Job analysis

Job analysisIntroduction, importance, methods etc.

Job: Its a group of positions involving same duties, responsibility and skillsA group of positions that are similar as to kind and level of work. An important part of Human Resources (HR) planningJob Analysis: It is a procedure by which pertinent information is obtained about a job.

Job AnalysisJob analysis is a systematic investigation of the tasks, duties and responsibilities necessary to do a job. Job analysis is the process of determining and recording all the pertinent information about a specified job Job analysis is the process of collecting job related information. Definition: A job analysis is the process used to collect information about the duties, responsibilities, necessary skills, outcomes, and work environment of a particular job.Possible aspects of work related information to be collected might includeWork activities-what worker does; how, why and whenTools and equipments used in performing work activitiesContext of work environment such as work schedule, working conditionsRequirements of personnel performing the job, KSAThe job analysis may include these activities: reviewing the job responsibilities of current employees,doing Internet research and viewing sample job descriptions online or offline highlighting similar jobs,analyzing the work duties, tasks, and responsibilities that need to be accomplished by the employee filling the position,researching and sharing with other companies that have similar jobs, andarticulation of the most important outcomes or contributions needed from the position.Uses/benefits of Job Analysis:

Organizational DesignHR PlanningRecruitment and SelectionPlacement and OrientationTraining and Development Performance AppraisalCareer Path PlanningJob DesignJob EvaluationLobour RelationEmployee CounsellingHealth and Safety.Succession PlanningJob analysis assists HR in determining:Necessity of the jobEquipment neededSkills requiredSupervisionWorking conditionsManagement/employee interaction

Job analysis can also:Help the company remain profitable and competitiveHelp the company keep up with technologyPrevent employees from being overworkedHelp the company stay in compliance with government regulations

Outcomes of Job Analysis The information obtained from job analysis is classified into three categories.Job descriptionJob specificationJob evaluation

Methods of job analysisJob analysis interviewJob analysis questionnaireTask analysis inventoryPosition analysis questionnaireSubject expert workshopsCritical incident techniqueFleisclunann job analysis surveyFunctional job analysisJob element methodRepertory gridThe Job Analysis InterviewIt is a method to collect a variety of information from an incumbent by asking the incumbent to describe the tasks and duties performed, equipment or conditions of employment of job.Job analysis interview is performed for the following reasons:To collect job informationTo serve as a means for clarifying or verifying information collected previously through other job analysis methodsFor collecting relevant job data for developing a selection systemAlthough the interview method provides opportunities to elicit information sometimes not available through other methods,

Job analysis data collected through interviews are obtained through group or individual interviews with incumbents or supervisors.Job analysis interview may be structured or unstructured.Structured interview: A structured interview may assume a definite format Unstructured interview: Here the interview is a conversation with no prepared questions or predetermined line of investigation. However, the interviewer should explain: The purpose of the study is and The particular focus of this interview The roles and the purposes give structure.

limitationsFirst, it is time consuming and hence costly. Second, the value of data is primarily dependent on the interviewers skills and may be faulty if they put ambiguous questions to workers. Last, interviewees may be suspicious about the motives and may distort the information they provide. If seen as an opportunity to improve their positions such as to increase their wages, workers may exaggerate their job duties to add greater weightage to their positions.

Interview OutcomesInterviewing is a flexible method for all levels and types of job. An interview may focus on what a hypothetical job might involve.

Interviews generate descriptive data and enable job-holders to interpret their activities. A good interviewer can probe sensitive areas in more depth. Structured questionnaires cannot easily do this. Jobholders can give overviews of their work and offer their perceptions and feelings about their job and the environment. Rigid questionnaires tend to be less effective where the more affective aspects of work are concerned. However information from different interviews can be hard to bring together there is potential for interviewer bias certain areas of the work may fail to be picked up an interview may stress one area and neglect others. there are problems in interpretation and analysis with the possibility of distorted impressions the subjectivity of the data captured needs to be considered

Job analysis questionnairesIt is one way to handle some of the problems of the job analysis interview.This method consists of a questionnaire distributed to respondents who are asked to make some form of judgments about job information presented on questionnaire.Questionnaire method

The questionnaire is a widely used method of analyzing jobs and work. Here the job holders are given a properly designed questionnaire aimed at eliciting relevant job-related information. After completion, the questionnaires are handed over to supervisors. The supervisors can seek further clarifications on various items by talking to the job holders directly. After everything is finalized, the data is given to the job analyst. Numerous forms of questionnaires can be used, but they fall into two classes:Tailored questionnaires developed for a specific purpose or a specific jobPrefabricated or existing questionnaires

The success of the method depends on various factors. The structured questionnaire must cover all job related tasks and behaviors. Each task or behavior should be described in terms of features such as importance, difficulty, frequency, and relationship to overall performance. The job holders should be asked to properly rate the various job factors and communicate the same on paper. The ratings thus collected are then put to close examination with a view to find out the actual job requirements.21Task Analysis InventoryAnother type of analysis method, the task analysis inventory focuses on the tasks performed in a particular job.This method has several variations.Task analysis inventories can be very detailed, including 100 or more tasks.

Task inventory analysisIt primarily aims to identify the essential task of job. By specifying the task, the method grounds the job analysis in the realm (area) of observable work behavior. In so doing the technique makes it possible for a job to be replicated and the results verified, which is an important feature.

This method was originally developed by the U.S Department of Labour for studying a single job or job family. In the task analysis process a complete inventory of all task performed on the job is developed.It contains three major categories of information:Background information on respondentsA listing of job tasks with associated rating scalesOther informationThis method incorporate the following stepsIdentifying job task/work behaviorsRating job task/work behaviorsSpecifying KSAs necessary for successful job performanceRating the importance of identified KSAsIdentifying other employee specifications necessary for successful job performanceLinking KSAs and other employee specifications to job taskDeveloping the content areas of selection proceduresUsing this information gained through these methods job analyst develop task statements to describe the jobs.Task statement begin with an active verb which expresses the action taken. However job cannot be fully described unless the data include some mental or cognitive activities.Questionnaire development: task inventory analysis provides the items for a task analysis questionnaire. Rating scales are constructed according to the kind of information needed. It contains many task statements most of which are part of the job.Responses to questionnaires can be summarized with some simple descriptive statistics to show how job incumbents as a group describe the job. Ratings can be analyzed by calculating the mean and standard deviation.This questionnaires does not ask job incumbents to identify the knowledge, skill, and ability needed on the job. Rather task information yielded by the questionnaire provides the basis for inferring the necessary KSAs.To accomplish, the analysts assessThe questionnaire data to identify the important tasks.Then they organized the information into separate groups showing the different areas of KSA that are needed to perform job.Position Analysis Questionaire (PAQ)The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972) is a structured job analysis instrument to measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics. One of the broadest and best-researched instruments for analyzing jobs is the Position Analysis Questionnaire. This is a standardized job analysis questionnaire containing 194 items to represent:Work behaviorsWork conditionsJob characteristics28Position Analysis QuestionnaireThe questionnaire organizes these items into six sections concerning different aspects of the job:Information inputMental processesWork outputRelationships with other personsJob contextOther characteristics

Information input: where and how the worker gets information, Mental processes: reasoning and other processes that workers use, Work output: physical activities and tools used on the job, Relationships with other persons, and Job context : the physical and social contexts in which work is performed.Other job characteristics: the activities, conditions & characteristics other than those already described that are relevant to job.

Six different types of scales are used to determine the extent to which the items are relevant:Extent of use- the degree to which an item is used by the workerAmount of time- the proportion of time spent doing somethingImportance to this job- the importance of an activity specified by the item in performing the jobPossibility of occurrence- the degree to which there is a possibility of physical hazards Applicability- whether an item applies to jobSpecial code- special rating that are used with particular item on PAQApplication Selecting and training agents to analyze jobsSelecting persons to provide job informationAnalyzing the jobs selectedAnalyzing PAQ dataSubject MatterExpert (SME) workshop

SME workshops consists of groups or panels of 10 to 20 job incumbents who work with a group leader to produce job analysis. Participants are selected for their knowledge of the job they are referred as SME.Steps are:Selecting and preparing SMEsIdentifying and rating job taskIdentifying and rating KSAJudging selection measures-job content relevance

The Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) are employees who are extremely knowledgeable about the type of position being filled and can offer additional recommendations regarding the requirements of the job. Typically, the SME is an employee at or above the grade level of the position being filled within the organization. The Hiring Manager is typically the official who decides whether to use an SME for any given job analysisCritical incidents:The critical incident technique (CIT) is a qualitative approach to job analysis used to obtain specific, behaviorally focused descriptions of work or other activities. Here the job holders are asked to describe several incidents based on their past experience. It was originally developed to gather information to determine training needs and develop performance appraisal forms.The incidents so collected are analyzed and classified according to the job areas they describe. The job requirements will become clear once the analyst draws the line between effective and ineffective behaviors of workers on the job. Each critical incident consists ofA description of a situationThe effective or ineffective behavior performed by a job incumbentThe consequence of that behavior For example, if a shoe salesman comments on the size of a customers feet and the customer leaves the store in a huff, the behavior of the salesman may be judged as ineffective in terms of the result it produced. The critical incidents are recorded after the events have already taken place both routine and non-routine. The process of collecting a fairly good number of incidents is a lengthy one. Since, incidents of behavior can be quite dissimilar, the process of classifying data into usable job descriptions can be difficult. The analysts overseeing the work must have analytical skills and ability to translate the content of descriptions into meaningful statements.

CIT is a flexible method that usually relies on five major areas.

The first is determining and reviewing the incident, then fact-finding, which involves collecting the details of the incident from the participants. When all of the facts are collected, the next step is to identify the issues. Afterwards a decision can be made on how to resolve the issues based on various possible solutions. The final and most important aspect is the evaluation, which will determine if the solution that was selected will solve the root cause of the situation and will cause no further problems.

Application Selecting the method for critical incident collectionSelecting a panel of job expertsGenerating critical incidentsDefining job dimensions

Advantages and disadvantagesAdvantagesFlexible method that can be used to improve multi-user systems.Data is collected from the respondent's perspective and in his or her own words.Does not force the respondents into any given framework.Identifies even rare events that might be missed by other methods which only focus on common and everyday events.Useful when problems occur but the cause and severity are not known.

Inexpensive and provides rich information.Emphasizes the features that will make a system particularly vulnerable (weak) and can bring major benefits (e.g. safety).Can be applied using questionnaires or interviews.

DisadvantagesThe Critical Incident Technique will rely on events being remembered by users and will also require the accurate and truthful reporting of them. Since critical incidents often rely on memory, incidents may be imprecise or may even go unreported.The method has a built-in bias towards incidents that happened recently, since these are easier to recall.Respondents may not be accustomed to or willing to take the time to tell (or write) a complete story when describing a critical incident.

42Fleishman Job Analysis SystemTo gather information about worker requirements, the Fleishman Job Analysis System asks subject-matter experts, typically job incumbents, to evaluate a job in terms of the abilities required to perform the job.The survey is based on 52 categories of abilities ranging from written comprehension to deductive reasoning, manual dexterity, stamina, and originality.When the survey has been completed in all 52 categories, the results provide a picture of the ability requirements of a job. This information is especially important and useful for employee:SelectionTrainingCareer developmentanalyst will list all elements as follows:Cognitive* Perceptual Abilities* Spatial Abilities* Idea Generation & Reasoning Abilities* Quantitative Abilities* Memory* Attentiveness* Verbal AbilitiesPsycho-motor* Control Movement Abilities* Reaction Time and Speed Abilities* Fine Manipulative AbilitiesPhysical* Endurance* Flexibility, Balance, and Coordination* Visual Abilities* Auditory and Speech Abilities* Physical Strength AbilitiesSensoryThe second step involve a meeting of experts. The analyst calculates and obtains job description.

Advantages :It is straight forward and easy to adoptIt seems to be an viable option for identifying worker specificationsIt is suitable to suggest possible predictors to be used in selectionDisadvantage : not appropriate when using a content validation strategy

Job Element Method

Job element method is a method of job analysis, developed by Ernest Primoff.This method, like the critical incident technique, focuses on satisfactory workers. It attempts to identify the characteristics of satisfactory workers (job elements).JEM method focuses on work behaviors and the results of this behavior rather than more abstract characteristics.

47Job Element Analysis Identifies the characteristics of a superior worker on the jobElements consist of: a knowledge, a skill, an ability, a willingness, an interest and a personal characteristicsIdentify the characteristics that should be assessed by selection measures47Job Element Design to identify the characteristics of a superior worker on the job.

Process / ApplicationSelecting a panel of experts/ratersDeveloping job element and sub elementsRating job elements and sub elementsAnalyzing JEM dataAmplifying sub element definitions349Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

Quantitative approach to job analysis that utilizes a compiled inventory of the various functions or work activities that can make up any job.Assumes that each job involves three broad worker functions: (1) data, (2) people, and (3) things.Rates each job in terms of what an employee does with respect to data, people, and things.Ex: A Receptionist may be labelled as 5,6,7 with respect to data, people and things. i.e. copying data, speaking-signaling people, and handling things.49Two types of task information are obtained from FJA What a worker does-procedure and process engaged by a workerHow a task is performed mental, physical, and interpersonal involvement of the worker with the task351Besides rating a job on these three aspects, FJA also rates a job on four other dimensions: the extent to which specific instructions are necessarythe extent to which reasoning and judgment are requiredthe extent to which mathematical ability is required, and the extent to which verbal and language facilities required.FJA also identifies performance standards and training requirements. Therefore FJA lets you answer the question, To do this task and meet the standards, what training does the worker require?51Application Organizing job incumbents to analyze the jobIdentifying job taskMeasuring worker functionMeasuring worker instructionsMeasuring worker qualifications: reasoning, mathematical and language development scaleIdentifying employee specificationsAdministering a job task questionnaire

Repertory gridThe repertory grid is a technique for identifying the ways that a person construes (interprets/ gives meaning to) his or her experience. This structured interview technique provides a structure for eliciting the attributes which distinguish between more effective and less effective job incumbents.The Repertory Grid Method was developed by the American psychologist George Kelly in the early 1950s as a basis for understanding how people perceive their environment and how that perception influences behaviour.Repertory Grids are typically used with Line Managers / Supervisors / Team Leaders / Job Incumbents, who are in a position to make comparisons between a number of job holders known to them at the target level under job analysis, half of whom are considered to be very effective performers, and half less effective.A grid consists of four parts:A Topic: it is about some part of the person's experienceA set of Elements, which are examples or instances of the Topic. For example, to see how I construe the purchase of a car, a list of vehicles within my price range could make an excellent set of elements

A set of Constructs. These are the basic terms that the client uses to make sense of the elements, and are always expressed as a contrast. Thus the meaning of 'Good' depends on whether you intend to say 'Good versus Poor', as if you were construing a theatrical performance, or 'Good versus Evil', as if you were construing the moral or ontological status of some more fundamental experience.

A set of ratings of Elements on Constructs. Each element is positioned between the two extremes of the construct using a 5- or 7-point rating scale system; this is done repeatedly for all the constructs that apply; and thus its meaning to the client is captured, and statistical analysis varying from simple counting, to more complex multivariate analysis of meaning, is made possible