz Mañogil
GRAPHIC DESIGN: Adriana Sanz Mañogil
ONLINE MAGAZINE:
www.issu.com/lifebelowzero
Get in touch: [email protected]
‘Life below zero: microorganisms of the cryosphere’
is a project born from the encounter of two
personal passions, being microbiology and polar
environments. It is simply described as a project
that has focused on the smallest life forms that
inhabit one of the biggest components of the
Earth, the cryosphere.
With the goal to share some curiosities with all of
you, I am happy to launch this magazine which I
hope you will enjoy. The content of this magazine
will give you a basic knowledge about the
microorganisms inhabiting the cryosphere. I am
sure that after reading it you will think is an
interesting and curious topic. Enjoy and remember
that these tiny organisms have a lot to tell!
Sincerely yours,
Adriana Sanz
Issue 1 · June 2016
CONTENTS
2
What is the cryosphere?
Extremophiles: living in extreme conditions
Small but useful!
Cryophiles: cool microorganisms
Interviews
3 · LIFE BELOW ZERO
What is
the cryosphere?Cryosphere is a word derived from the Greek kryoswhich means cold and sphaira which means globe.
The cryosphere encompasses the portion of the
Earth’s surface were water is found in solid form,
or, what is the same, were water is frozen. We have
to consider that some sub-systems of the
cryosphere are not frozen all the year round, but
seasonally, while others stay frozen year-round
even tens, hundreds, thousands, hundreds of
thousands or millions of years.
The cryosphere is a very complex part of the Earth’s
sphere which includes different sub-systems.
Generally, cryosphere refers to snow, ice and frozen
soils. Snow covers permanently or seasonally up to
35% of the lands surface. When the snow covers an
area all year round is known as a snowfield; these
snowfields are mostly found in high latitude regions
or mountaintops. When we refer to ice, we cannot
just think on simple ice-cubes used to refresh our
drinks: ice is not that simple! In our planet we found
different ice components that are important
modulators of the global climate and play an
important role as a biome. The biggest portions of
ice in the Earth are the ice sheets from Greenland
and Antarctica.
The ice sheets are enormous continental glaciers,
that cover large amounts of land. Actually, to be
considered as an ice sheet they need to extend more
than 50.000 km2. Nowadays, we can found two ice
sheets in the Earth: one covering most of
Greenland’s surface (1.7 million km2) and the other
one, found in the icy continent, Antarctica, which is
extended almost 14 million km2.
The ice sheets are the biggest cryospheric sub-
systems and they contain more than 99% of the
freshwater ice on Earth. During the last ice age, ice
sheets were also covering much of North America
and Scandinavia.
Ice sheets are formed in areas where the snow that
falls in winter does not melt entirely over summer,
then the layers of snow pile up into thick masses of
ice over thousands of years, growing thicker and
denser as the weight of new layers compresses the
older ones. Ice sheets are not static, they are
constantly in motion: parts of the ice sheet are
detached to the sea as an ice shelves, but, as long as
an ice sheet accumulates the same mass of snow as
it loses to the sea, it remains stable.
Can you imagine how many football fields is that?
4
Glaciers are another component of the
cryosphere, they are masses of ice smaller
than the ice sheets that are originated on land
and show evidence of past or present
movement.
The icebergs are large pieces of ice floating on
the ocean that have broken off of ice shelves or
glaciers. Approximately 90% of an iceberg’s
mass is below the surface of the seawater.
Icebergs are very varied in shape and size.
When the sea water freeze, we can find sea ice
that can be several meters thick and it moves
over the time. The salt from the seawater do
not freeze and form high salinity pockets.
Usually, much of the sea ice melts during
summer and it is formed again during winter
time. Sea ice differs in composition to lake or
river ice, which are also part from the
cryosphere.
In regard to frozen soils, we will refer to
permafrost, which is a lithospheric material
(soil, rock or sediment) permanently exposed
to 0ºC or below 0ºC temperatures that
remains frozen for, at least, two consecutive
years. Permafrost covers 20% of the land
surface and it is found in the Arctic and the
Antarctica. What distinguishes permafrost from
other cold environments is its structural
heterogeneity, as it has both horizontal and
vertical differences in soil or sediment texture,
ice content and organic-matter content.
Do you know that there is permafrost up to 3 million years
old in the Arctic and even older in the Antarctica?
SNOW
ICE SHEET
ICE SHELVE
GLACIER
SEA ICE
ICEBERG
PERMAFROST
5 · LIFE BELOW ZERO
"The cryosphere is the portion of
the Earth’s surface covered by
frozen water”
Extremophiles:
living in extreme conditionsHave you ever heard about extremophiles?
They are not the citizens of Extramadura in Spain
and neither they are the workers of an extreme
sports company; with the word extremophiles we
refer to the organisms capable to thrive and adapt
to physically or geochemically extreme conditions
that are detrimental to most life of on Earth.
Extremophiles are mostly prokaryotic
microorganisms (Bacteria and Archaea), even some
insects as the Pompeii worm or the grylloblattid, as
well as the Antarctic krill which is a crustacean, are
also extremophiles.
Which kind of extreme conditions are we referring
to? There are extremophiles for almost all the
factors that have influence on life as temperature,
pH, oxygen, salinity, nutrient. radiation or pressure,
among others. For example, we have acidophiles
which can grow at pH of 3 or below, barophiles who
can live at high pressures or xerophiles, able to
survive in desiccating conditions.
In the case of microorganisms adapted to extreme
temperatures, we distinguish among those who can
thrive high temperatures as the thermophiles and
hyperthermophiles and the ones able to beat the low
temperatures: psychrotrophs and psychrophiles or
cryophiles.
Although to study the extremophiles and classify
them, we pay attention just to one kind of stress
factor, we need to consider that in natural
environments, the extremophiles are most often
exposed to more than one stress conditions at a
time; this fact bolsters the idea of interlinked stress
resistance of bacteria. Cryophiles have to
counteract not just low temperatures but also
desiccation, excessive UV, high or low pH, high
osmotic pressure and low nutrient availability
6
Cryophiles
Cool microorganisms are those extremophiles
adapted to live in cold temperatures. We distinguish
among the cold-adapted and the cold-loving
microorganisms. Humans always tend to classify
things, even sometimes is hard to do strict
classifications; that is why the use of minimum and
maximum growth temperature to define and classify
adapted microorganisms is a subject of ongoing
debate. Traditionally, two groups of extremophiles
able to live in cold temperatures have been
accepted: psychrotolerant and psychrophiles, but
recently, it has been proposed referring all of them
as cryophiles. Despite the nomenclature and
classification, these organisms are those capable of
growing and reproducing at low temperatures,
typically ranging from -20ºC to +25ºC.
Low temperatures place severe physicochemical
constraints on cellular function by negatively
influencing cell integrity, water viscosity, solute
diffusion rates, membrane fluidity, enzyme kinetics
and macromolecular interactions.
With all these problems caused by the temperature’s
decrease, you should be wondering how these
organisms are able to keep active their vital
functions in such temperatures. Cryophiles are very
adaptable and have several strategies to cope with
the cold stress and make possible the live below
zero. Their capability to adapt and their dispersal
mechanisms have allowed them to have a high
diversity in the polar regions while the diversity of
other living forms as plants or animals, decrease in
these areas.
How the microorganisms feel the temperature?
To adapt to low temperatures, first, they need to
sense. The primary cold sensor is the cell membrane
that acts as an interface between external
environment and the internal cell environment.
When the cell membrane notices external changes,
such low temperature, something happens on its
components to bring the sign inside the cell. The
most typical way to announce an external change is
through phosporilation or dephosporilation of
membrane proteins. After the phosporilation there is
a signaling cascade that will let the cell known it
needs to modify some of its normal processes as the
gene expression, the membrane composition or the
structure of some proteins.
Do you want to know more about the different
strategies for adaptation of cryophiles?
Saving energy!
Some microorganisms seem to disappear at cold
temperatures, only to resurface when more
favourable temperatures return.
7· LIFE BELOW ZERO
cool microorganisms
8
These strategy consists on entering a dormant state
with low metabolic activity to save their energy. That
means that the microorganisms will continue
respiration and uptake of substrates but will not
divide.
Transferring genes!
It is said that sharing is living and, in the case of
cryophiles, this is also a fact. The phenomenon of
horizontal gene transfer (HGT) which is the transfer
of genes between related and unrelated organisms
mediated by viruses, plasmids and other elements, is
very frequent in low temperature habitats and
beneficial for their survival in the cryosphere. So, if
the microorganisms share their best genes with
others, more kinds of cryophiles will be able to
survive in the cold environment and the diversity of
microorganism will be higher!
The best place to live!
Choosing a place to live is a mission for every
organism. Just like humans that try to find the best
locations to do their lives more comfortable and
easy, microorganisms choose the best habitat for
them. Inside the cryosphere, they look for protected
niches or refugis where the living conditions are less
harsh; places where they can find what they need.
There are spots in the icy environments, as There
are hot spots in the icy environments, that are mini-
ecosystems with distinct boundaries, energy flow,
and nutrient cycling where the microbial metabolic
activity found is higher. A good example of a hot spot
in the cryosphere are the cryoconite holes which
are water filled cylindrical melt-holes found on
glacial ice surface.
At bottom of the cryoconite holes, dark colored
material called cryoconite is deposited
As the cryoconite absorbs solar radiation and
promotes melting of the ice beneath it, the
cylindrical holes are formed. Also veins or liquid
films containing metabolic substrates are another
frequent inhabited glacial environment.
Keeping membrane fluidity!
When talking about the viability of a microorganism
we need to consider the fluidity of cell membranes
which is important for the integrity of the cell and
the transport of nutrients, among others.
Cell membranes are composed by lipids and these
molecules change their state at low temperatures,
from a liquid-crystalline phase to a gel phase, which
results in the loss of membrane integrity. When 50–
90% of membrane lipids are in the gel phase,
bacteria will stop functioning.
Do you know what a cryoconite hole is?
In order to keep the membrane fluidity, cryophiles
change the fatty acid membrane’s composition:
increasing the ratio of unsaturated lipid, changing
fatty acid isomerization, increasing in methyl-
branched fatty acids, altering the polar head group,
or decreasing the average chain length of fatty acids
Efficient enzymes!
Low temperature, compromise the reactions rates.
The reactions that take place in a microorganism are
catalyzed by enzymes so, to cope with the reduction
of chemical reaction rates, these organisms
synthesize enzymes that are more active.
High enzymatic activity at low temperatures can be
achieved by destabilization of the active site, or of
the whole protein, which enables the catalytic center
to be flexible at temperatures that freeze molecular
motion. This is achieved through different strategies
as reducing weak stabilizing interactions (ion pairs,
hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic and intersubunit
interactions), increasing solvent interactions with
apolar or interior residues, reducing proline and
arginine content, and clustering of glycine residues.
Synthetizing proteins!
Cryophilic microorganisms produce various proteins
to protect themselves or the extracellular
environment against intracellular freezing or to
minimize the deleterious effects of ice crystal
formation. Four classes of proteins for coping with
the cold temperatures have been described. These
are: the cold-shock proteins (CSPs), cold acclimation
proteins (Caps), antifreeze proteins (AFPs) and ice-
binding proteins (IBPs).
They protect the cell trough different mechanisms;
for example, AFPs can protect the cell in two ways:
by lowering the freezing point of water, preventing
ice nucleation or, when water is already in frozen
state, by inhibiting the re-crystallization activity to
avoid the formation of larger ice crystals from
water molecules or the IBPs that bind to ice-crystal
lattices and prevent them from recrystallizing,
thereby protecting the bacterium from freeze-
damage of the cytoplasmic membrane.
What is outside is also important!
Microorganisms know that maintaining an ice-free
microenvironment is also very important. That is
why they produce extracellular polymeric
substances (EPS) that are complex organic
materials composed primarily of polysaccharides
with carbon backbones of high molecular weight.
These molecules are released and, as they have a
high polyhydroxyl content, they can lower the
freezing point and ice nucleation temperature of
water outside the cell and also play a role in
protecting extracellular enzymes against cold
denaturation and autolysis.
As we can see, there are several mechanisms of
adaptation to low temperatures used by
microorganism which demonstrate how evolved they
are. The adaptation process is focused on avoiding
the intracellular and extracellular freezing and is
very complex.
9· LIFE BELOW ZERO
11· LIFE BELOW ZERO
Did you know that in 2015 Mollivirussibericum, a 30.000 years old virus, was
found in the deep Siberian permafrost?
10
Small but useful!
Why there is an interest about extremophiles?
Humans have continually searched for and utilized
novel materials from the natural environment to
survive and thrive. Nowadays, we continue
investigating ways in which natural products can
offer sustainable and economical alternatives to
traditional industrial processes and can be applied in
the agricultural, energy, food, medical, structural
material and textile industries.
The mechanisms of adaptation to cold stress have
received an important attention due to their
biotechnological potential. These organisms and
their biomolecule, specially, their cold-adapted
enzymes can be applied for a lot of processes.
Do you want to know all the processes were
microorganisms or biomolecules can be involved?
Microorganisms that eat contaminants!
One of the most desirable targets in investigations
on bacterial cold adaptation is genetically
engineered strains that are capable of degrading
man-made wastes and petroleum products.
The idea of using microorganisms to reduce
environmental contamination, such as in soils and
waste waters, is not new but appears to be a
feasible alternative to physicochemical methods.
Bioaugmentation and inoculation of contaminated
environments with specific cold-adapted
microorganisms in mixed cultures should help to
improve the biodegradation of recalcitrant
chemicals.
lowering the amount of toxic compounds, for
example, nitrates, hydrocarbons, aromatic
compounds, heavy metals and biopolymers such as
cellulase, chitin, lignin, proteins and triacylglycerols.
Recent European Union programs focusing on
psychrophilic microorganisms have helped to
increase our understanding of these organisms and
to create the appropriate scientific environments
for their evaluation.
The fuel of the future!
There is increasing worldwide interest in developing
alternative sources of energy. Biofuels, such as
ethanol made from the fermentation of
carbohydrates produced in plants, represent a
renewable energy source that can provide a myriad
of other benefits, including increased energy
security, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions,
economic benefits for rural communities, and
mitigating problems associated with disposal of
agro-industrial residues.
11· LIFE BELOW ZERO
Despite these advantages, the conventional ethanol
production process it is not energetically or
economically efficient as it requires high heat levels
and specialized equipment, thus limiting the
production capacity of biorefineries to compete with
the existing fossil fuel industry and become
commercially viable.
These problems can be solved by using enzymes
capable to work at lower temperature that would
allow to create a low-energy ethanol production
process involving raw starch hydrolysis, also known
as cold hydrolysis.
A lot of companies are studying enzymes from
cryophiles in order to create a more efficient
biofuel’s obtaining process.
Therapeutic biomolecules!
Nowadays, there is a need for new antimicrobial
agents due to the increase in drug resistance in
many common bacterial pathogens, together with
the emergence of new infections that is why there
are a lot of screening programs seeking for
therapeutic and anti-tumor drugs from natural
products focus on biomolecules with unusual
properties. In these programs, extremophiles, which
produce biomolecules adapted to their unusual living
conditions, are recognized as valuable sources of
novel bioproducts.
Do you know that enzymes are also involved in
the treatment of fabrics?
The cotton fiber ends protruding from the main
fibers reduce smoothness and alter the appearance
of the garment. To avoid this effect, in the textile
industry, a pre-treatment of the fibers is done. This
pre-treatment consists in using cellulases, an
enzyme that excises the protruding ends, reduces
the pill-formation and increases the durability and
softness of the tissue. The problem is that the
current treatment, is accompanied by a loss of
mechanical resistance owing to alteration of the
main fiber as a result of the resistance of the
enzyme to inactivation. So, using a cold-adapted
cellulose from a cold-adapted bacteria would be the
solution and would enable a decrease in the
temperature of the process and the concentration of
the enzymes required improving the mechanical
resistance of the final product.
Feeding salmons!
PUFA (Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids). PUFA is used in
aquaculture, livestock and human diets.
In addition to microalgae, certain strains of bacteria
do produce high levels of PUFA.
These fatty acids, are essential for normal growth
and development of the larvae of many aquaculture
species like the Atlantic salmon. PUFA-producing
bacteria used in aquaculture diets, either as
extracts or by direct addition to feed, is now an
expanding area of interest.
12
14
Interviewing
Isabel Ferrera (Roses, Girona, Spain) is a
researcher at the Marine Sciences Institute in
Barcelona. After obtaining her degree in Biology,
she received a PhD in Environmental Microbiology
from the Autonomous University of Barcelona.
Later on, she was a postdoctoral researcher at
Portland State University (USA) and at the Leibniz-
Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland
Fisheries in Berlin (Germany). Her researcher
focuses in studying the diversity and function of
microorganisms and the processes they carry out
in different systems, from laboratory models to
the natural environment.
“”
One of the most fascinating facts about microbes is
that they are tiny, but also because they are so
abundant, they can change whole planets.
13· LIFE BELOW ZERO
14
Studying microbial diversity is crucial to
understand the functioning of our planet but
also to develop new industrial and medical
applications.“
”
Studying microbial diversity is crucial
to understand the functioning of our
planet but also to develop new
industrial and medical applications.
“”
Mrina Nikrad
14
Mrina, can you explain us about your research?
Marine microorganisms are a global force in cycling
carbon and other nutrients. My research focuses on the
role that marine microorganisms play in the global carbon
cycle, and how the changing environment in Antarctica
(warming air and oceans, melting glaciers adding
freshwater to the ocean) will change the role of these
marine microbes.
Oh, so you have been studying marine
microorganisms from Antarctica. Can you tell us how
many times have you been in Antarctica?
I have taken 3 trips to Antarctica to collect samples. Two
trips were in December/January which is summertime.
And one trip in May, which is late Fall/Winter season. Each
expedition is approximately 30 days long.
How do you manage to arrive to Antarctica?
To go to Palmer Station (a Antarctic base from US located
on Anvers Island) we have to take a boat from Punta
Arenas, Chile. First we have to take a flight from the US to
Chile, then a boat for 4 days to Palmer Station.
How is the preparation to go to Antarctica?
In order to prepare for a trip to Antarctica, there are
several things we must do. First, the USAP (United Stated
Antarctic Program) requires us to do full physical check-
up. We must go to the doctor and check that we are in
good physical health, blood work, heart function, even
dental check! Once the doctor says we are fit, then we are
given clearance to plan for our trip.
For going to McMurdo Station or South Pole Station, the
USAP also requires a psychological exam, where your
mental state is assessed. I went to Palmer Station and this
does not require a psychological exam because we are
only there for 30 days. However, after my first expedition,
I realized that the feeling of isolation can become very
strong when there are only 40 people in a tiny station with
no civilization or cities or hospitals. It’s important to
realize this and be very careful when you are there.
For research, we must prepare a lot of equipment.
Everything for research must be shipped to the station, so
we must plan very carefully for each experiment and get
all the supplies. If we forget something, then the
experiment may be compromised and we may not have the
opportunity to try it. We made long lists of all supplies to
order. I remember that our team shipped 14 large crates
of supplies to Antarctica! The USAP provides warm
weather clothing for all Antarctic researchers, so we are
given gloves and parkas, boots and everything. The boat to
Palmer Station, Antarctica leaves from Punta Arenas,
Chile, and the USAP has a big warehouse in Punta Arenas.
Our first day in Punta Arenas, we go to the warehouse and
try the clothing and select the items we need. But I also
bought my own gear because I was making three trips,
such as thick gloves and boots, which fit me better than
UASP clothing.
When I went to
Antarctica in May, there
were big storms in the
ocean, so the boat trip
took 7.5 days to reach
Antarctica! It was
terrible weather and big
waves.
“
”Our team shipped 14
large crates of supplies to
Antarctica!
“
”15· LIFE BELOW ZERO
16
How is to do field work in Antarctica?
Doing field work in Antarctica is an amazing experience! I
felt very close to Nature, the ocean, and the wild animals
(like seals, penguins, and whales), and in every scene
there is quiet and beauty. I loved to look at the glaciers
while I was in the boat taking ocean water samples for my
research. Antarctica can also have dangerous weather,
but for that we prepare the appropriate equipment and
have safety training.
Which is your lab-work after taking samples?
After collecting water samples at two different locations,
we take the carboys back to the station lab and set up
multiple experiments. One experiment is leucine
incorporation, which uses radioactively labelled leucine to
detect carbon uptake activity in cells. Another experiment
has the same goal, to measure organic carbon use but at
the single-cell level by microscopy, this is called
Microautoradiography Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization.
We set up several bottle with the same amount of
seawater and add radioactively labelled organic carbon
compounds. We incubate for several hours and then filter
the water and freeze. Later on we can fluorescently tag
the microbes that we are interested in (like a group called
Gammaproteobacteria), and under the microscope we can
see if the fluorescent tag overlaps with the radioactive
signal, indicating if the Gammaproteobacterial cells have
“eaten” the radioactive compound. This work took a long
time to get a big data-set for analysis! But it is exciting to
know that even in below-freezing conditions, the
microorganisms in the ocean are very active and growing.
When you do research field work in Antarctica, do you
analyze the samples there?
Some analysis we can do in the labs at Palmer Station. For
example, the leucine incorporation experiments we have
the scintillation counter which can record radiation.
However, we don’t have a big epifluorescence microscope
there, so for the other experiment (MAR-FISH), I had to
filter the water after incubation, freeze the filters in
individual tubes, and put in a -80 ºC freezer. There are 4
or 5 freezers at Palmer Station for research samples. All
the samples are transported back by the USAP in
specialized research freezers on the boat. At the end of
the trip in Punta Arenas, each research group spends a
few hours packing all our freezer boxes full of samples
into shipping containers full of dry ice. These containers
are shipped by USAP to our home lab (my home lab was at
the University of Delaware, in DE, USA). When we are back
home, we have the microscope and equipment to do more
detailed analyses.
Is exciting to know that even in below-freezing
conditions the microorganisms are very active and
growing.
“
”
Which kind of permission do you need to make a
bioprospection in Antarctica?
Our lab was funded by the National Science Foundation in
the US, and the USAP is a part of the NSF. It is a
government program for doing research in Antarctica, so
we need their permissions. Because Antarctica is a
continent where many countries do scientific research, it
is all controlled by governments and not private
companies or primate funding. Many groups are already
bioprospecting in Antarctica, as well as the Arctic. I think
there is opportunity to bioprospect in many exciting places
where extremophiles exist on Earth, such as acid mines,
salty lakes, seas and many more.
When did you start to be interested about the
microorganisms? And about the Antarctica?
I actually became interested because of reading a book! In
high school, I read the book Red Mars by author Kim
Stanley Robinson. This is a science-fiction and astrobiology
book, and in the story the first scientists to visit Mars use
microorganisms and microbial ecology to terraform the
planet so that Earth plants can grow and human beings can
live there. Before reading this book, I only thought of
microbes as “germs”, invisible and tiny organisms that
make humans sick. After reading this book I became
fascinated, realizing that these tiny organisms have
incredible power to change planets!
I started to read more and more about astrobiology and
microbes and learned that they created the oxygen which
we breathe and have changed our Earth’s atmosphere in
the past, and they have the power to change the
atmosphere in the future. I am still interested in
astrobiology, and there are two main reasons that I
wanted to do research in Antarctica. One reason is
because Mars and other planets and moons in our Solar
System which could have alien life are very cold places
with icy surfaces. On Europa, which is a moon of Jupiter,
there is a huge icy subsurface ocean and potentially there
is life there! The best example for this environment on
Earth is Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, so that’s one
reason I wanted to study cryospheric microbes. The
second reason is because Antarctica is a beautiful
continent which is in danger due to human-mediated
climate change. Microbes have a role in this and I wanted
to study that.
Which consequences can have climate change for the
microorganisms living in the cryosphere?
In general, we have found that cryosphere microbes react
to warming temperatures. They actively cycle and respire
carbon in the winter in frozen conditions, but when the
environment becomes warmer and more wet because the
ice melts, then they can become 100 times more active!
That means they use 100 times more organic carbon and
product more carbon dioxide in wetter and warmer
conditions. This phenomenon is going to impact the global
carbon cycle very significantly in the next 2-3 decades.
The West Antarctic Peninsula region especially is warming
very quickly. The ice is melting from the islands the air
temperature is 3-4 º C warmer in the winter on average,
than it was 20 years ago. So in a few years, they may not
be much sea ice left. For this reason, it’s very important to
document and communicate to the public about the role of
microbes in climate change.
There is opportunity to
bioprospect in many
exciting places where
extremophiles exist.
“
”
These tiny organisms
have incredible power to
change planets.
“
”
In few years, they may
not be much sea ice left.“
”
17· LIFE BELOW ZERO
18
Which is the potential of extremophiles in the
nowadays increasing biotechnology industry?
Extremophiles are used in industry for many purposes,
and there are great papers which review this. As for
future potential, I think there are many processes which
can be improved. For example, enzymes from
extremophiles are constantly improving the process of
PCR, catalyzing reactions in below-freezing conditions, and
also enzymes which are still functional in very acidic or
alkaline conditions. The biggest potential I think is for using
enzymes from extremophiles for the degradation of
radioactive or toxic contaminants, which are sometimes
generated from industrial processes. Many biotech
companies now have a microbiology division to help
cleanup wastes. There are also NEW directions for the field
of microbial ecology in general, many companies have
environmental microbiology departments to develop new
products, like mixes of microbial communities to help
plants grow better or food to stay fresh longer or to
improve human health. There is lots of potential for
microbial ecologists and microbial physiologists.
Do you think there are still many novel species of
microorganisms to discover?
Yes! Absolutely! Lots of amazing metabolisms still to be
discovered, and many even some unknown ones on Mars,
Europa, and Titan.
Now we know a lot more from microorganisms but we
would like to hear what do you think is the most
rewarding from being a marine microbiologist like
you!
The most rewarding aspect of my job is the excitement of
discovering new things. Science, both academic and
industry, are on the leading edge of discovery. So
scientists are always at the forefront of adding new
knowledge to the human existence. I love being creative
and testing my new ideas and discovering new things,
that’s what makes me job rewarding every single day.
Unfortunately, this interview is coming to its end. Do
you have any wish for the future of your professional
future like a researcher?
I wish to see more research into the functional role of
microbes in large ecosystems, and how human activity is
affecting the microbial activity. Microbes are very
important to most of the ecosystems on the planet, not
just the oceans and soil, but also permafrost, the air, and
the human body. Microbial function is even more important
than microbial diversity, and we need to understand this
function. Of course, I also wish to find microbes on Mars
or Europa; that would also be an incredible discovery!
Thank you for your time, Mrina. We have learnt and
enjoy a lot with your answers. We wish the best for
you and hope you will be able to discover a lot of
fascinating things about microorganisms.
Using enzymes from
extremophiles for the
degradation of radioactive
or toxic contaminants.
“
”
Scientists are always at
the forefront of adding
new knowledge to the
human existence.
“
”
Interviewing
Isabel Ferrera (Roses, Girona, Spain) is a
researcher at the Marine Sciences Institute in
Barcelona. After obtaining her degree in Biology,
she received a PhD in Environmental Microbiology
from the Autonomous University of Barcelona.
Later on, she was a postdoctoral researcher at
Portland State University (USA) and at the Leibniz-
Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland
Fisheries in Berlin (Germany). Her researcher
focuses in studying the diversity and function of
microorganisms and the processes they carry out
in different systems, from laboratory models to
the natural environment.
19· LIFE BELOW ZERO
20
Studying microbial diversity is crucial to
understand the functioning of our planet but
also to develop new industrial and medical
applications.“
”
Studying microbial diversity is crucial
to understand the functioning of our
planet but also to develop new
industrial and medical applications.
“”
Isabel Ferrera
Isabel, can you explain us about your research?
I am a microbial ecologist and during my career I have
covered a broad range of topics in relation to
understanding the diversity and function of
microorganisms and the processes they carry out in
different environments, from laboratory systems to the
natural ecosystem at local and global scales, with
particular interest on marine and extreme environments.
Why is important to study the microbial ecosystems?
Microorganisms are adapted to all ecosystems that exist
on Earth, from the human gut to deep-sea hydrothermal
vents, where they are responsible for nutrient cycling and
energy flow. Prokaryotes are able to grow across an
incredibly broad range of temperature, pH, salinity and
oxygen and are capable of decomposing many chemicals,
which are toxic or dangerous to other biota. For that
reason, microorganisms are used in several industrial
processes and are an important resource for
biotechnological and medical applications.
Microorganisms have thus an enormous role and impact in
our daily lives, from maintaining the biosphere where we
live to improving our lifestyles. Studying microbial
diversity is therefore crucial to understand the functioning
of our planet but also to develop new industrial and
medical applications.
When did you start to be interested about
microorganisms?
I started being interested during my undergraduate
studies of Biology at the university. In fact, initially I
wanted to be a biochemist but after taking the
microbiology course I changed my mind.
Microorganism are so small but they are very
complex. Tell us what you think are the most
fascinating facts from them!
In my opinion the most amazing thing is that they are small
but essential for the functioning of the planet. They carry
on functions so other living organisms can inhabit the
planet. They drive major biogeochemical cycling in our
planet, they produce half of the oxygen and are
responsible for the re-mineralization of organic matter.
Furthermore they provide numerous ecosystem services
that can improve our daily lives. They can be used to solve
problems derived of industrialization, pollution and over-
population of our planet. Another important aspect is that
they are tiny but their diversity is enormous since they
have evolved for millions of years. They were the first
inhabitants of our planet and regardless of the risk of
species extinction we face, they will always be here, they
can adapt to all conditions.
In this magazine, we are talking about the
microorganisms that inhabit the cryosphere.
According to your knowledge and opinion, which
consequences can have climate change for the
microorganisms living in the cryosphere?
Raising temperatures can lead to an increase in growth of
microorganisms, and therefore, in the increase of oxygen
consumption and CO2 production. Taking into account the
abundance of microbes, this situation can have significant
impacts in the global biogeochemical cycles, particularly
the carbon cycle which has implications in climate
regulation.
Microorganisms have an
enormous role and
impact in our daily lives
“
”
Microorganisms can be
used to solve problems
derived of pollution,
industrialization and over-
population.
“
”
21· LIFE BELOW ZERO
22
Which is, from your point of view, the potential of
extremophiles in the nowadays increasing
biotechnology industry?
Extremophiles and their products, mainly enzymes, have
potential applications in a broad range of industrial,
agricultural and medical processes. The large diversity of
microorganisms and the broad range of temperature, pH
and pressures that they live on highlights the breadth and
type of biological products and processes that might be
exploited for biotechnology. Many industrial processes
require heat and therefore thermophilic enzymes have
received considerable attention because of their ability to
function at high temperatures. These enzymes have an
important economic impact in the pharmaceutical, textile,
paper, petroleum and food industries and have also
revolutionized aspects of biotechnology, where they are
used for different purposes including the synthesis of
nucleic acids and amino acids. Likewise, psychrophiles and
their products are utilized in biotechnology, for example in
the food industry or in biodiesel production.
Isabel has done field work in different extreme
environments of our planet. From Azores, to New
Zealand, from Antarctica to Iceland. What were you
studying in these places?
During my postdoctoral years at Portland State University,
I worked on the physiology, diversity and phylogenetics of
the Aquificales, an order of thermophilic Bacteria that are
widespread in terrestrial hot springs and deep-sea
hydrothermal vents. This deeply branching group in the
tree of life is of particular interest because they are likely
related with the early evolution of life on Earth.
Additionally, studying microbial diversity in thermal
environments can result in the discovery of new genes and
organisms that can be used for biotechnological
applications. To study these organisms, our lab did field
work in the hot springs in Yellowstone, in Iceland, Azores,
New Zealand and many other places. Furthermore, the
Aquificales live in deep-sea hydrothermal vents so I was
lucky to dive in the submarine Alvin at more than 2500 m
of depth!
I have only been in one expedition to Antarctica, the
PEGASO cruise that took place in 2015 during January and
February, it was a long cruise!
Wooow Isabel! Your research has lead you to very
interesting locations. We would like to know how did
you need to prepare to go to Antarctica. Did you need
any special psychological or physical preparation?
Psychologically it depends on whether is your first
experience or not. When I went to Antarctica I had been in
several other oceanographic cruises before, thus, I was
prepared for the life on board and the feeling of isolation.
In order to participate on a research campaign to
Antarctica we have to follow the requirements of the
Spanish Antarctic Committee. They require a medical
exam, vaccination and also getting some training for what
we had to go to Madrid.
And what is about the preparation of the materials
you will need to work?
The lab materials, as for any other campaigns, requires
preparing everything in advance, being very organized and
anticipating to everything you plan to do.
If you run out of tubes in
Antarctica you cannot
call a company and get
more.
“
”
Which kind of permission do you need to make a
bioprospection in Antarctica?
Activities in Antarctica are regulated under the Antarctic
Treaty System which has been built over the past 50 years
on fundamental ethical principles comprising peace, a
freeze on territorial claims, freedom of scientific
research, international cooperation, and environmental
protection in the interest of mankind as a whole. Countries
doing research in Antarctica have a national Antarctic
Committee, which has to approve the activities under the
Antarctic laws.
It is said that there are many novel species of
microorganisms to be discovered. Do you agree?
Definitely! We discover genes, functions and species every
day. Methodological development will help discover novel
species. A few years ago we could not believe that the
diversity is as large as we know now, but it is probably
much larger than we can predict with the tools we have
available at the moment.
After these few questions it seems that you have such
an interesting job. We would like to know what do you
think is the most rewarding from your job?
A mixture between the feeling of discovery and that my
research can derive not only in increasing knowledge but
also in some potential applications to improve the well
being of society and of our planet.
Before ending with this interview, we would like to
hear your wish for the future of the micro-
communities and their research.
I will make not one but two wishes: first more involvement
from our government in basic research, increasing
funding is vital, and second, a better awareness from
society of the relevance of these organisms, we need to
stop associating microorganisms to disease, they are
much more than that.
We hope you will have a lot of success in your future
researches and a lot of adventures like the ones you
have told us. Thank you for your time and your
responses, Isabel.
Do you know what is The Antarctic
Treaty System?
Is an international agreement that
regulate international relations with
respect to Antarctica. Establishes
freedom of scientific investigation
and bans military activity on the
continent.
We discover genes,
functions and species
every day.
“
”
We need to stop
associating
microorganisms to
disease, they are
much more than that.
“
”
23· LIFE BELOW ZERO
MICROORGANISMS OF THE CRYOSPHERE
Issue 1 · June 2016