Logos: logical appeal; uses facts, based on the validity of the arguments appeals based on reasoning supported with facts, statistics, and other concrete evidence (ex: You should save money now so you can buy something later).

Pathos: emotional appeal; tugs at the feelings of the audience, affects the audience’s frame of mind (path=feeling)- appeals based on feelings such as sympathy, anger, pity, fear (ex: You should adopt an animal from the animal shelter, otherwise it might be euthanized).

Ethos: personal appeal; based on the persona of the writer, depends on the established credibility of the speaker appeals based on morality, values, character, justice, credibility (ex: We listen to our doctor’s when they tell us to do something related to our health because they have a medical degree and therefore are qualified).

MODES OF PERSUASION

Definition of a fallacy:

1. a deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.

(The world being flat was at one time a popular fallacy).

2. a misleading or unsound argument.

*For every type of appeal, there are logical and illogical means used to persuade.

FALLACIES

Sweeping GeneralizationAn argument based on the assumption that all people,

situations, or events of a kind are the same

The leader of the committee was a freshman, and she wasn't very responsible. Freshman aren't prepared to lead a

committee.

Faulty Causation “This happened because of this.” Assumes cause without

considering other reasonable possibilities.

Rain dance caused rain.

A black cat crossed my path, so I broke my leg.

Eating jellybeans before a test helped me do well.

LOGOS FALLACIES

Begging the question

Claim is asserted as fact when opposite is true; aka circular reasoning (or stating the obvious)

Movies are popular because they make so much money.

If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law.

The more we produce, the more we can use.

Since the new program is not effective, it is a waste of taxpayer's money.

MORE LOGOS FALLACIES

Non Sequitur

A conclusion that does not logically follow from the previous statement or evidence No logical connection between two parts of an argument.

The rain came down so hard she called me.

If you loved me you’d give me money.

Red Herring

Presents an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue

"We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is

getting ridiculous."

Why should we work to beautify our campus when there are problems with class sizes and underpaid support staff?

EVEN MORE LOGOS FALLACIES

Weak analogy

Comparing two situations, people, objects, etc. that aren’t quite alike

Philosophy 101 is a philosophy class and has many discussions; logic is a philosophy class. So, it must

also have many discussions.

Ex: A is like B.

B has property P.

Therefore, A has property P.

(Analogy between A and B is weak)

AND MORE LOGOS…

False dichotomy (black-and-white thinking)

Given two choices , the arguer eliminates one, so it seems like you are only left with one while there may be

other options.

Ex: Bill: “Jill and I both support prayer in public school.”

Jill: “Hey, I never said that!”

Bill: “You’re not an Atheist, are you, Jill?”

Formula: Either claim X is true, or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false).

Claim Y is false

Therefore, claim X is true.

LAST LOGOS

Scare Tactics

Exaggerated threats.

Don’t cross your eyes or they’ll get stuck that way.

Panda Scare Tactics Commercial

Either-or-Thinking (also known as False Dilemma)

Presenting a situation as having only two choices, without considering other options or factors.

Either you’re with me, or against me.

You love me, or you hate me.

Either you will support our plan to improve our school, or you obviously don't care about our school.

PATHOS FALLACIES

Slippery Slope One small event has tremendously exaggerated consequences.

A ban on assault rifles is one step away from repealing the 2nd amendment.

Take one sip of alcohol in high school, and you’ll be an alcoholic by age 30.

Kiss a boy and you’ll be pregnant and on welfare in two years.

Hopping on the Band Wagon “Everyone else is doing it so it must be OK.” Just because

everyone else in your neighborhood owns an SUV doesn’t mean you need to have one. The fact that an item is popular does not

mean it is of high quality or great value. #1 Selling product in America

50,000 Elvis fans can’t be wrong!

MORE PATHOS FALLACIES

Ad populum (appeal to popularity)

Comparable to sheep. Takes advantage of a desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others.

Ex: But officer, I don’t deserve a ticket; everyone goes this speed. If I went any slower, I wouldn’t’ be going with the

stream of traffic.

Appeal to pity

Gets you to accept something by making you feel sorry for someone.

Ex: I should receive an A in this class. After all, if I don’t get an A I won’t be able to play baseball.

MORE PATHOS …

Dogmatism Holding something as true without factual foundation, proof, or consideration for alternative views. Intolerant

religious stances are often dogmatic.

When a child asks why, the parent says “because I said so!”

It’s true because it’s true (rather than I have faith that it’s true because I believe …)

ETHOS FALLACIES

Moral Equivalence Puts major and minor errors into one category.

Stealing a paper clip is equal to carjacking.

Ad Hominem Character attack. A person makes one mistake, and they

are a bad person in every other area of their life. This attack the person instead of the issue.

You got a ticket for speeding; therefore you are a bad person who should never be allowed to drive, ride a bike, marry, or

run for mayor.

We can't support his proposal to improve mass transit. After all, he left his wife for a younger woman.

MORE ETHOS FALLACIES

Appeal to doubtful authority

The reference to an "expert" who actually is not qualified to speak with authority on the issue

Name dropping to impress readers/viewers

According to actor Brad Pitt, our economic policy has been a complete failure.

Ex: I’m not a doctor, but I play one on the hit series “Bimbos and Studmuffins.” You can take it from me, that when you need a fast-acting, effective, and safe pain killer there is nothing better than morphidope 2000. That is my

considered medical opinion.

Formula: Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S.

Person A makes claim C about subject S.

Therefore, C is true.

MORE ETHOS

Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you're defending. What parts of the argument would now seem fishy to you? What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special

attention to strengthening those parts.

List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you have for it. Seeing your claims and evidence laid out this way may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a particular claim, or it may help you look more critically at

the evidence you're using.

Learn which types of fallacies you're especially prone to, and be careful to check for them in your work. Some writers make lots of appeals to authority; others are more likely to

rely on weak analogies. Read over some of your old papers to see if there's a particular kind of fallacy you need to watch out

for.

HOW TO FIND FALLACIES IN YOUR

WRITING

Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping words like "all," "no," "none," "every," "always," "never," "no one," and "everyone" are sometimes appropriate—

but they require a lot more proof than less-sweeping claims that use words like "some," "many," "few,"

"sometimes," "usually," and so forth.

Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents, to be sure they are

accurate and fair.

HOW TO FIND FALLACIES

In the following slides, answer the four questions in your journals. Use your

notes as needed.

APPLY TO PRINT ADS

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. Mode of persuasion?

3. What fallacy is used to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. Mode of persuasion?3. What fallacy is used

to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. Mode of persuasion?

3. What fallacy is used to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. Mode of persuasion?3. What fallacy is used to

persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. What fallacy is used to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?2. Mode of persuasion?

3. What fallacy is used to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

1. Who is the intended audience of the ad?

2. Mode of persuasion?

3. What fallacy is used to persuade this audience to purchase a product or think in a certain way?

Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.

1. "Since 88% of people polled believe in UFOs, they must exist.”

2. "Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that the media harms women when it comes to body image. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person, so you shouldn't

listen to her." 3. "I know the exam is graded based on

performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down,

and I've had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!"

FALLACIES PRACTICE

LOGICAL FALLACIES PRACTICE

Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.

4."My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy

classes must be hard!"

5. "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the

rise in crime."

6. "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don't respect life, we are likely to be more

and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in

which everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible consequence, we should make animal

experimentation illegal right now."

Directions: For each example, identify the type of fallacy.

7. "If I fail English 101, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't graduate, I probably won't be able to get a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or

flipping burgers for the next year."

8. "Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet

it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are

equally ridiculous."

9. "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have

publicly stated their opposition to it."

FALLACIES PRACTICE

10. "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new

building, or we continue to risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk

anyone's safety, so we must tear the building down."

FALLACIES PRACTICE