MECHATRONICS

..

Electrical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Computer Science

Mechatronics, a truly multi-disciplinary approach to engineering, has become a key to many different products and processes. The integration of mechanics, electronics, control and ____________________ exploits and exceeds the relative advantages of single ____________________, and when they are integrated, the ____________________ ensures that performances reach unprecedented levels. The importance of Mechatronic Engineering will further ____________________ due to consumer demands. Thus it has a vital role to play in the____________________.

Drastic technological advances in electromechanical motion devices and power electronics, solid-state devices and ICs (____________________ ), MEMS and NEMS (____________________ and ____________________ ), materials and packaging, computers and IT (____________________ ), microprocessors and DSPs (____________________ ), digital signal and optical processing, computer-aided-design tools and simulation software, have brought new challenges to the academia.

Mechatronic engineers possess the core skills of mechanical engineers and electrical engineers. Their knowledge enables them to solve a wide range of mechanical, electrical and software ____________________ , allowing them to participate ____________________ and lead multidisciplinary design teams. Mechatronic engineers are ____________________ by product developers and manufacturers, large and small, by the mining industry, by the aerospace and defence sectors, and by the government and industry research groups. Wherever ____________________ is potential for improvement through the integration of computer and electrical hardware with mechanical systems there is a need for ____________________ engineers. Opportunities also exist for graduates to form their own companies early in their careers.  In the future, mechatronic engineers will be in great demand as more industries seek to apply the evolutionary advances in computers, electronics, sensors, and actuators to ____________________ their products, processes and services.

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Glossary:acronym – a word composed of the initial letters of the name of somethingactuator - a mechanical device for moving or controlling somethingadvance – progress in understanding, developing new ideas and technologies in a particular field, subjectCAD - acronym for computer-aided design. A system of programs and workstations used in designing engineering, architectural, and scientific models ranging from simple tools to buildings, aircraft, integrated circuits, and molecules. Various CAD applications create objects in two or three dimensions, presenting the results as wire-frame “skeletons,” as more substantial models with shaded surfaces, or as solid objects. Some programs can also rotate or resize models, show interior views, generate lists of materials required for construction, and perform other allied functions. See also CAD/CAM. CAD/CAM - acronym for computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing. The use of computers in both the design and manufacture of a product. With CAD/CAM, a product, such as a machine part, is designed with a CAD program and the finished design is translated into a set of instructions that can be transmitted to and used by the machines dedicated to fabrication, assembly, and process control.CADD – a system of hardware and software similar to CAD but with additional features related to engineering conventions, including the ability to display dimension specifications and other notes. See also CAD. CAE - acronym for computer-aided engineering. An application that enables the user to perform engineering tests and analyses on designs created with a computer. In some instances, capabilities such as logic testing that are generally attributed to CAE applications are also part of CAD programs, so the distinction between CAD and CAE is not a hard-and-fast one. core – essenceDP - data processing - 1. the general work performed by computers. 2. More specifically, the manipulation of data to transform it into some desired result.integration - 1. in computing, the combining of different activities, programs, or hardware components into a functional unit 2. in electronics, the process of packing multiple electronic circuit elements on a single chip. See also integrated circuitintegrated circuit – a device consisting of a number of connected circuit elements, such as transistors and resistors, fabricated on a single chip of silicon crystal or other semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are categorized by the number of elements they contain. Acronym: IC. Also called: chip. lithography – a process of imprinting patterns on semiconductor materials to be used as integrated circuits.MEMS - acronym for micro-electromechanical systems. A technology combining computers with extremely tiny mechanical devices. MEMS devices contain microcircuitry on a tiny silicon chip onto which a mechanical device such as a sensor or an actuator is attached. MEMS devices are used in switches, pacemakers, games, GPS tracking, data storage, and for accelerometers in air bags. Because MEMS devices have the potential to be manufactured in large quantities for little cost, many additional MEMS products are being planned or studied. microprocessor - a central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip. A modern microprocessor can have several million transistors in an integrated-circuit package that can easily fit into the palm of one’s hand. Microprocessors are at the heart of all personal computers. When memory and power are added to a microprocessor, all the pieces, excluding peripherals, required for a computer are present. The most popular lines of microprocessors today are the 680 x 0 family from Motorola, which powers the Apple Macintosh line, and the 80 x 86 family from Intel, which is at the core of all IBM PC–compatible computers.nanotechnology - a field of science whose goal is to control individual atoms and molecules to create computer chips and other devices that are thousands of times smaller than current technologies permit. Current manufacturing processes use lithography to imprint circuits on semiconductor materials. While lithography has improved dramatically over the last two decades -- to the point where some manufacturing plants can produce circuits smaller than one micron (1,000 nanometers) -- it still deals with aggregates of millions of atoms. It is widely believed that lithography is quickly approaching its physical limits. In the popular press, the term nanotechnology is sometimes used to refer to any sub-micron process, including lithography. Because of this, many scientists are beginning to use the term molecular nanotechnology when talking about true nanotechnology at the molecular level. Although research in this field dates back to Richard P. Feynman's classic talk in 1959, the term nanotechnology was first coined by K. Eric Drexler in 1986 in the book Engines of Creation. sensor - a device that detects or measures something by converting nonelectrical energy to electrical energy. A photocell, for example, detects or measures light by converting it to electrical energy. See also transducer. synergy or synergism - most often refers to the phenomenon of two or more discrete influences or agents acting in common to create an effect which is greater than the sum of the effects each is able to create independently.synergistic - cooperating for an enhanced effecttransducer – a device that converts one form of energy into another. Electronic transducers either convert electric energy to another form of energy or convert nonelectric to electric energy. unprecedented – has never happened before

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF

MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

(Robert, H. Bishop: The Mechatronics Handbook, CRC Press)

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5 IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT STEPS:

PrecisionMechanics

Mechanical

Elements

Machines

Pure mechanical system

○ ○ ○1. Addition of sensors, actuators,microelectronics, control functions

○ ○ ○2. Integration of components(hardware integration)

○ ○ ◦3. Integration by informationprocessing (software integration)

○ ○ ◦4. Redesign of mechanicalsystem

○ ○ ◦5. Creation of synergeticeffects ○ ◦ ◦Fully integrated mechatronic systems

○ ◦ ◦

Examples SensorsActuators

Disc-storagescameras

Suspensions

DampersClutches

Gears brakes

Electric drives

Combustion

enginesMachine

toolsRobots

5 DEVELOPMENT STEPSIN THE DESIGN OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS

Pure mechanical system1. + sensors, actuators, microelectronics,

control functions2. + hardware integration3. + software integration4. + redesign of mechanical system

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5. + creation of synergetic effectsFully integrated mechatronic systems

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Sensors and Actuators

Signals andSystems

Computers and Logic Systems

Software and Data Acquisition

Physical System

Modelling

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL, AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSPure *_______________________ systems <1920 steam engine 1860

dynamos 1870circular pumps 1880combustion engine 1880mechanical typewritertool machines , pumps

Increasing electical drives

↓

↓ ←d.c. motor *____________←a.c. motor 1889

Mechanical systems with *___________drives 1920↓ ←relays, solenoids

←hydraulic, pneumatic, electric amplifiers

electric typewriter

Mechanical systems with automatic* _______ ___________________

1935 steam turbinesaircraft

Increasing *____________ control

↓ ←transistor 1948←thyristor 1955

↓

Mechanical systems with- electronic (analogue) control

1955 electronic controlled lifts

↓ ← *___________________ computer 1955←process computer 1959←microcomputer *______________←digital decentralized automation 1975

machine tools*_______________robotsdisc drives

Increasing automation with process computers and miniaturization

Mechanical systems with- *___________________ control

1975 ↓

↓ ←microcontroller 1978←personal computer 1980←new actuators, sensors

*______________________ systems integration: - mechanics & electronics hardware- software determines functions- new design tools for simultaneous engineering- *________________________ effects

1985 mobile *______________CIMmagnetic bearingsautomotive control(ABS, ESP)

Increasing integration of process &microcomputers

Pure mechanical systems <1920 steam engine 1860dynamos 1870circular pumps 1880combustion engine 1880mech. typewritertool machines

Increasing electical drives

↓

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pumps↓ ←d.c. motor 1870

←a.c. motor 1889Mechanical systems with electrical drives 1920

↓ ←relays, solenoids←hydraulic, pneumatic, electric amplifiers←PI-controllers 1930

electric typewriter

Mechanical systems with automatic control 1935 steam turbinesaircraft

Increasing automatic control

↓ ←transistor 1948←thyristor 1955

↓

Mechanical systems with- electronic (analogue) control- sequential control

1955 electronic controlled lifts

↓ ←digital computer 1955←process computer 1959←real-time software 1966←microcomputer 1971←digital decentralized automation 1975

machine toolsindustrial robotsindustrial plantsdisc drives

Increasing automation with process computers and miniaturization

Mechanical systems with- digital continuous control- digital sequential control

1975 ↓

↓ ←microcontroller 1978←personal computer 1980←process/fieldbus systems←new actuators, sensors←integration of components

Mechatronic systems integration: - mechanics & electronics hardware- software determines functions- new design tools for simultaneous engineering- synergetic effects

1985 mobile robotsCIMmagnetic bearingsautomotive control(ABS, ESP)

Increasing integration of process & microcomputers

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INTRODUCING, SPELLING, ABBREVIATIONS

I. INTRODUCING

1. What do YOU do at work?

Work with a partner. Introduce yourself to him and then ask / answer questions about his / your job.What do you do? Do you travel a lot? Do you use a computer? Do you work long hours? Do you need to wear special clothing? Do you work outside? Do you meet a lot of different people? Do you need qualifications to do your job? Do you make a lot of money? Do you like your job?

2. What does your friend / wife do?

3. Read about these jobs. Are any similar to yours?

SOFTWARE ENGINEER- works for a bank- writes, tests, and debugs code- updates security features and troubleshoots- is responsible for a project team

QUALITY CONTROLLER- works for a chemical company- collects and examines product

samples- analyses data and writes reports- works night shifts

Glossary:debug (v.) – to detect, locate, and correct logical or syntactical errors in a program or malfunctions in hardware. In hardware contexts, the term troubleshoot is the term more often used, especially when the problem is a major one. debugger (n.) - a program designed to aid in debugging another program by allowing the programmer to step through the program, examine the data, and monitor conditions such as the values of variables.

bug (n.) – 1. an error in coding or logic that causes a program to malfunction or to produce incorrect results. Minor bugs, such as a cursor that does not behave as expected, can be inconvenient or frustrating, but do not damage information. More severe bugs can require the user to restart the program or the computer, losing whatever previous work had not been saved. Worse yet are bugs that damage saved data without alerting the user. All such errors must be found and corrected by the process known as debugging. Because of the potential risk to important data, commercial application programs are tested and debugged as completely as possible before release. After the program becomes available, further minor bugs are corrected in the next update. A more severe bug can sometimes be fixed with a piece of software called a patch, which circumvents the problem or in some other way alleviates its effects. 2. a recurring physical problem that prevents a system or set of components from working together properly. update (v.) – put in the latest informationtroubleshoot (v.) – find and correct faults and problemssample (n.) – specimen, small quantities of a product that show what the rest is likeanalyse (v.) – examine sth carefully to understand and explain itshifts (n.) – parts of the working day

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II. SPELLING THINGS OUT

1. Can you spell your name to your partner? Can you spell your email address?2. Can you spell this email address aloud?

m_barley@zqr.comm underscore barley at zqr dot com

3. Label the parts of the email and website addresses with words from the list:

hyphen dot underscore colon at slash

john-22@guest.arnes.si

http://www.tsckr.si/

4. Work with a partner and act out some calls.

A BYou are trying to email a supplier’s sales office at: sales_11@telecom.net. Your messages are being returned. Call the company and check you have the right email address. Make a note of any changes.

Changes (?): ________________________

Here’s the email address of your sales office:sales-11@telecom.net.A customer calls you.

B AYou tried to connect to your supplier’s website at: http://www.chemical/29/slo.net but you got a message saying “The page you are looking for is currently unavailable.” Perhaps their server is down. Call, ask, and make notes.

Notes (?): __________________________

Your computer server is working fine. You have a new online link to your products at: http://www.chemistry-29/slo.net. A supplier calls you.

III. English alphabet

http://www.learnenglish.org.uk/kids/antics/ http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/vtc/ngfl/ngfl- flash/alphabet-eng/alphabet.htm http://www.alphabetpage.com/english/ alphabet_for_english_speakers/

http://www.languageguide.org/im/alpha/eng/

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VERBS IN ENGLISH

1. AUXILIARY VERBS: do, be, have2. MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: must, can, may, should, might, will, would…3. FULL VERBS: - play, go…

- be (I am tired.), do (I never do my homework.), have (I have a dog.)

AUXILIARY VERBS

AUXILIARY VERB

to FORM EXAMPLE

DO / DOES the question and the negative in the Present Simple

Do you like apples?She doesn't live in Ljubljana.

DID the question and the negative in the Past Simple

Why did you buy it yesterday?They didn’t invite me last night.

BE continuous forms (BE +-ing) She is sitting in the garden now. NOTthe Passive (BE + -ed/3.) My bag was stolen yesterday. NOT

HAVE perfect tenses (HAVE + -ed/3.) She has never been to Australia. NOTAfter I had written my homework, I went out.

DO / DOES & DID PRESENT & PAST SIMPLE ( ?, - )BE (am/is/are, was/were, have been/has been, will be…) CONTINUOUS TENSES & PASSIVEHAVE (have/ has/ had) PERFECT TENSES

She’s got a cat.Has she got a cat?She hasn’t got a cat.

She has a cat.Does she have a cat?She doesn’t have a cat.

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES WITH AUXILIARY VERBS:1. I ……………………..known her for several years.2. Jane ………………….won a lot of money so next week she ……………………..travelling to

America to visit her relatives.3. It was not long before she moved to Paris that she ………………… got a job in an agency.4. ………………………… she happen to know me?5. ………………………… you write a letter to her a few minutes ago?6. How many letters …………………… you written so far?7. The shopping centre ………………... located near the village. I go there every morning.8. I was surprised because she …………………….. never talked about moving abroad.9. My parents are happy because I …………………… passed all the tests.10. …………………………. you phone me last night?11. How often …………………… your mother cook fish?12. Where ……………………you buy all your clothes?13. How much money …………………… your sister spent in holiday in Greece?14. How many times …………………….Columbus travel to the new found land?15. How many times …………………….you crossed the Atlantic?16. Tina was upset. She ……………………... lost all of her documents.17. We are excited. We ……………………… never travelled by plane.18. Paper ………………………made from wood.19. They……………………. working all day yesterday.20. ……………………….. she got any children?21. ………………………. you do your homework every afternoon?22. ……………………….. Tom have a lot of money?

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PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE…....&…....PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

AUXILIARY VERBSPRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUSDO / DOES ( ?, - ) AM , IS, ARE NOT

▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼

PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUSHABITUAL ACTIONS (often, usually, rarely…)He usually gets up at 6.30.I wash my hair twice a week.

ACTIONS HAPPENING AT / AROUND THE MOMENT OF SPEAKING (now)You can’t speak to her. She is having a bath.

PERMANENT SITUATIONS / STATESShe works as a nurse.They own a house.

TEMPORARY SITUATIONSThis week he is going to work by bus as his car is broken.

PERMANENT TRUTHS / LAWS OF NATURE Money doesn’t buy happiness.Water freezes at 0oC.

REPEATED ACTIONS WITH »always« (ANNOYANCE, CRITICISM)He’s always smoking in the dining room!

TIMETABLES / PROGRAMMES (future meaning)The plane leaves at 10.05.The match finishes at 6 p.m.

FIXED ARRANGEMENTS IN THE FUTUREWe are leaving tomorrow.They’re getting married next month.

REVIEWS / SPORTS COMMENTARIES Hopkins acts brilliantly in this film.Cantona passes to Hughes … and Hughes scores!

CHANGING / DEVELOPING SITUATIONSHis French is getting better.

E X E R C I S E S

I. FILL IN WITH PRESENT SIMPLE OR PRESENT CONTINUOUS.

1. Milk …………………..(contain) a lot of vitamins.2. John ……………………(fly) to Paris tonight.3. How many brothers ……………you……………..(have)?4. ……………….the film ………………(start) at 6 o’clock?5. Light ……………………(travel) faster than sound.6. My mother ………………..(not cook) dinner now.7. They …………………….(stay) at the Park Hotel at present.8. He……………………(not have) breakfast at the moment.9. ………………..he ………………..(have) a pet dog?10. What time ……………..your train…………………(arrive) in London?11. Hello June. Where ……………..you……………….(call) from?12. She ………………always…………………(interrupt) me!13. The Browns ……………….(visit) us tonight.14. Her grandmother …………………..(not live) in Ljubljana.15. ………………they………………..(have) a party at the moment?16. He …………………(get) stronger.17. Who ……………….(owe) you the money?18. If you heat ice it …………………(melt).19. She ………………..(drink) three cups of coffee every morning.20. I …………………(think) he’s tired.21. I………………….(think) about your plan.22. The milk ………………..(taste) awful.23. I ………………….(taste) the sauce; it might need some salt.24. I …………………(see) you’re in trouble.25. I………………..(see) my lawyer tonight.

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I. Complete the sentences about the laws of nature. Use words from the list.

evaporate stretch crash sinkcontract

burst rust condense freeze fade

float soften bounce harden ignite

expandshrink burn boildissolve

1 When you heat a metal bar, it expands and when you cool it, it ………….2 If you leave an iron bar in water, it …………3 If you wash jeans in very hot water, the fabric .............. , and if you wash them repeatedly, the colour …..……….4 Water ……….. at 0 °C. It ……….. at 100 °C.5 Steam ............. when it comes into contact with cold glass.6 If you leave a bowl of water in the hot sun, the water ……………7 Take ice cream out of the freezer five minutes before you want to eat it, so it ……………

. If you don't eat it all, put it back in the freezer and it ............. again.8 A spark from an engine ............. the fuel. 9 If you put salt in water and stir, the salt …………10 If you pull elastic, it ……………11 If you drop a rubber ball, it ………….12 If you overload a computer's processor, it ………….13 If you over-inflate the balloon, it ................. 14 The candle ................. for three hours and then goes out.15 If you throw a brick into the river, it ………………, but if you throw a rubber ball in the

river, it …………..

II. Which verbs are connected with changes in:1 size or shape? 2 colour?3 chemical state (gas, liquid, solid)?

III. Mini-quiz: WHAT IS IT?

o Read about the dangers of a substance called XXX. What is XXX?

BEWARE OF XXX!XXX kills hundreds of thousands of people a year and it could kill you.

• Many deaths are caused by accidental inhalation of XXX.• The solid form of XXX can cause damage to human tissues. • The gas form of XXX can result in severe burns.• XXX makes many metals rust and corrode. • Many electrical failures are caused by XXX.• XXX causes millions of euros worth of property damage each year.• XXX can make automobile brakes fail.• XXX is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, but the dangers of XXX are all around us.• Acid rain contains XXX.• Rivers and oceans contain large quantities of XXX: • XXX is used by nuclear power plants.• Many people walk miles and miles every day to get XXX because they want to ingest XXX.• If you don't ingest XXX, you can die.

o What are the more common terms for:1 accidental inhalation of XXX? 2 the solid form of XXX?

3 the gas form of XXX?4 ingest?

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IV. SPOT THE DIFFERENCE

REPLACE, FILL, LOOK, REPAIR, TALK, MOP, SHARPEN, MEND, WORK, WORK

V. UNDERLINE THE CORRECT TENSE.

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1 More and more people move/are moving to the countryside these days.2 Sheila works/is working as a costume designer for the local theatre company.3 Computec holds/is holding a five-day seminar on computers for all its employees next week.4 Lauren doesn't leave/isn't leaving her house before 9 o'clock in the morning.5 No wonder the phone bills are so high! You always talk/are always talking on the phone!6 I don't teach/am not teaching in the evenings at present.7 Do amphibians live/Are amphibians living both on land and in water?8 I never go/am never going to that restaurant again! The food was horrible!9 They prefer/are preferring to go on holiday in spring when the resorts are less crowded.10 Chris and Helen are having/have a garden party on Sunday afternoon.

VI. TICK THE CORRECT SENTENCE, AS IN THE EXAMPLE.

1 a) The train from Brussels arrives at 2:20

at Platform 5. √b) The train from Brussels is arriving at

2:20 at Platform 5.2 a) Mr Lewis doesn't go to the

supermarket today.b) Mr Lewis isn't going to the

supermarket today.3 a) Renee always breaks things in the

kitchen.b) Renee is always breaking things in

the kitchen.4 a) Greg and Julie live in a flat in

Manhattan.b) Greg and Julie are living in a flat in

Manhattan.

5 a) Do we visit Grandma and Grandpathis Sunday?

b) Are we visiting Grandma andGrandpa this Sunday?

6 a) Cats don't like water.b) Cats are not liking water.

7 a) Jacob never changes a flat tyre again.

b) Jacob is never changing a flat tyreagain.

8 a) How much does the silk blouse cost?b) How much is the silk blouse costing?

9 a) More and more people eat healthily.b) More and more people are eating

healthily.10a) That carton contains one litre of

milk.b) That carton is containing one litre of

milk.

VII. PUT THE VERBS INTO THE SIMPLE PRESENT OR PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE.

1. A: You ………….…….(not tell) the truth. B: How …………..you………………(know) that I …………………(not tell) the truth?2. You can't see Mrs. Johnson because she ……………………(rest). She always …………..(rest) after lunch.3. We ………………….(have) breakfast at 8.00 tomorrow because Tom ………………(catch) an early train.4. Tom usually…………………..(feed) the hens but I ………………..(do) it today as he is not well.5. A: Someone ………………….(knock) at the door. ……………you……………..(not go) to answer it? B: I’ll go in a minute. I …………...just……………(get) out of my bath.6. A: ………………you……………….(do) anything this evening? B: No, I am not. A: Well, I ………………….(go) to the cinema. Would you like to come with me?7. A: How much …………….you…………..(owe) him? B: I …………………(owe) him 5 pounds. A: ……………….you………………..(intend) to pay him?8. A: …………………you………………(mind) if I ………………..(ask) you a question? B: That ……………………(depend) on the question. A: It ………………..(concern) your brother. B: I ………………..(refuse) to answer the question about my brother.9. He usually …………………(go) by train, but this weekend he …………………(go) by bus. It .…………..

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(take) longer but it ………………….(cost) less.10. A: My daughter never …………………..(write) to me so I never ………………..(know) how she ……….………………..(be). ………………your son………………..(write) to you? B: Yes, I ………………….(hear) from him every week. He …………………..(seem) to like writing letters.VIII. COMPLETE.

How do bats know where they are going?

An odd thing about bats is that they ………………… (not have) a good eyesight. Although they have to hunt for their food during the night. In fact bats …………………. (not rely) on their eyes to find their way. They ………………… (use) a kind of radar system which …………………… (work) like this: when they ………………….. (fly), bats make high-pitched sounds which ……………………….. (be) so high that human beings cannot hear them. The echoes from these sounds …………………… (throw) back to the bat while it is still in the air. The bat can tell whether the echo came from an object nearby or far away and it will change the direction of its flight to avoid crashing into the object. Bats ………………….. (depend) on flying more than most animals. While birds and insects also ………………… (fly), they ………………………. (have) the ability to walk about if necessary. However, a bat cannot walk very easily because its limbs and feet ………………….. (not be) suitable; it cannot even stand very easily. So it is actually easier for a bat to hang upside down from a branch than to sit on it.

How do we see in 3D?

When we look across a field, how ………………. we ……………… (know) that one distant object …………………….. (be) bigger than another or that one object is behind another, not in front of it? In other words, how ………………we ……………… (see) things in three dimensions, in proper relation to each other, instead of seeing everything »flat«? The answer is that when we ……………………. (see) things, we see them not only with our eyes but with our minds as well: we see things in the light of experience. Our minds and memories …………………………. (help) us to interpret what we see. For instance, experience ………………………. (give) us an idea about the size of things. A man on a boat some distance from the shore ……………………. (look) much smaller than a man on the beach. But you ………………… (not think) that one is a very large man and the other a very small man. What you …………………. (say) to yourself is that one man is nearby and the other is far away.

A tip round Europe

The British are considered to be among the worst tippers in the world but is that because they simply don't know the rules?Customs ……………………. (differ) between countries, so it …………………….. (not be) surprising that in Tokyo they …………………… (do) things differently from London.In British restaurants, for example, a tip ………………… generally …………………. (include) in the bill and this is the case in most northern European countries. In some Mediterranean countries, such as Greece and Spain, the customer …………………… (expect) to pay a little extra for satisfactory service. As for bars and pubs, again customs…………………. (vary). In Britain, one certainly …………………. (not have) to pay a tip inpubs, while in hotel bars it is fairly common to leave your small change behind. This is the

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case in Germany too, but in France you …………………… (leave) a tip only when drinks ……………………… (bring) to your table. In the majority of European countries, with theexception of Ireland where it …………………….. (apply) only in top hotels, porters ……………………… (receive) a tip for carrying your luggage to your room for you.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CAR AS A MECHATRONIC SYSTEM

until the 1960s (before the introduction of sensors and microcontrollers) - the radio was the only electronics in a car. - all other functions were mechanical or electrical (the starter, the battery charging systems, no “intelligent safety systems”), all engine systems were controlled by mechanical control systems.

in the late 1970s - The electronic ignition system was one of the first mechatronic systems to be

introduced in the car. The firings were controlled directly by utilizing a microprocessor.

- The Antilock Brake System (ABS) works by sensing lockup of any of the wheels and then modulating the hydraulic pressure as needed to minimize or eliminate sliding.

in the late 1990s - The Traction Control System (TCS) was introduced in cars. The TCS works by

sensing slippage during acceleration and then modulating the power to the slipping wheel. This process ensures that the vehicle is accelerating at the maximum possible rate under given road and vehicle conditions.

- The Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC) system was introduced in cars. The VDC works similar to the TCS with the addition of a yaw rate sensor and a lateral accelerometer. The driver intention is determined by the steering wheel position and then compared with the actual direction of motion. The TCS system is then activated to control the power to the wheels and to control the vehicle velocity and minimize the difference between the steering wheel direction and the direction of the vehicle motion.

- ESP

Today, there are about 30–60 microcontrollers in a car. This is expected to increase with the drive towards developing modular systems for plug-n-ply mechatronics subsystems.

In cars today, 8, 16, or 32-bit CPUs are used for implementation of the various control systems.

- The microcontroller has onboard memory (EEPROM/EPROM), digital and analogue inputs, A/D converters, pulse width modulation (PWM), timer functions, such as event counting and pulse width measurement, prioritized inputs, and in some cases digital signal processing.

- The 32-bit processor is used for engine management, transmission control, and airbags.

- The 16-bit processor is used for the ABS, TCS, VDC, instrument cluster, and air conditioning systems.

- The 8-bit processor is used for seat, mirror control, and window lift systems.

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THE CAR AS A MECHATRONIC SYSTEM

Mechatronics has become a necessity for product differentiation in cars. Since the basics of internal combustion engine were worked out almost a century ago, differences in the engine design among the various cars are no longer useful as a product differentiator. In the 1970s, the Japanese carmakers succeeded in establishing a foothold in the U.S. car market by offering unsurpassed quality and fuel-efficient small cars. Today, mechatronic features have become the product differentiator in these traditionally mechanical systems. New applications of mechatronic systems in the automotive world include semi-autonomous to fully autonomous cars, safety enhancements, emission reduction, and other features including intelligent cruise control, and brake by wire systems eliminating the hydraulics.

Telematics, which combines audio, hands-free cell phone, navigation, Internet connectivity, e-mail, and voice recognition, is perhaps the largest potential car growth area. In fact, the use of electronics in cars is expected to increase.

Micro Electromechanical Systems (MEMS) is an enabling technology for the cost-effective development of sensors and actuators for mechatronics applications. Already, several MEMS devices are in use in cars, including sensors and actuators for airbag deployment and pressure sensors for manifold pressure measurement.

Millimetre wave radar technology has recently found applications in cars. The millimetre wave radar detects the location of objects (other vehicles) in the scenery and the distance to the obstacle and the velocity in real-time. This technology provides the capability to control the distance between the vehicle and an obstacle (or another vehicle) by integrating the sensor with the cruise control and ABS systems. The driver is able to set the speed and the desired distance between the cars ahead of him. The ABS system and the cruise control system are coupled together to safely achieve this remarkable capability. One logical extension of the obstacle avoidance capability is slow speed semi-autonomous driving where the vehicle maintains a constant distance from the vehicle ahead in traffic jam conditions.

Future mechatronic systems on cars may include a fog-free windscreen based on humidity and temperature sensing and climate control, self-parallel parking, rear parking aid, lane change assistance, fluidless electronic brake-by-wire, and replacement of hydraulic systems with electromechanical servo systems.

As the number of automobiles in the world increases, stricter emission standards are inevitable. Mechatronic products will in all likelihood contribute to meet the challenges in emission control and engine efficiency by providing substantial reduction in CO, NO, and HC emissions and increase in vehicle efficiency.

Today, there are about 30–60 microcontrollers in a car. This is expected to increase in the future. Clearly, a car with 30–60 microcontrollers, up to 100 electric motors, about 200 pounds of wiring, a multitude of sensors, and thousands of lines of software code can hardly

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be classified as a strictly mechanical system. The automobile is being transformed into a comprehensive mechatronic system.

I. ACCORDING TO THE TEXT, ARE THESE SENTENCES TRUE OR FALSE? CORRECT THE FALSE ONES.

T F1. Mechatronics plays an important role in the product differentiation in a car.2. In the 1960s mechatronic systems were widely used in a car.3. Mechatronic systems are aimed at improving safety and reducing emission. 4. Cruise control in a car is decreased by using mechatronic systems.5. The new millimetre wave radar technology has not been used in a car yet.6. Millimetre wave radar technology is based on integrating the sensor with the cruise control and ABS systems.7. It is expected that self-parallel parking will be introduced in the future. 8. The car engine becomes less efficient if mechatronic systems are used.9. The amount of poisonous gases emitted by cars can be reduced by using mechatronic products.10. The number of microcontrollers used in a car is constantly decreasing.

II. MATCH THE WORDS WITH THE DEFINITIONS.

1. velocity a)2. radar b)3. microcontroller c)4. achieve d)5. detect e)

III. COMPLETE THE TABLE.

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVEdiffer

successreduced

applicationlocate

classification

Glossary:

CPU - Acronym for central processing unit. The computational and control unit of a computer. The CPU is the device that interprets and executes instructions. Mainframes and early minicomputers contained circuit boards full of integrated circuits that implemented the CPU. Single-chip central processing units, called microprocessors, made possible personal computers and workstations. The CPU—or microprocessor, in the case

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of a microcomputer—has the ability to fetch, decode, and execute instructions and to transfer information to and from other resources over the computer’s main data-transfer path, the bus. By definition, the CPU is the chip that functions as the “brain” of a computer. In some instances, however, the term encompasses both the processor and the computer’s memory. ESP – Acronym for Electronic Stability Programme; Extra Sensory Perception

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THE PASSIVE …………….. BE + past participle (-ed/3.)

IS USED:

1. when the AGENT (= the person who does the action) is UNKNOWN, UNIMPORTANT or OBVIOUS from the context.

Tom was shot. This church was built in 1920. He has been arrested.

2. to make more POLITE or FORMAL statements. The car hasn’t been cleaned. (You haven’t cleaned the car = less polite)

3. when the ACTION IS MORE IMPORTANT than the agent, as in the processes, events, reports, headlines, news items, and advertisements.

300 people were killed in the earthquake.

4. to put EMPHASIS ON THE AGENT. The new museum will be opened by the Queen.

NOTE: We use the passive only with transitive verbs (verbs which take an object).

They built that castle in 1890. That castle was built in 1890.

With verbs that take 2 objects it is more usual to begin the passive sentence with the person.

They sent him a letter. → He was sent a letter. (=more usual)→ A letter was sent to him. (=less usual)

The verbs BELIEVE, EXPECT, FEEL, HOPE, KNOW, REPORT, SAY, THINK etc are used in the following passive patterns in personal and impersonal constructions.

People BELIEVE he is a liar. He IS BELIEVED to be a liar. subject (person) + passive + to-inf. (personal construction) It IS BELIEVED that he is a liar. it + passive + that-clause (impersonal construction)

In PASSIVE QUESTIONS with WHO / WHOM / WHICH we do not omit BY. Who gave you this book? → WHO were you given this book BY? Who signed this letter? → WHO was this letter signed BY?

CAUSATIVE HAVE ……… HAVE + object + PAST PARTICIPLE

We use CAUSATIVE HAVE to say that we arrange for someone else to do something for us. Jim fixed the dishwasher. (he did it himself) Jim HAD the dishwasher FIXED. (he asked someone to fix it for him)

The verb TO HAVE used in the Causative forms its negations and questions with DO / DOES / DID. Did you have your hair cut?

GET can be used instead of HAVE in spoken English. You should get your skirt washed.

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PASSIVE VOICE/ xy + BE + -ed/3. (+ by …) /

xy BE -ed / 3. (by…)am, is, arewas, were

A painting am/is/are being paintED BY Picasso.was/were being

Paintings has been, have been stolen (3.) (BY a thief.)had beenam/is/are going to bemust be, can be, could be, may be, will be, …must have been, could have been, may have been

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THE PASSIVE (exercises)

I. PUT THE VERBS IN BRACKETS INTO PRESENT SIMPLE PASSIVE.

There is a chimpanzee which ……………………..(call) Bubbles. It………………………..(own) by Michael Johnson. It………………………..(keep) in his home. It ……………………….(feed) every day by Michael Johnson himself. It ……………………….(always / dress) in funny clothes. It ………………………(say) that Bubbles is Michael Johnson's only friend.

II. LOOK AT THE HOTEL INFORMATION TABLE AND WRITE SENTENCES AS IN THE EXAMPLE:

HOTEL INFORMATIONBREAKFASTIn Pierrot's Restaurant 7-9.30 am

ROOMSMaid Service daily

DINNERIn Main Restaurant 8-10 pm

HOT WATER24 hours a day

NEWSPAPERS – TELEPHONE CALLSAt the Reception Desk

HOTEL CINEMAFilm every night at 10 pm

1. BREAKFAST / SERVE – WHERE AND WHEN? Breakfast is served in Pierrot's restaurant between 7 and 9.30 am.2. DINNER / SERVE – WHERE AND WHEN?………………………………………………………………3. NEWSPAPERS / SELL – WHERE?……………………………………………………………….4. TELEPHONE CALLS / CAN MAKE – WHERE?………………………………………………………………..5. ROOMS / CLEAN – WHO BY AND HOW OFTEN?………………………………………………………………..6. HOT WATER / SUPPLY – WHEN?…………………………………………………………………7. FILMS / SHOW – WHERE AND WHEN?…………………………………………………………………

III. FORM THE PASSIVE.

1. TV – invent – Baird2. Pyramids – build – Egyptians3. milk – produce – cows4. hat – just blow away – wind5. coffee – grow – Brazil6. chopsticks – use in China7. robber – just arrest8. the injured man – take to hospital - a minute ago9. the car – not repair yet10. dishes – not wash yet11. long dresses – wear – 1890

IV. CHOOSE A VERB AND COMPLETE THE SENTENCES.send, sell, shoot, follow, visit

1. This museum is very popular. It ….…………..... by nearly one million people every year.2. A: That man is still behind us, Holmes. B: Yes, Watson. We....................3. Martin Luther King……………...... in 1968.4. A: I'd like to buy that car. B: You are too late. ...................5. I .………………....some flowers yesterday. I wonder who they were from!V. USE THE PASSIVE OF THESE VERBS:

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1. The music at the party was very loud and could ...............................(hear) from far away.2. I don't mind driving but I prefer to .......................... (drive) by other people.3. If you kicked a policeman, you'd ........................ (arrest).4. The room ……………………….... (clean) tomorrow.5. Two trees.........................(blow) down in the storm last night.6. Glass…………………….....(make) from sand.7. What…………………..this machine......................(use) for?8. The transistor..........................(invent) in 1948.9. My car …………………...(steal) last week. The next day it……………………..(find) by the police.10. The window………………..just……………………..(break).

VI. TURN FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE.

1. Spielberg directed E.T..2. They will advertise the product on TV.3. You must leave the bathroom tidy.4. You should water this plant daily.5. Someone broke the door down.6. People must obey the law.7. They deliver letters every day.8. They built this bridge in 1815.9. The police have arrested him.10. They have delivered some furniture.11. They put up new curtains yesterday.12. They will install light fittings.13. Somebody murdered her.14. A dog is chasing the child.15. They are building a new barn.16. People should send their complaints to the head office. 17. They had to postpone the meeting because of illness.18. Somebody might have stolen your car if you had left the keys in it.19. An electrical fault could have caused the fire.20. They're going to hold next year's concert in San Francisco.21. They shouldn't have played the football match in such bad weather.22. Who wrote it?23. Lightening struck the old oak.24. We will not admit children under sixteen.25. A rainstorm flooded the camp.26. No one has taken out the cork.27. They threw him out.28. Someone has already told him the sad news.29. We feed the dog twice a day.30. They must oppose this.

VII. USING THE PASSIVE, ASK QUESTIONS TO WHICH THE BOLD TYPE WORDS ARE ANSWERS.

1. Columbus discovered America.2. We keep money in a safe.3. A bee stung him.4. They speak Italian in Italy.5. They have taken his aunt to hospital.6. The boys damaged the TV.7. Da Vinci painted Mona Lisa.8. He invited 30 people to his party.9. They grow bananas in Africa.VIII. ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT THE UNDERLINED WORDS.

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1. It has been kept in a special case. Where.....?2. The Houses of Parliament were built in the nineteenth century. When....?3. Our post is delivered twice a day. How often.....?4. Three teenagers were given an award for bravery yesterday. Why....?5. Twenty people were hurt in the train crash. How many....?

IX. TURN FROM PASSIVE INTO ACTIVE.

1. That picture was painted by Van Gogh.2. The trees have been struck by lightning.3. Your English can be improved by more study.4. This work must be completed today.5. The exhibition will be opened by the Queen.6. These buildings were designed last year.7. Plants are being watered.8. A concert is organized every year.

X. REWRITE THE FOLLOWING PASSAGE IN THE PASSIVE.

Somebody has stolen a bus from outside the school. Some children saw the thief. The police are searching for the bus. They will use the children's descriptions to catch the thief.

XI. COMPLETE THIS TEXT USING THE CORRECT PASSIVE FORM OF ONE OF THE VERBS BELOW IN EACH SPACE. USE TWO OF THE VERBS MORE THAN ONCE.

refer use bring give invent write call beat build

WHY DOES NOTHING EXIST?

Did nothing always exist or (1) was it invented? “Nothing” is zero or nought (0). It is a very useful idea and it (2) …………………………. by many different names. In football, 0 (3) ……………………….. to as “nil”. So we say: “Liverpool (4) ……………………….. two-nil (2-0) at home by Manchester United.” When you (5) ……………………………. marks in a test, you hope you will never get “nought” out of ten or twenty. When we talk about the temperature, “zero” (6) ……………………….. . We say: “It is freezing today; the temperature has dropped to five below zero.” The most unusual name for 0 must be that which (7) ………………………… in tennis, “love”; where the scoring goes 15-love, 30-love and so on. Not many people realize that 0 did not always exist but is something that had (8) ………………………… . Until the sixteenth century, the number system used in Europe was the Roman system, which (9) ……………………………. about two thousand years ago. The Roman system is not simple, for example the mark “X” stands for ten and “C” refers to a hundred. A much better number system (10) …………………………. by the Hindus much earlier. The Hindu system (11) …………………………. to Europe in AD 900 by the Arabs and is sometimes referred to as the “Arabic system”. This system (12) …………………………… on a base of ten and all numbers (13) …………………………. with the digits: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0. So as all schoolchildren know, 10 means “ten” and 40 means “four times ten”.

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MICRO- AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Mechatronic systems are classified as:1. conventional mechatronic systems,2. microelectromechanical-micromechatronic systems (MEMS), and3. nanoelectromechanical-nanomechatronic systems (NEMS).

1. Mechatronic System Components integrate the fundamentals of electrical, mechanical, and computer engineering. Electromechanical systems (robots, electric drives, servomechanisms, pointing systems, assemblers) are highly nonlinear systems, and their accurate actuation, sensing, and control are very challenging problems. Actuators and sensors must be designed and integrated with the corresponding power electronic subsystems.One of the major components of mechatronic systems are electric machines used as actuators and sensors.Electromechanical systems must be controlled, and controllers should be designed. Robust, adaptive, and intelligent control laws must be designed, examined, verified, and implemented.

2. Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. Microelectronics, as the name suggests, is related to the study and manufacture of electronic components which are very small. As techniques improve, the size of microelectronic components continue to decrease. The goal of the microelectronics engineer is to deliver smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.

Microprocessors and MicrocontrollersThere is no strict border between microprocessors and microcontrollers because certain chips can access external code and/or data memory (microprocessor mode) and are equipped with particular peripheral components.

Programmable Logic ControllersA programmable logic controller (PLC) is a microprocessor-based control unit (Microprocessor-Based Controllers) designed for an industrial installation (housing, terminals, ambient resistance, fault tolerance) in a power switchboard to control machinery or an industrial process.

MicrosensorsMicrosensors do not transmit power. They are based on measurement of mechanical strain, measurement of mechanical displacement, or on frequency measurement of a structural resonance. One of the most commercially successful microsensor technologies is the pressure sensor.

3. Nanotechnology comprises technological developments on the nanometer scale. The term was coined by Nabuhiko Taniguchi in 1974 and refers to the field of material processing and fabrication at dimensions below 200 nm. This field is in fact an extension of the more conventional microelectronics world. Nanomachines are devices that range in size from the smallest of MEMS devices down to assembled from individual molecules. One fundamental

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characteristic of nanotechnology is that nanodevices self-assemble. That is, they build themselves from the bottom up.

nano- (prefix) - meaning 10–9 (one billionth).

Nanotechnology is any technology which exploits phenomena and structures that can only occur at the nanometer scale, which is the scale of single atoms and small molecules.The first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in nanotechnology (but predating use of that name) was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", a talk given by Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale.

In October 2004, researchers at the University of Manchester succeeded in forming a small piece of material only 1 atom thick called graphene.

News.com reported on March 1st 2005 that Intel is preparing to introduce processors with features measuring 65 nanometers. The company’s current engineers believe that 5 nanometer processes are actually proving themselves to be more and more feasible. The company showed pictures of these transistor prototypes measuring 65, 45, 32, and 22 nanometers. However, the company spoke about how their expectations for the future are for new processors featuring 15,10, 7, and 5 nanometers.

Currently the prototypes use CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductors); however, according to Intel smaller scales will rely on quantum dots, polymer layers, and nanotube technology.

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NANOTECHNOLOGYnano- (prefix) - meaning 10–9 (one billionth).

DefinitionNanotechnology is any technology which exploits phenomena and structures that can only occur at the nanometer scale, which is the scale of single atoms and small molecules.The term was coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 and refers to the field of material processing and fabrication at dimensions below 200 nm. This field is in fact an extension of the more conventional microelectronics world. Nanomachines are devices that range in size from the smallest of MEMS devices down to assembled from individual molecules. One fundamental characteristic of nanotechnology is that nanodevices self-assemble. That is, they build themselves from the bottom up.

History of UseHowever, the first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in nanotechnology was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom", a talk given by Richard Feynman in 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. He posed the challenge of placing all the world's worthwhile literature in a 5-mil cube of atomic memory, roughly the size of one poppy seed grain.In October 2004, researchers at the University of Manchester succeeded in forming a small piece of material only 1 atom thick called graphene.News.com reported on March 1st 2005 that Intel is preparing to introduce processors with features measuring 65 nanometers. The company showed pictures of these transistor prototypes measuring 65, 45, 32, and 22 nanometers. Currently the prototypes use CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductors). However, the company spoke about how their expectations for the future are for new processors featuring 15,10, 7, and 5 nanometers. According to Intel smaller scales will rely on quantum dots, polymer layers, and nanotube technology.

Use of NanotechnologyNanotechnology cuts across traditional boundaries in materials science and engineering. It is giving rise to a spectrum of activities whose commonalities lie in nanoscale dimensions. Examples:

It enables surface polishing to finishes better than 10 nm; ductile single-point machining of brittle ceramics and crystals by controlling the depth of cut to less than 100 nm; and surface control to atomic dimensions.

Nanotechnology enables very precise material removal and deposition methods (e.g. optical and beam-based methods of material deposition). New micromachinig options and nanomaterials have already emerged by the use of excimer lasers.

New tools create new technologies, which then create the next generation of tools. Examples:

o excimer laser, invented in 1971, whose features are high-power, short-pulse, short-wavelength photon beams. It is a form of ultraviolet chemical laser which is commonly used in eye surgery and semiconductor manufacturing.

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o scanning tunnelling microscope (STM), invented in 1981, and the atomic force microscope (AFM) have already enabled the mapping of surface with single-atom resolution, in both conducting (STM) and insulating (AFM) surfaces. STM manipulation and placement of single atoms begin to realize nanotechnology’s ultimate goal.

I. ANSWER. - How did technologies shrink from micro- to nanosize over time? Note down briefly the main events.

1959 ……………………………………….1974 ……………………………………….2004 ……………………………………….2005 ……………………………………….

- How much is 1 nm?- To what precision can things be made today?- How big are the structures which form part of integrated circuits for PCs?- Which are the tools that enable fabrication at dimensions below 1 µm?- Does the technology exist to move atoms around?

II. LEARNING VOCABULARY IN CONTEXTUse the context to help you decide which of the simple words or phrases under a), b) c) has the same meaning as the more difficult one in italics:

1. The acronym MNT represents the confluence of micro- and nanotechnology.a) two streamsb) the flowing togetherc) the influence

2. Nanotechnology is giving rise to a spectrum of activities whose commonalities lie in nanoscale dimensions.

a) a range of light waves d) the common peopleb) a range of e) common sharesc) some f) commonly shared features

3. Nanotechnology enables ductile single-point machining of brittle ceramics and crystals.

a) making or shaping a single point using a machineb) grinding a single pointc) depositing layers on single points

4. The variety of material removal methods is complemented by optical and beam-based methods of material deposition.

a) is made more complexb) is made completec) is complimentary

5. New tools create new technologies, which then create the next generation of tools in the quest for greater knowledge and control of physical and chemical processes.

a) researchingb) investigatingc) in search of

III. WORD STUDYMatch the technical term with its meaning.

TECHNICAL TERM DEFINITIONdepth of cut the process of putting a layer of a substance on the surface of

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the workpiecemapping the process of taking away a layer of material from the

workpiecematerial removal a transformation taking the points of one space into the points

of the same or another spacematerial deposition the depth reached in material cutting (machining)

CNC

Numerical Control (NC) was the precursor of today's Computer Numerical Control (CNC), which controls the automation of machine tools and the inherent tool processes for which they are designed. The CNC machine tool is the servo actuator of the CAD/CAM (Computer Assisted Design/Computer Assisted Manufacturing) technology. The set of instructions, or "program" (usually an ASCII text file in which, in its simplest form, a line of text specifies the axial coordinates of a point in the Machine Coordinate System) is prepared from a blueprint or CAD file and transferred to the memory of the CNC via floppy drive, serial data interface or a network connection. Once stored in the CNC memory and selected, the program is executed by pressing the appropriate key on the machine operator panel.

The term NC was coined in the 1950s when the instructions to the tool were numeric codes. Just like the computer industry, symbolic languages were soon developed, but the original term remained. First-generation NC machines were hardwired to perform specific tasks or programmed in a very low-level machine language. Today, they are controlled by microprocessors and are programmed in high-level languages, such as APT and COMPACT II, which automatically generate the tool path (physical motions required to perform the operation).

These automated machine tools, such as drills and lathes, operate from instructions in a program. They are automatically operated by commands that are received by their processing units. Early machines were often fed instructions which were punched onto paper tape or punch cards. In the 1960s, NC machines largely gave way to CNC machines. Numerical control (NC) machines are used in manufacturing tasks, such as milling, turning, punching and drilling.

BENEFITS of CNC machines

The introduction of CNC machines radically changed the manufacturing industry. Curves are as easy to cut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relatively easy to produce, and the number of machining steps that required human action have been dramatically reduced.With the increased automation of manufacturing processes with CNC machining, considerable improvements in consistency and quality have been achieved. CNC automation eliminated errors and provided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks. CNC automation also allows for more flexibility in the way parts are held in the manufacturing process and the time required to change the machine to produce different components.

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In a production environment, a series of CNC machines may be combined into one station, commonly called a "cell", to progressively machine a part requiring several operations. CNC machines today are controlled directly from files created by CAD software packages, so that a part or assembly can go directly from design to manufacturing without the need of producing a drafted paper drawing of the manufactured component. In a sense, the CNC machines represent a special segment of industrial robot systems , as they are programmable to perform many kinds of machining operations (within their designed physical limits, like other robotic systems).

The first benefit offered by all forms of CNC machine tools is improved automation. The operator intervention related to producing workpieces can be reduced or eliminated. Many CNC machines can run unattended during their entire machining cycle, freeing the operator to do other tasks. This gives the CNC user several side benefits including reduced operator fatigue, fewer mistakes caused by human error, and consistent and predictable machining time for each workpiece. Since the machine will be running under program control, the skill level required of the CNC operator (related to basic machining practice) is also reduced as compared to a machinist producing workpieces with conventional machine tools.

The second major benefit of CNC technology is consistent and accurate workpieces. Today's CNC machines boast almost unbelievable accuracy and repeatability specifications. This means that once a program is verified, two, ten, or one thousand identical workpieces can be easily produced with precision and consistency.

A third benefit offered by most forms of CNC machine tools is flexibility. Since these machines are run from programs, running a different workpiece is almost as easy as loading a different program. Once a program has been verified and executed for one production run, it can be easily recalled the next time the workpiece is to be run. This leads to yet another benefit, fast change-overs. Since these machines are very easy to setup and run, and since programs can be easily loaded, they allow very short setup time.

GLOSSARY:

The acronym CNC stands for Computer(ized) Numerical(ly) Control(led). It is a versatile system that allows you to control the motion of tools and parts through computer programs that use numeric data. CNC can be used with nearly any traditional machine. The most common CNC machines found in the machine shop include machining centers (mills) and turning centers (lathes). CNC was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory.Motion control - the heart of CNCThe most basic function of any CNC machine is automatic, precise, and consistent motion control. Rather than applying completely mechanical devices to cause motion as is required on most conventional machine tools, CNC machines allow motion control in a revolutionary manner. All forms of CNC equipment have two or more directions of motion, called axes . These axes can be precisely and automatically positioned along their lengths of travel. The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a straight path) and rotary (driven along a circular path). DNC -Direct Numerical Control using a computer to control a machine directly, i.e., a keyboard input.FMSA new system of manufacturing is called flexible manufacturing. It uses complex machines which are controlled by computers. Flexible manufacturing can produce small lots like intermittent manufacturing. But it uses continuous manufacturing actions. Thus, flexible manufacturing is seen as the way for the future. It produces low-cost products as they are needed.

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FMC - a flexible manufacturing cell consists of two or more CNC machines, a cell computer and a robot. FMS - The flexible manufacturing system is a configuration of computer-managed numerical work stations where materials are automatically handled and machine loaded.CAD or CADD computer-aided design and drafting, is a form of automation that helps designers prepare drawings, specifications, parts lists, and other design-related elements using special graphics- and calculations-intensive computer programs. The technology is used for a wide variety of products in such fields as architecture, electronics, and aerospace, naval, and automotive engineering.

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Although CAD systems originally merely automated drafting, they now usually include three-dimensional modelling and computer-simulated operation of the model. Rather than having to build prototypes and change components to determine the effects of tolerance ranges, engineers can use computers to simulate operation to determine loads and stresses. For example, an automobile manufacturer might use CAD to calculate the wind drag on several new car-body designs without having to build physical models of each one. In microelectronics, as devices have become smaller and more complex, CAD has become an especially important technology. Among the benefits of such systems are lower product-development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. While less expensive CAD systems running on personal computers have become available for do-it-yourself home remodelling and simple drafting, state-of-the-art CAD systems running on workstations and mainframe computers are increasingly integrated with computer-aided manufacturing systems.

CAM is a form of automation where computers communicate work instructions directly to the manufacturing machinery. The technology evolved from the numerically controlled machines of the 1950s, which were directed by a set of coded instructions contained in a punched paper tape. Today a single computer can control banks of robotic milling machines, lathes, welding machines, and other tools, moving the product from machine to machine as each step in the manufacturing process is completed. Such systems allow easy, fast reprogramming from the computer, permitting quick implementation of design changes.

A LATHE is a machine tool for holding and turning metal, wood, plastic, or other material against a cutting tool to form a cylindrical product or part. It also drills, bores, polishes, grinds, makes threads, and performs other operations. Its principal parts are the headstock (attached to the bed or base of the machine), which holds one end of the material in a rotating spur; the tailstock, which holds the other end, moves along the bed, and can be clamped in position at any point; the cutting tool; and the power feed,

comprising the drive and its motive parts.

A MILLING MACHINE is a power-driven machine used for the complex shaping of metal (or possibly other materials) parts. Its basic form is that of a rotating cutter or mill bit which rotates about the spindle axis (like a drill), and a worktable that can move in multiple directions (often three dimensions relative to the workpiece, whereas a drill can only move in one dimension while cutting). The motion across the surface of the workpiece is usually accomplished by having a movable table on which the workpiece is mounted, arranged to move in two dimensions. Milling machines may be operated manually or under computer numerical control. Milling machines can perform a vast number of complex operations, such as slot cutting, drilling, rebating, routing, etc.

DRILL - A machining tool used to penetrate the surface of a workpiece and make a round hole.GRINDER - A machine that uses an abrasive to wear away at the surface of a workpiece.LATHE - A tool commonly used to machine cylindrical forms. It is generally considered the backbone of the machine shop.MILL - A machining tool used to either horizontally or vertically remove metal from the surface of a workpiece.PUNCH PRESS - A machine that uses force to either cut or form a workpiece.

SolidWorks , a product of the SolidWorks Corporation, is a 3D Computer-aided design (CAD) program that runs on Microsoft Windows platforms. It was designed as a cost-effective alternative to 2D CAD packages. It was introduced in 1993 by newly-founded SolidWorks Corporation as competitor for products like AutoCAD and others.

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http://www.solidworks.com/

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PAST FORMS

PAST SIMPLE PAST CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT-ed/2. DID

was/were + -ing ↔ NOT

had + -ed/3. ↔ NOT

complete action/event which happened at a stated past timeShe left a minute ago.

action happening at a stated past timeAt 5.00 yesterday I was playing football.

past action which happened before another action or before a stated past timeHe had left by the time I got there (or by 3 o'clock).After he had written his HW he went out.He left as soon as he had heard the news.When he saw her he realised that he had met her before.

period of time now finished, the time is not mentionedPrešeren wrote a lot of poems. (he is now dead)

past action in progress interrupted by another past actionWhile I was getting dressed the bell rang.

complete past action which had visible results in the pastShe was sad because she had failed the test.

(2.) (1.)

past actions which happened one after the otherShe sealed the letter, put a stamp on it and posted it.

two or more simultaneous past actionsWhile I was reading they were watching TV.

past habit / state background description to events in a

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He used to go to school on foot. storyThe sun was shining, the wind was blowing…

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PAST SIMPLE

- ED (PLAYED) / 2. of irregular verbs (WENT)----------- DID you PLAY, I DIDN’T go

I bought / played it YESTERDAY / TWO MINUTES AGO / LAST NIGHT / IN 1990 / WHEN I WAS IN LONDON.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

PAST CONTINUOUS

WAS +WERE …………..ING (WERE you …ING? ------- I WAS not ….ING)

WHILE I was sleeping, - she was watching TV. - the phone rang.

I was sleeping WHEN the phone rang. I was working in the garden all day yesterday. / from 4 to 8 yesterday.I was flying to Paris at 5 yesterday.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

PAST PERFECT

HAD + -ED / 3. of irregular verbs (HAD you GONE? ------------- I HAD not GONE)

WHEN 1. 2.AFTER I had finished my HW, I went out.AS SOON AS …………………………………………………………. 2. 1.He was angry BECAUSE he had lost his dog.

………………………………………………………… 1. 2.

I had finished my homework, BEFORE I went out.

…………………………………………………………………….1. 2.

I hadn't eaten suschi, UNTIL I met Anna.

………………………………………………………………………..2. 1.

BY THE TIME I arrived to the cinema, the film had already started.I. MAKE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES NEGATIVE.

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1. Shakespeare wrote songs. Shakespeare didn’t write songs. He wrote plays. 2. Christopher Columbus discovered India. …………………………………..3. Beethoven came from Paris. ……………………………………………….4. Leonardo da Vinci lived in Brazil. …………………………………………5. The Americans landed on the moon in the 19th century. …………………..6. The USA won the last football World Cup. ……………………………….7. Last night I had grass for dinner. …………………………………………..

II. WRITE QUESTIONS TO ASK ABOUT THE MISSING INFORMATION.

1. “I went to the states in 19…….. .” “ When did you go to the States?”2. “I went to ……. for my last holiday.” “ Where………………………?”3. “We stayed in …… .” “…………………………….?”4. “We stayed there for …….weeks.” “How long…………….……...……….?”5. “We had ……weather.” “ ………………………… good weather?”6. “We travelled round by……… .” “…………………………………?”7. “We had ……food.” “ …………………………………… good food?”

III. CHOOSE THE CORRECT VERB FORM IN THE FOLLOWING SENTEN CES.

I met/was meeting a friend while I did/was doing the shopping.I paid/was paying for my things when I heard/was hearing someone call my name.I turned/was turning round and saw/was seeing Paula.She were/was wearing a bright read coat.We decided/were deciding to have a cup of coffee.While we had/were having a drink, waiter dropped/was dropping a pile of plates.We all got/were getting a terrible shock.While the waiter picked/was picking up the broken plates, he cut/was cutting his finger.We left/were leaving the cafe and said/were saying goodbye.I finished/was finishing my shopping and went/was going home.

IV. PUT WHILE, DURING , OR FOR INTO EACH GAP.

WHILE + clause (= subject + verb) When? I met her while I was staying in London.DURING + noun When? He worked on a farm during the holidays.FOR + time expression How long? I lived there for three months.

1. I fell and hurt myself ……………………. I was playing tennis.2. It started to rain ………………… the match.3. We played tennis ……………….two hours.4. ……………….the summer I stayed on a farm in France.5. I learned French …………….. I was there.6. We went on holiday to Italy …………….two weeks.7. ………………the day it was very hot, but it was cool at night.8. We went to Disneyland ………………..we were in America.9. We had a lovely meal yesterday. We sat at the table ………………several hours.10. ……………….the meal we exchanged news.11. ………………… I was talking to Ann, I learned that Tom was in hospital.

V. USE ONE OF THE VERBS IN THE BOX TO FILL EACH GAP.

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PUT THE VERB IN THE PAST SIMPLE.

fall find spend lose need hurt laugh take leave save celebrate can’t

Three days lost, alone, and injured on a mountain

Gary Smith yesterday …………………….. his 18th birthday, but he’s lucky to be alive. In March this year, he was climbing Ben Nevis, Britain’s highest mountain, when he …………………… his way and …………………………… three days in sub-zero temperatures.“My friends ……………………… at me for having so much survival equipment, but it ………………………… my life.” On the first night, the weather was so bad that it tore his new mountain tent to pieces, so he moved into a Youth Hostel for the night. He …………………………. the hostel at 10.00 the next morning, but he was soon in trouble. “I …………………………. off a rock and ………………………..my knees. I …………………….. move.”Mountain rescue teams went out to look for Gary, and …………………………… him at 1.00 in the morning. A helicopter …………………………. him to hospital, where he ……………………………. several operations.“Next time I’ll go with my friends, not on my own!” he joked.

VI. COMPLETE THE REPORT ABOUT THE ACCIDENT. USE THE PAST SIMPLE FORM OF THE VERBS IN BRACKETS.

Date of accident: 10 JulyTime: 9.20 a.m.Place: The storeroom in the machine shopEmployee: John BennettDescription: On 8 June, the employee ………….. (take) ten 1.5 m steel pipes to the storeroom. He ……………..(put) eight pipes on the racks, but he didn't finish the job. The telephone ………………..(ring) and he ………………. (stop) to answer it. The next morning, he ………………(forget) two pipes were still on the floor and he ………………. (trip) over them. They …………………… (be) sharp and they ……………….. (cut) his leg. The cut was 40 mm long and it ………………… (need) a bandage. The employee ………………….(go) home after the accident but he ………………….. (come) back to work on 15 July. Luckily, he …………………. (be) OK.

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VII. PUT THE VERBS ABOVE THE ARTICLE INTO THE CORRECT GAP.USE THE PAST SIMPLE.

CAN FEEL DRINK SWIM

CHANNEL CHAMPION

Twelve-year-old Thomas Gregory from London is the youngest person to

swim the English Channel. He ............................ the 31 miles in just 11

hours 55 minutes. He .............................. hot tomato soup because he

.............................. so cold in the water. Often he ............................... not

see anything and that was the worst thing. He was very pleased when he

finally arrived on the beach in France.

THE PHRASES BELOW GO IN THE ARTICLE. WHERE EXACTLY?

- while he was swimming- because the sun was shining in his eyes- where his parents were waiting for him…………………………………………………………………………………………………

BEGIN FLY HIT TAKE OFF GO

PILOTLESS JET CRASHES

An American jet pilot ………………… from Fort Worth, but the jet’s engines

…………………… wrong. The pilot ejected, but the plane didn’t crash. The

engines ……………………. working again. The jet …………………… for more

than one hour over three states. Finally it crashed near Lincoln, Nebraska.

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It ……………………. some trees in a field. Fortunately no one was hurt.

THE PHRASES BELOW GO IN THE ARTICLE. WHERE EXACTLY?

- where a farmer was working- while he was flying over New Mexico

VIII. CORRECTING MISTAKES

IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES THERE IS ONE MISTAKE. FIND IT AND CORRECT IT.

1. I studied for three years English.2. I broke my leg when I felt down in the street. 3. What did you last night?4. I lost my all money.5. I saw Jim last evening.6. I knew my husband in 1985.7. We got married two year ago.8. In 1989 I leaved university and started work.9. With 19 years old he went to Switzerland.10. During I was on holiday, I went swimming every day.11. I was on my way to work when I was falling off my bicycle. 12. Alexander Fleming had discovered penicillin in 1928. 13. After all the guests had left Sally was going to the bank. 14. Kim was starting cooking after Jane had left.15. When she was young, she had danced a lot.

IX. COMPLETE BY USING PAST SIMPLE OR PAST CONTINUOUS .

1. When we...................................(go) out, it ..................................(rain).2. I .............................(not be) hungry last night. I…………….....(not eat) anything.3. ...........................you...........................(watch) TV when I ................................(phone) you?4. Jane………………... (not be) at home when I........................(go) to see her. She………….. (work).5. I.....................................(get) up early this morning. I…………………....(wash), I ....................................(dress) and then I ……………………..(have) breakfast. 6. The postman..............................(come) while I…………………....(have) breakfast. 7. What……………………....Steve……………….....(do) when Jeff…………………..(ring)?8. We...............................(meet) Joan at the party. She……………………...(wear) a red dress. 9. What ………………….....he…………………....(do) on Monday afternoon at 2.15?10. The boys………………....(break) the window when they……………......(play) football. 11. I……………………. (be) late but my friends…………………...(wait) for me when I …………………………... (arrive).12. What …………….…...(be) the weather like when they……………………....(land) at the airport?13. I……………………….(get) up at 7 o'clock. The sun…………………………..(shine), so I ......................................(go) for a walk.14. He………………………..(not drive) fast when the accident.................................(happen).15. .............................. Jill ...............................(rush) to the bus stop when the bus……………………...(pass) her?16. What .....................you…….………..(do) on Sunday evening? I ........................ (go) to the cinema.17. ……………………..Jane…………………...(shop) when you………………...(see) her?18. Who……………………...he………………...(interview) on Thursday morning at 9.30?

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19. What…………………...you………………...(do) at 8.00 on Saturday evening? I...........................................(watch) a film in the cinema. 20. When we ..............................(leave) France, the sun......................................(shine). 21. Her father………………………………. (teach) her how to drive when she .………………………….(be) 17.22. Don……………………..(fall) down the stairs and………………………....(break) his leg. 23. Jim …………………………..(throw) the ball to Sue who……………………....(catch) it. 24. I………………………....(fall) asleep when I..........................................(watch) television.25. We…………………………..(see) an accident when we………………...(wait) for the bus.X. FILL IN THE GAPS WITH THE CORRECT P A S T FORM.

1. Peter ……………………….(go) to a book exhibition yesterday and ……………………(buy) an interesting book on antiques.

2. Mary ………………………..(call) to tell me she ……………………….(leave) her purse at home.

3. Carl………………………..(have) a shower after he ……………………(fix) the water heater.

4. Andy …………………….(practise) the piano every day for six months before he ………………………..(enter) the competition.

5. The children………………………(be) sad because they …………………..(lose) their dog.

6. We………………………..(not have) a problem getting a table at The Tropicana because we ………………….already…………………..(book) one in advance.

7. Mary……………………….(wash) the dishes when a glass …………………..(break) and ……………………….(cut) her finger.

8. He………………………..(not be) in a hurry that Monday morning because he …………………………….(take) the day off.

9. They…………………………..(realise) they …………………………(lose) their way and ……………………….(start) to panic.

10. They………………………(make) sandwiches for the picnic when I …………………….. (phone) to tell them that we were going to be late.

11. At noon the staff……………………..(have) their monthly meeting.12. The teacher………………………..(give) the students a test when the

principal…………………. (come) into the classroom.13. I …………………….(walk) on the beach in Bali this time last week.14. Ann………………………(sit) on the park bench while the

children…………………. (play). 15. The lawnmower …………………(break) down while Steve …………………….

(mow) the lawn.16. Lisa …………………………...(decorate) the Christmas tree as it

……………………… (be) Christmas Eve.17. The parade ………………….…………. (already/start) by the time Nancy

…………………………. (arrive).18. They ……………………..(celebrate) because they ……………………(win) the

game.19. John …………………..(be given) a bonus because he ……………………….(work)

hard all year.20. I …………………..already …………………….(fix) the tap when Sam

……………………….(offer) to help me. 21. He……………………….(manage) to save 10,000 pounds by the time he

……………………(turn) thirty.

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22. The moon ……………………………..(shine) its light on the still waters of the lake as the animals ………………………….(hunt) for their dinner in the forest.

23. As soon as our guests ………………….…………….. (arrive) we ………………………. (serve) the refreshments.

24. How long ………………….you ………………..(live) in London before you ……………………..(move) back to Paris?

25. Arnold ……………………..(attend) the conference yesterday.26. My father……………………...(not use) to work as a taxi driver ten years ago.

XI. YESTERDAY YOU WENT TO A PARTY. THIS IS WHAT YOU SAW WHEN YOU ARRIVED.

LOOK AT THE PICTURE AND MAKE SENTENCES IN THE PAST CONTINUOUS.

ExampleWHEN I ARRIVED AT THE PARTY... Jenny / talk / to Michael

Jenny was talking to Michael.

WHEN I ARRIVED AT THE PARTY...

1. Annie and Pete / dance2. Mary and Bill / sit / on the sofa3. Katie / choose / a record4. Max / drink / champagne5. Beth and Dave / eat / crisps6. Justin / show / Lucy a photograph7. Harry / smoke / a cigar8. James / tell / a joke

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XII. Paul's parents were going away for the weekend. Paul invited some friends to the house. However his parents' car broke down so they had to come back home.

LOOK AT THE PICTURE AND THE LIST OF WORDS, THEN WRITE WHAT THEY WERE DOING OR DID AT THE TIME PAUL'S PARENTS ENTERED THE HOUSE.

wash – jump out – barksleep – wake up – fall offplay cards – stop playing – drop

smoke – see them – throwhold a glass of Coke – spill – staindance/listen – not see – continue dancing

Ben was washing the dog. It jumped out of the bath and started barking.Jackie…Jim and Peter…Sarah…Sindy…Paul…

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METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Materials may be divided into metals and non-metals. Metals can be recognized by their characteristic lustre and high density. They are all good conductors of heat and electricity.

There are two groups of metals: ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The former contain iron the latter do not contain iron. Ferrous metals include cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Copper, zinc and lead are examples of non-ferrous metals. When some metals are combined, they form an alloy. Non-ferrous alloys include brass, which is made from copper and zinc, and bronze, which is made from copper and tin.

Cast iron is really an alloy of iron and carbon. It is made from pig iron which has been remelted and made purer. The amount of carbon in cast iron is reduced to 2.5-4 per cent. As cast iron is very brittle, it will not bend. It cannot be forged, either. On the other hand, it is easily shaped by casting.

Steel is an iron-carbon alloy, too. It contains a smaller proportion of carbon than cast iron does. Certain elements can improve the properties of steel, for example, stainless steel contains both nickel and chromium to prevent corrosion, and most types of high speed steel contain tungsten to increase hardness.

I. Translate the following expressions into Slovene:

high density .......................... ferrous ........................................ cast iron ............................... wrought iron ................................ steel ..................................... stainless steel ............................. brass .................................... carbon .........................................copper………………………………. tin ……………………………………………lead………………………….. ……… alloy ............................................

II. Complete these sentences:1. The characteristic features of metals are ……………………….2. Metals are classified as ………………………3. Iron is a …………………………metal.4. ………………………………are non-ferrous metals.5. Two or more metals combined form an ………………………….6. Brass is an alloy made from ……………………………7. Cast iron is an alloy of ………………………….. 8. Steels are alloys of ………………………………………9. The characteristics of cast iron are ...............................................10. Steel contains a …………………………….. proportion of carbon than cast iron.11. Stainless steel is an alloy of ………………………….12. Chromium is added to steel to ……………………………..13. High speed steels contain ……………………… to make them ……………………..

III. Answer these questions:1. What are the two groups of materials? 2. What are the characteristics of metals?3. How can metals be divided? On what basis?4. Give examples of ferrous and non-ferrous metals! 5. What is an alloy?6. What are brass and bronze? 7. What is cast iron?8. What are the qualities of cast iron?9. What is the difference between cast iron and steel? 10. How can the properties of steel be improved?

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IV. Scan the table which followsto find a material which is:

soft ……………… conductive and malleable……………ductile …………… durable and hard……………………malleable ……………… stiff and brittle……………………tough ……………… ductile and corrosion resistant…………… scratch-resistant ………………….heat-resistant and chemical-resistant…………

V. Scan the table to find:

1 A metal used to make aircraft 2 Plastics used for adhesives3 Steel which can be hardened 4 An alloy suitable for castings5 A plastic with very low friction6 A material suitable for safety helmets7 A metal suitable for a salt-water environment8 A metal for general construction use but which should be protected from corrosion9 A plastic for car bodies10 The metal used for the conductors in printed circuit boards

MATERIALS PROPERTIES USES

Metals Aluminium Light, soft, ductile, highly Aircraft, engine components,

conductive, corrosion-resistant. foil, cooking utensilsCopper Very malleable, tough and Electric wiring, PCBs, tubing

ductile, highly conductive,corrosion-resistant.

Brass (65% copper, 35% Very corrosion-resistant. Casts Valves. taps, castings, shipzinc) well, easily machined. Can be fittings, electrical contacts

work hardened. Good conductor.Mild steel (iron with High strength, ductile, tough, General purpose0.15% to 0.3% carbon) fairly malleable. Cannot be

hardened and tempered. Lowcost. Poor corrosion resistance.

High carbon steel (iron Hardest of the carbon steels but Cutting tools such as drills, files.with 0.7%to 1.4% carbon) less ductile and malleable. Can be saws

hardened and tempered.

ThermoplasticsABS High impact strength and Safety helmets, car components.

toughness, scratch-resistant, light telephones, kitchenwareand durable.

Acrylic Stiff, hard, very durable, clear, Aircraft canopies. baths, doublecan be polished easily. Can be glazingformed easily.

Nylon Hard, tough, wear-resistant, self- Bearings, gears, casings forlubricating. power tools

Thermosetting plasticsEpoxy resin High strength when reinforced, Adhesives, encapsulation of

good chemical and wear electronic componentsresistance.

Polyester resin Stiff, hard, brittle. Good chemical Moulding, boat and car bodiesand heat resistance.

Urea formaldehyde Stiff, hard, strong, brittle, heat- Electrical fittings, adhesivesresistant, and a good electrical

insulator.

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VI. Making definitions

Study these facts from the table about aluminium: 1 Aluminium is a light metal.2 Aluminium is used to make aircraft.We can link these facts to make a definition of aluminium: 1+2 Aluminium is a light metal which is used to make aircraft.

Use the table on the previous page to make definitions of each of the materials in column A. Choose the correct information in columns B and C to describe the materials in column A.

A B C1 An alloy allows heat or current to flow easily2 A thermoplastic remains rigid at high temperatures3 Mild steel does not allow heat or current to flow easily4 A conductor a metal contains iron and 0.7% to 1.4% carbon5 An insulator a material becomes plastic when heated6 High carbon steel an alloy contains iron and 0.15% to 0.3% carbon7 Brass formed by mixing other metals or elements8 A thermosetting plastic consists of copper and zinc

VII. Numbers

Anyone who works with any branch of science or technology needs to be able to talk about figures. Notice how the following are said in English.

28 % twenty-eight per cent 10 m x 12 m ten metres by twelve metres 10.3 ten point three 1 2/3 one and two thirds4/9 four ninths 9/13 nine thirteenths or nine over thirteen 42 four squared 73 seven cubed84 eight to the power of four32° C or F thirty-two degrees centigrade/Celsius or Fahrenheit1,623,457 one million, six hundred and twenty-three thousand, four hundred and fifty-

seven

Here are the four basic processes of arithmetic.+ addition - substraction x multiplication : division

Notice how these formulae would be read aloud.6 x 7 = 42 Six times seven is forty two. or Six sevens are forty two.2x+3y-z= 3z Two x plus three y minus z equals three z divided by four. or Three z over four x

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4x

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ELECTRIC CHARGES

An important property of matter is electric charge. Most sub-atomic particles have either a positive (+) or negative (-) electrical charge. Those that do not are considered neutral. A proton has a positive electric charge, an electron has a negative electric charge, and a neutron is neutral and has no electrical charge.

The most common charged particles are the electron and the proton. Atoms with an excess of electrons are called negative ions. Those with missing electrons are called positive ions. There is an electrical field that flows between opposite charges, causing an electrical force. This results in an attractive force between the opposite charges and a repelling force between like charges. Opposite charges attract and like charges repel.

An electrical field surrounds every particle that has an electrical charge. By convention, the lines of the electric field are said to radiate from a (+) particle and move towards a (-) particle. It is not certain if there is any direction of radiation, and there is no real good explanation of what the electric field is made of. It is just there.

Electric field lines shown moving from a positive particle

When a positive charged particle (+) like a proton is near a negative charged particle (-) like an electron, the electrical field goes from one to the other. Opposite charges are attracted to each other by the lines of force. When particles have the same charge, they repel each other.

Electrical field points from (+) to (-) Like charges repel

Static electricity is a good example of opposite charges attracting. If electrons are collected on the surface of one material and positive ions are collected on another surface, the negative and positive charges attract. Either the materials are pulled together or a stream of electrons jumps the gap as a spark

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I. Mini-quiz to check your understanding

a. Which sub-atomic particle has no electrical charge?1. They all have electrical charges2. Anti-matter3. The neutron

b. Why does the electric field move from (+) to (-)?1. Because (+) is bigger than (-)2. It is just a convention that scientists agreed upon3. It's just there

c. Why do things stick together in static electricity?1. The (+) charges on one material attract the (-) charges on the other object 2. They only stick if one is made of matter and the other is made of anti-matter3. Like charges attract

d. When two materials are rubbed together they 1. repel2. become electrified 3. attract

e. An electrified object can produce 1. a lot of damage2. an electric charge 3. a spark

f. Static electricity is1. the charge on an object2. an electric current3. a charge in motion

g. Like charges1. attract2. repel 3. move

h. If the charges are not of the same kind they are 1. positive2. unlike 3. similar

If you got all eight correct, you are on your way to becoming a champion in electricity. If you had problems, you had better look over the material again.

II. Fill in the correct form of the verb in the present simple without referring to the text.

1. Any two substances, when rubbed together under suitable conditions ............................ (become) electrified or ................................ (acquire) a charge of electricity.2. In dry weather a plastic comb ............................... (become) charged and often .............................. (make) crackling noises when you ............................... (comb) your hair.3. The charges that ................................ (be) on your body, on your comb or on any object .............................. (constitute) static electricity while a charge in motion ........................... (form) an electric current.4. In either case the attraction of bits of paper ................................ (show) a charge to be present in the sticks.5. You ................................ (can) see that two plastic sticks as well as two glass sticks ................................. (repel) each other.6. But an electrified glass stick and an electrified plastic stick ............................. (attract) each other.7. Such experiments ............................... (show) that charges ............................ (be) of two kinds.

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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

RECENTLY COMPLETED ACTIONS, RESULTSI've packed my case. She has tidied her room.

ACTIONS STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUING UP TO THE PRESENT (PROLONGED ACTIVITY)He's been writing his HW for three hours. (he's still writing)

ACTIONS WHICH HAPPENED AT AN UNSTATED PAST TIME AND ARE CONNECTED WITH THE PRESENTShe's done a lot of shopping. I've lost my keys.

PAST ACTIONS OF CERTAIN DURATION HAVING VISIBLE RESULTS, CONSEQUENCES IN THE PRESENTShe's been crying. (her eyes are red)

EXPERIENCESI've already been to Australia.

REPEATED ACTIVITYI've been getting up at six this week.

EMPHASIS ON NUMBERShe's written three letters since this morning.

EMPHASIS ON DURATION (USUALLY WITH SINCE, FOR OR HOW LONG)I've been typing letters since this morning.ACTIONS EXPRESSING ANGER, ANNOYANCE, IRRITATIONHas he been using my toothbrush again?

NOTE: With verbs LIVE, FEEL & WORK we can use either pres. perf. simple or cont. with no difference in meaning.

PRESENT PERFECT ACTIVE

PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE

Someone has stolen his car. His car has been stolen.They have found the kidnapped baby.

The kidnapped baby has been found.

They have made two thousand workers redundant.

Two thousand workers have been made redundant.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

*** FILL IN WITH PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS.

ROBINSON CRUSOE HAS BEEN STUCK ON A DESERT ISLAND FOR THE PAST SIX MONTHS. HERE IS THE LETTER HE WROTE AND PUT IN THE BOTTLE:

Dear Anybody,I ……………………………(be) on this island for six months now. It is a miracle that

I………………………..(survive) for this long. I …………………….(eat) fish and fruit since I got here. Fortunately, I ………………………….(not see) any dangerous animals yet. When I arrived here the weather was fine, but it …………………………(rain) continuously for the past two weeks, so I …………………………….(build) a shelter out of sticks and leaves, which is really quite cosy. My

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main problem is loneliness, as I …………………………(not speak) to anyone for so long. Recently I ………………………..(talk) to myself, but it isn't very interesting. Please help me.

R. Crusoe

EXERCISES............/Pres. perfect simple vs Pres. perfect continuous, ACTIVE& PASSIVE/

I. COMPLETE. (PRES. PERF. SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS)

1. I ..............(write) my letter for half an hour. 2. It ............(snow) since early this morning.3. ...........the children..........(play) with the dog since lunch time?4. My mother ..............(tidy) all the rooms.5. I...........(write) a letter. Here it is.6. How long ..............he..............(sit) in that corner?7. What! You...............(drink) again!8. The girls .............(listen) to the records since they came home.9. They.............(discuss) the new traffic regulations all day long.10. Her friend..............(work) hard since he was ten years old.11. They..............(build) that bridge for two years.12. You are filthy! What ..........you..............(do)?13. He looks frightened. What ............(happen) to him?14. How many times ..........you...........(try) to get in touch with them?15. She..............(wear) the same dress ever since I knew her.16. .............Mr. Brown ...............(return) from America yet?17. She..............(teach) in that school ever since she finished her studies.18. The baby..............(sleep) all this afternoon.19. Since when ..............you..............(live) in this flat?20. They still .............(not succeed) in getting all the visas.21. You look tired and your eyes are quite red! Evidently you ..........(write) all night.22. The director............(explain) to the main actress for half an hour how to act the next scene. The actors...............(wait) all the morning for their turn.23. .............you...............(return) all the books?24. Tom ...............(look) forward all day to going to the concert tonight. 25. She...............(do) a temporary office job since August.26. He's out of breath. He…………………………(run).27. The police……………………..(arrest) the thief.28. Thieves …………………….(steal) four bicycles.29. Our country ………………………(get) richer every year.30. Tim Henman……………………..(not win) Wimbledon.31. He………………………(start) driving lessons.32. …………….you………………...(sell) your bike to Peter?33. Look what you……………………..(do)!34. ……………….he………………………(work) all afternoon?35. She should stop. She ………………………(drive) for seven hours and that is too long.36. Brazil …………………………(win) the World Cup three times.37. Who ………………………..(use) my mobile phone?38. He……………….…..(feel) dissatisfied for months.39. Look at your trousers! What …………………you……………….(do)?40. Who……………………..(lock) the door?

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II. FORM THE PASSIVE.

1. Someone has murdered him. 6. They have already measured the earthquake.

2. They have invited Jane to sing for the President.

7. Somebody has already paid for it.

3. They have offered him a job. 8. Who has fed the animals?

4. Somebody has broken the windows. 9. Has anybody opened this bottle?

5. They have found a watch. 10. Somebody has taken the books back to the library.

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EXERCISES…………..………….……………Past Tenses & Present Perfect Tenses

I. Put the verbs in brackets into the past simple, the past continuous, the past perfect or the present perfect.

Eddie was in the garden of his new house. He 1) .............................. (plant) some flowers. His mother and father 2) ......................... (be) inside and 3) ................................. (unpack) their things. Eddie 4) .......................... (sigh), "Why did we have to move?" he 5) ...................... (think) to himself. All his old friends 6) ....................... (be) miles away and he 7) ....................................... (know) no one here. He 8) ...................... (feel) lonely and 9) ..................(miss) his friends. Just then, a blue car 10) ................. .... ...... (pull up) in the drive next to theirs. A man and a boy about Eddie’s age 11) .................... (get out) of the car. It 12) ...................... (be) the same boy Eddie 13) ........................ (see) earlier that morning leaving for school. He 14) ........................... (wonder) what his name 15) .......................... (be). To Eddie’s surprise, the boy 16) ........................ (walk) over to him and 17) ............................ (say), "Hi, My name's Matt. Welcome to our neighbourhood. What's your name?" Eddie 18) ..................... (tell) him his name and, for the first time in two weeks, he 19) ........................... (know) everything would be okay. "My mum 20) ...................................... (just/make) a chocolate cake. Would you like to come over and have some?" Matt 21) ............................... (ask) him. "Yes please. I'd like that very much," Eddie 22) ........................... (say) and 23) ......................... (smile). It 24) ........................... (seem) that Eddie 25) ........... .......................... (find) a new friend.

STRASBOURG Strasbourg …………….. always ……………(be) an important European city. Thanks to a favourable geographical position - at the crossroads of waterways and overland routes - the area on which Strasbourg now stands ………………….(inhabit) since the Bronze Age. In the Middle Ages, it …………………..(be) an important economic centre and it gradually grew so strong that by the fifteenth century it ……………………(become) a free republic. It ………………..(grow) richer and richer in the sixteenth century and ……………………(welcome) free thinkers and refugees from Switzerland, Italy and France. These newcomers greatly ………………..(enrich) the city's cultural life. In 1697, Strasbourg ………………….(become) part of France. Germany …………………….(conquer) it in 1870 and it ……………… only ……………..(return) to France after the end of the First World War. It …………….. again …………………(occupy) by Germany in the Second World War and ………………….(suffer) great destruction. In 1949, the city …………………(choose) to be the headquarters of the Council of Europe, and since 1979 it …………………..(be) the seat of the European Parliament to which, at present, fifteen countries ………………….(send) representatives.

II. Error correction.

1. I started working here before five years ago.2. How long is it been since you moved here?3. I felt tired so I had decided to go to bed early.4. Having an operation was being the worst experience of my life.5. She has graduated from college a month ago.6. Mrs Parker who is my Science teacher.7. That’s the man whose his wallet was stolen.8. The dishwasher which I bought it last week is faulty.9. John, who he is my best friend, won the 100 m race.10. They have booked two tickets to Paris last night.11. Kate knows John since 1980.12. The meal wasn’t served yet.13. Jane’s getting out of bed. She just woke up.14. What were you doing lately?

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15. The estate agent is taking down the “For Sale” sign as he already sold the house.III. Choose the correct form.

1. Samuel……………the house when the phone started ringing.A has just entered B had just entered C entered

2. Janine was driving in the countryside with her friends when the storm…………..A was breaking B had broken C broke

3. How long has Stacy been writing poetry? …………………….. she was 16 years old.A Until B Since C When

4. He………………..the newspaper, then he went to bed.A read B had read C was reading

5. Susan was watering the plants while her mother ………………an apple pie.A was making B has been making C had made

6. Why are you so tired? I…………………basketball with my friends.A have been playing B was playing C had been playing

7. By the time they ………………at the airport, their plane had already taken off. A had arrived B were arriving C arrived

8. Mark and Jane ………………for five hours when they stopped to eat lunch.A have been travelling B travelled C had been travelling

9. ……………the boys had finished their work they went home.A After B Until C By the time

10. How long ago……………working fro this company?A have you started B did you start C had you started

11. Dr Adams …………….three patients so far this morning.A had seen B has seen C saw

12. Sally …………….all the housework by the time I got home.A has done B did C had done

13. My jar is nearly empty! Someone ………………my coffee.A had been drinking B was drinking C has been drinking

14. Mary………………on the phone all morning and hasn’t done any work.A has been talking B was talking C talked

15. They ………………for a table for an hour before they finally got seated.A were waiting B have been waiting C had been waiting

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FUTURE FORMS

FUTURE SIMPLE (will) (be) GOING TO PRESENT CONTINUOUS(future meaning)

PRESENT SIMPLE(future meaning)

Actions or predictions which may (not) happen in the futureShe'll probably buy the dress. (prediction)Actions which we cannot control and will inevitably happen He will be ten next year.

Actions which will definitely happen in the future (evidence)Look at the dark clouds in the sky! It's going to rain.She's going to have a baby.

Fixed arrangements in the near futureAnn is seeing her dentist this week. (She has fixed an appointment.)

Timetables/programmesThe plane reaches London at 9.45.If-clausesI’ll help him if he asks me.

Decisions taken at the moment of speakingSince it's getting dark, I'll turn on the light.

Decisions made before the moment of speakingShe's going to visit her parents tomorrow.

Hopes, fears, threats, offers, promises, requests, comments etc, esp. With: expect, think, hope, believe, I'm sure, I'm afraid, probably etc.I'm afraid I'll be a little late.

Planned actions or intentionsNow that they've settled in their new house, they're going to have a party.

Things we are not sure about or haven't decided to do yetShe'll probably be promoted. (not sure yet)

Things we are sure about or we have already decided to do in the near futureHe's going to be promoted. (The boss has decided to do it.)

COMPLETE BY USING THE CORRECT FORM.1. I think I …………………… (make) some tea. Do you want some?2. I…………………….(see) my bank manager this morning.3. …………….you please……………..(stop) making so much noise?4. Look out! That dog ………………….(bite) you.5. She ………………(call) us as soon as she reaches London.6. A: I'm really hungry. B: I …………………(make) some sandwiches.7. We are so excited about our trip next month to France. We

………………...(visit) Paris and Nice.8. A: Jane went to hospital yesterday. B: I’m sorry to hear that.

I………………(send) her some flowers.9. A: Why are you buying so much food? B: Because

I…………………….(cook) for ten people.

10. Tomorrow after school, I ……………….(go) to the beach.11. When you arrive tonight, we ………………..(go) out for dinner.12. ……………….you……………….(be able) to go skiing with us next

weekend?13. She ………………..(send) us a letter if she has time.14. Watch out! You ………………..(knock) the vase over. 15. A: Have you seen John today? B: No, but I …………………. (visit)

him this afternoon.16. A: What’s Jim’s phone number? B: Just a minute. I………………..

(look) it up for you.17. A: Why are you leaving so early? B: Because the teacher gave us a lot

of homework and I ……………….(do) it very carefully.

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EXERCISES ……………………………………………………...…………FUTURE TIME

1. Fill in WILL or BE GOING TO, then identify the speech situations (not yet sure, sure).

1. …………………… 2. ………………….. 3. ……………………

I…………….(move) into a better house if I get a job.

He…………(play) tennis. They…………..(probably/buy) a new car.

4. …………………… 5. ………………….. 6. ……………………

I think he…………….(be) angry when he sees that cat.

They………………(fight). He…………………(take) a picture.

2. Fill in PRESENT CONTINUOUS or BE GOING TO, then identify the speech situations. fixed arrangement – something already decided

1. ……………………….. 2. ………………………… 3. …………………………..

She………………(get married). They……………(get married). They……………….(have) dinner at home.

4. ……………………….. 5. ………………………… 6. …………………………..

He's brushing his teeth. He …………..(have) an early night.

She …….…(telephone) the dentist. She……………..(see) the dentist tomorrow.

3. Match the sentences with the pictures, then identify the speech situations.

1. I'll write to you every day. 4. He's going to paint the house. 7. Put on your coat or you'll catch cold.2. Look at that tree! It's going to fall down. 5. I'll have two cheeseburgers for lunch. 8. Finish your HW or I won't take you to the zoo.3. I love cooking. I'm going to be chef. 6. Shall I do the washing-up? 9. Robots will do the housework in the future.

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intention, promise, evidence, prediction, offer, threat, warning, on-the-spot decision

1. ………………………… 2. ………………………… 3. ………………………

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

4. ………………………… 5. ………………………… 6. ………………………

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

7. ………………………… 8. ………………………… 9. ………………………

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________

4. Put the verbs in brackets into PRESENT SIMPLE or FUTURE SIMPLE.

1. We…………………(leave) as soon as he ……………………(arrive).2. He says he……………..(telephone) us before he……………….(leave) the airport.3. She ………………….(stay) at home until she …………………..(feel) better.4. “When………………you ………………(visit) them?” “Probably next week.”5. She…………………(call) us as soon as she……………….(reach) London.6. Don’t go out until it …………….…. (stop) raining.7. If he………………(give) you 5 pounds what …………you…………..(buy)?8. He……………..(be) angry if she ……………….(come) home late.9. Turn the lights off before you……………….(go) to bed.10. When she ……………..(arrive) she………………(give) you the envelope.

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HOW MAN LEARNED TO GENERATE ELECTRIC CURRENT

While experimenting with electricity and magnetism the Danish physicist Christian Oersted (1777-1851) noticed that the magnetic needle in a compass while close to electric wire pointed to the wire at right angles. Normally it would point to the North. He concluded that a wire carrying an electric current produced a force that acted like a magnet. In fact, he had discovered electromagnetism. He gave the lecture on the results of his work in 1820.

Some ten years later a young Englishman, the passionate experimenter, Michael Faraday (1781-1867), while working as a laboratory assistant in the research centre of the "Royal Institution", tried to find an answer to an exciting question: if electricity could produce magnetism, was it possible that magnetism could produce electricity?The positive answer appeared in an apparatus Michael Faraday constructed in 1831. His device consisted of a 12-inch copper disc mounted on an axle between the poles of a magnet. When the disc was rotated through the magnetic field an electric current was generated and flowed through the connecting wires. It was the world's first dynamo, the first device to generate an electric current, the forerunner of today's powerful generators.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE TEXT

I. Answer the questions.

1. What were both Oersted and Faraday? 2. What field did they work in?3. What did Oersted find out?4. What was the essential question in Faraday's experiments? 5. What did Faraday prove?6. How did he apply his discovery?

II. Make questions.

1. While experimenting with electricity and magnetism Oersted found that a magnetic needle was attracted by the wire carrying electric current. (what, when, who)

2. Electricity can produce a magnetic force. (what)3. A wire carrying an electric current acts like a magnet. (how)4. Faraday's dynamo consisted of a copper disc mounted on an axle between two

magnetic poles. (what, how)5. The copper disc was rotated through the magnetic field. (where)

III. Find the right definition.

1. physicist……………………………………..2. compass .......................................3. magnetic needle ........................... 4. electric wire ..................................5. electric current……………………………6. research (n.) ...............................7. experimenter ...............................8. magnetism .................................9. mount (v.) ..................................10. axle .........................................11. generate (v.) ............................

a) a systematic inquiry into a subject to discover facts

b) to bring into existencec) somebody who makes experimentsd) the characteristic properties possessed by

magnetse) an instrument for determining directionf) a piece of thin, flexible metal carrying currentg) somebody who deals with physics h) a thin, magnetized piece of steel i) to fix or set on (in) to something j) a bar or shaft on which a wheel rotatesk) a flow of electricity

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ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motors are machines which change electric power into a mechanical driving force. All electric motors operate on these simple principles: when an electric current is passed through a conductor, it makes it into a magnet - an electromagnet which throws a magnetic field around itself.

Before Tesla's invention, all electric motors operated on direct current (d. c.). A freely rotating armature was set inside a stator. Both received electric current and both of them became magnets. Since like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike poles attract, the armature would turn until the unlike poles met. To keep the armature turning, the polarity of the stator had to be reversed. Then the armature turned again until the new poles met. The polarity of the stator was reversed again and so on.The disadvantages of the d. c. motor were that it required a commutator to switch the polarity and brushes to induce the current in the armature. Besides, it could not vary its speed.

Tesla solved these problems by making an induction motor operating on alternating current (a. c.). Unlike DC, where the electrical current always flows in one direction, AC current flows in both directions.  The polarity reverses automatically with the current.  Since the direction of flow in alternating current is continually reversed, there is no need to have a switching device on the motor itself.

In Tesla's AC induction motor the current is fed only to the stator magnet. The alternating current repeatedly changes the polarity of the magnet and so sets up a rotating magnetic field. The freely rotating armature, placed inside the stator, does not need to be separately magnetized. The current in the stator induces the current in the armature, which then creates poles on it. These poles are attracted by the rotating field of the stator and so the armature rotates. By varying the strength of the current passing into the stator, it can be made to rotate at different speeds.

Tesla patented this motor in 1888 and since then it has been used in many different appliances. The induction motor is easy to build and is widely used both in industry and the home.

I. Answer the questions.

1. What is an electric motor? 2. What does it depend on?3. How does a conductor become a magnet? 4. How do like magnetic poles behave?5. How do unlike magnetic poles behave?6. What kind of electric current was first used in electric motors? 7. What are the main parts of an electric motor?8. Why does the armature rotate?9. What had to be done to make the armature rotate all the time? 10. What was needed to make the stator change the polarity?11. How was the current induced in the armature?12. Who was Nikola Tesla?13. What did he invent?14. When did he start to work on an electric motor?15. Why was he not satisfied with the existing d.c. motor? 16. What are the basic principles of all electric motors?

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17. What is the advantage of the a.c. motor compared with the d.c. motor? 18. Where is the a.c. induction motor used in everyday life?

II. Say which of these statements are true and which are false. Correct the false ones.

1. Tesla invented an electric motor which operated on d.c. ........ 2. He was not satisfied with his invention, so he tried to find something better. ……..3. An electric motor needs two magnets. .........4. Both magnets have to rotate so as to produce another driving force. ........ 5. Like poles repel. This is one of the principles used in the electric motor. ...........6. All electric motors need a commutator to switch the direction of flow of the electric current

and brushes to induce the current in the armature. ............ 7. The direction of flow is continually changed in both d.c. and a.c. ............ 8. In Tesla's induction motor only the stator has to be connected to the a.c. supply. ..........9. The alternating current changes the polarity of the magnetic field by changing the direction of the

flow. ……. 10. The freely rotating armature is separately magnetized in the a.c. motor. …………11. The rotating speed of the armature can easily be varied by changing the strength of the a.c.

………12. Tesla's electric motor has been in use since 1888. ……… 13. Tesla invented his motor in 1888. …………

III. Connect logically sentence beginnings and sentence endings.

1. Electric motors are the devices which ..........................2. The work of the electric motor depends on ...............3. Electric current passing ...................4. Before Tesla's invention all electric .............5. Both, the armature which was set within the stator .............6. Like poles repel each ............................7. Because of this the armature turned inside the stator, and the polarity had .........................8. To reverse the polarity, a commutator ......................9. "Brushes" had to be used to .....................10. The d.c. electric motor ................

a)… induce the current in the rotating armature.b) ... and the stator had to receive the electric current.c) ... had to be used.d) … the magnetism produced by the electric current. e) … change the electric power into a mechanical driving force.f) ... motors operated on direct current.g)... could not vary its speed.h) … through the conductor produces an electro-magnet. i) ... to be reversed so that it could turn again and again.j) ... other and unlike magnetic poles attract.

IV. Fill in the corresponding verb, noun or adjective.

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVEeducate

studentwork

electricoperate

conductormagnet

directalternating

inducerotatingdifferent

vary

V. Complete the following sentences using some of the newly formed words.

1. .......................................... is very important for everybody.

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2. Tesla ........................................... all he could find about ............................................ .3. Copper wire ........................................ electric current well.4. All wires through which electric current flows, form a .............................................. field around them.

DC & AC

Direct Current (DC) Electrical Circuits

A direct current (DC) electrical circuit consists of a source of DC electricity with a conducting wire going from one of the source terminals to a set of electrical devices and then back to the other terminal, in a complete circuit. A DC circuit is necessary for DC electricity to exist. DC circuits may be in series, parallel or a combination. Understanding DC circuits is important for learning about the more complex AC circuits, like those used in the home.

The battery, bulb and switch inside a flashlight form a DC circuit

Alternating Current (AC) Electricity

Alternating current or AC electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and businesses throughout the world. While the flow of electrons through a wire in direct current (DC) electricity is continuous in one direction, the current in AC electricity alternates in direction. The back-and-forth motion occurs between 50 and 60 times per second, depending on the electrical system of the country. AC is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency. What is special about AC electricity is that the voltage can be readily changed, thus making it more suitable for long-distance transmission than DC electricity. But also, AC can employ capacitors and inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications.

Mini-quiz

1. Why do they call it a DC circuit?1. The electricity flows from the source around and back to the source in a circuit 2. Because most have a circuit breaker installed 3. To warn people of possible shocks

2. What happens when a light burns out in a series circuit?1. The other lights remain lit2. The voltage increases dramatically3. The circuit is broken

3. How could you turn off a parallel circuit?1. You can't turn off a parallel circuit 2. Put a switch before the parallel configuration, like near the battery3. Unscrew one light bulb

4. Why is it called alternating current?1. The current alternates in direction within the wire 2. The current alternates between on and off 3. The current alternates between AC and DC

5. What does an electrical transformer do?1. It changes the direction of AC electricity

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2. It changes the voltage of DC electricity 3. It changes the voltage of AC electricity

6. What does a capacitor, inductor and resistor do in a DC circuit?1. It is used for tuning your radio 2. The combination is only usable with AC electricity3. It changes the frequency from 50Hz to 60Hz

MAGNETS

A magnet is an object or material that attracts certain metals, such as iron, nickel and cobalt. It can also attract or repel another magnet. All magnets have North-seeking (N) and South-seeking (S) poles. An interesting characteristic of magnets is that when you cut a magnet into parts, each part will have both N and S poles.

Bar magnet cut into three parts

When magnets are placed near each other, opposite poles attract and like poles repel each other. There are permanent magnets, temporary magnets and electromagnets.

The first true application of a magnet was the compass, which not only helps in navigation by pointing toward the North magnetic pole, but it is also useful in detecting small magnetic fields. A compass is simply a thin magnet or magnetized iron needle balanced on a pivot. The needle will rotate to point toward the opposite pole of a magnet. It can be very sensitive to small magnetic fields. Magnets are found in many of our electrical appliances e. g. loudspeakers, electrical motors and electrical generators.

MAGNETISM

Magnetism is a force that acts at a distance and is caused by a magnetic field. This force strongly attracts ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt. The magnetic field is a dipole field. That means that every magnet must have two poles.In magnets, the magnetic force strongly attracts an opposite pole of another magnet and repels a like pole. The magnetic field is both similar and different than an electric field. Just as the positive (+) and negative (-) electrical charges attract each other, the N and S poles of a magnet attract each other. In electricity like charges repel, and in magnetism like poles repel.A magnetic field consists of imaginary lines of flux coming from moving or spinning electrically charged particles. Examples include the spin of a proton and the motion of electrons through a wire in an electric circuit.

Magnetic field or lines of flux of a moving charged particle → The magnetic field of an object can create a magnetic force on other objects with magnetic fields. That force is what we call magnetism.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

An electromagnet is an object that acts like a magnet, but its magnetic force is created and controlled by electricity - thus the name electromagnet. By wrapping insulated wire around a piece of iron or steel and then running electrical current through the wire, the metal becomes magnetized. This happens because a magnetic field is created around a wire when it has electrical current running through it. This device is magnetic only when the current is flowing.

You can create an electromagnet without the iron core. That is usually called a solenoid. Wrapping the wire in a coil concentrates and increases the magnetic field, because the additive effect of each turn of the wire. A coil of wire used to create a magnetic field is called a solenoid.← Coiled wire increases magnetic field

If AC electricity is used, the electromagnet has the same properties of a magnet, except that the polarity reverses with the AC cycle. Note that it is not a good idea to try to make an AC electromagnet. This is because of the high voltage in house current. Using a wire around a nail would result in a blown fuse in the AC circuit box. There is also the potential of an electric shock. When DC electricity is passed through a wire, a magnetic field rotates around the wire in a specific direction. Magnetic field rotating around a wire →

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Connecting a wire to a battery and placing a compass near the wire can demonstrate a magnetic field. When the current is turned on, the compass-needle will move. If you reverse the direction of the current, the needle will move in the opposite direction.The unit of magnetic force is called the tesla (T). Another unit used is the gauss, where 104 gauss (10,000) equals 1 tesla.Mini-quiz to check your understanding

1. What does the movement of an electric charge cause?1. The movement of a magnetic charge 2. An electron or proton3. A magnetic field

2. What happens when two objects with magnetic fields are brought near each other?

1. A magnetic force either causes attraction or repulsion2. A magnetic force will cause electrical charges 3. The objects will become magnets

3. Is a magnet a dipole or monopole?1. Monopole, because it is one magnet 2. Dipole, because it has two poles 3. It depends if the poles are like or different

4. Why should the wire around the iron core be insulated?1. So you don't create a short circuit2. To keep the iron from getting too warm3. To insulate the magnetism

5. Why does an iron core increase the magnetic field of a coil of wire?1. The iron atoms line up to add to the magnetic field2. Iron attracts things, including magnetic fields3. The iron core actually decreases the field, allowing it to be turned off

6. What does a magnet repel?1. The opposite pole of another magnet2. Iron, nickel and cobalt 3. The same pole of another magnet

7. What happens if you cut a magnet in half?1. It destroys its magnetism2. You get a north pole magnet and a south pole magnet3. You get two magnets, each with a N and S pole

8. Why does a compass point north?1. The shape of the Earth causes it2. There is a large deposit of iron right at the North Pole3. The Earth is a large magnet with a magnetic pole near the North Pole

If you got all eight correct, you are on your way to becoming a champion in science. If you had problems, you had better look over the material again.

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1 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electricity is the term the early …………………….. (science) used when they were actually referring to ‘charge’. Present usage of the term ‘electricity’ has become confused. In addition to the electric charge definition, the word electricity has several popular …………………………… (define) which are contradictory. Many sources say that “electricity” is the quantity of electrical energy measured in joules or kilowatt-hours. Other sources call it the motion of charges within a ………………… (conduct), and they measure the quantity of electricity in terms of amperes.

Electricity is a form of energy involving the flow of electrons. All matter is made up of atoms, and an atom has a centre, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains ………………………. (positive) charged particles called protons and ………………………. (charge) particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. The negative charge of an electron is ……………………… (equality) to the positive charge of a proton, and the number of electrons in an atom is usually equal to the number of protons. When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are “lost” from an atom, the free ………………………… (move) of these electrons constitutes an electric current.

In electricity, current refers to electric current, which is the flow of electric charge. …………………………. (Magnetism) forces are fundamental forces that arise due to the movement of electrical charge. Thus, magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion.

Every electric current …………………. (production) a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of …………………….. (circle) field lines surrounding the wire. Electric charge is a property of certain subatomic particles (e.g. electrons and protons) which interacts with electromagnetic fields and causes attractive and repulsive forces between them.

Current flowing through a wire produces a magnetic field around the wire. The field is oriented according to the right-hand rule.

In physics, magnetism is one of the phenomena by which materials exert an ………………… (attract) or repulsive force on other materials. Some well known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties are iron, some steels etc.; however, all materials are influenced to one degree or another by the presence of a magnetic field, although in most cases the influence is too small to detect without special ………………………. (equip).

Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field. The term “electromagnetism” comes from the fact that the electric and magnetic fields are closely intertwined, and, under most circumstances, it is ………………………. (possibility) to consider the two separately.

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The electric field can be produced by stationary electric charges, and gives rise to the electric force, which causes static electricity and drives the flow of electric charge in electrical conductors. The magnetic field can be produced by the motion of electric charges, such as an electric current flowing along a wire, and gives rise to the magnetic force one associates with magnets. A changing magnetic field gives rise to an electric field; this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic ……………………. (induce), which underlies the operation of electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers. The term electrodynamics is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with mechanics and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic ………………………… (behave) of electrically charged particles.

2 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electricity is the term the early scientists used when they were actually referring to ‘charge’. Present usage of the term ‘electricity’ has become confused. In addition to the electric charge definition, the word electricity ……………………….. (HAVE) several popular definitions which are contradictory. Many sources say that “electricity” is the quantity of electrical energy ……………………….. (MEASURE) in joules or kilowatt-hours. Other sources call it the motion of charges within a conductor, and they measure the quantity of electricity in terms of amperes.

Electricity is a form of energy involving the flow of electrons. All matter …………………. (MAKE) up of atoms, and an atom has a centre, called a nucleus. The nucleus ……………………… (CONTAIN) positively charged particles called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an atom …………………………….. (SURROUND) by negatively charged particles called electrons. The negative charge of an electron ………………………… (BE) equal to the positive charge of a proton, and the number of electrons in an atom is usually equal to the number of protons. When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are “lost” from an atom, the free movement of these electrons ………………………….. (CONSTITUTE) an electric current.

In electricity, current ……………………….. (REFER) to electric current, which is the flow of electric charge. Magnetic forces are fundamental forces that arise due to the movement of electrical charge. Thus, magnetism ………………………. (SEE) whenever electrically charged particles are in motion.

Every electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire. Electric charge is a property of certain subatomic particles (e.g. electrons and protons) which interacts with electromagnetic fields and ……………………….. (CAUSE) attractive and repulsive forces between them.

Current flowing through a wire ……………………….. (PRODUCE) a magnetic field around the wire. The field is oriented according to the right-hand rule.

In physics, magnetism is one of the phenomena by which materials exert an attractive or repulsive force on other materials. Some well known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties are iron, some steels etc.; however, all materials ……………………….. (INFLUENCE) to one degree or another by the presence of a magnetic

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field, although in most cases the influence is too small to detect without special equipment.

Electromagnetism is the physics of the electromagnetic field. The term “electromagnetism” …………………………. (COME) from the fact that the electric and magnetic fields are closely intertwined, and, under most circumstances, it is impossible to consider the two separately.The electric field can ………………………. (PRODUCE) by stationary electric charges, and gives rise to the electric force, which causes static electricity and ……………………… (DRIVE) the flow of electric charge in electrical conductors. The magnetic field can be produced by the motion of electric charges, such as an electric current flowing along a wire, and gives rise to the magnetic force one associates with magnets. A changing magnetic field gives rise to an electric field; this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, which …………………………….. (UNDERLIE) the operation of electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers. The term electrodynamics ………………………… sometimes ………………………….. (USE) to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with mechanics and …………………………….. (DEAL) with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behaviour of electrically charged particles.

WORD FORMATION

Nouns formed from verbs-ion eg. confuse - confusion -tion eg. direct - direction -ation eg. organise - organisation -sion eg. suspend – suspension

-age eg. break - breakage -ance eg. annoy - annoyance -ence eg. prefer - preference -ment eg. amuse - amusement

-y eg. injure – injury-sis eg. analyse - analysis -al eg. propose – proposal

Nouns formed from adjectives-ion eg. desperate – desperation-iness eg. happy - happiness -cy eg. fluent – fluency

-ance eg. tolerant - tolerance -ence eg. obedient - obedience -ment eg. content-contentment

-ity eg. popular - popularity -ty eg. royal - royalty -y eg. honest – honesty

Adjectives formed from verbs Verbs formed from adjectives/nouns-able eg. bear - bearable -ive eg. decide – decisive

-en eg. dark-darken, strong – strenghten, fright – frighten, length - lenghten

There are certain prefixes (syllables put at the beginning of words) and suffixes (syllables put at the end of words) which are used to form new words. However, there are no certain rules to follow to form one word from another.

Prefixes anti- = against eg. antinuclearbi- = two eg. bilingual

pre- = before eg. prejudgepro- = in favour of eg. pro-American

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co- = with eg. cooperation de- = acting against eg. decomposition ex- = before, former eg. ex-general inter- = between eg. intermediate mono- = one eg. monolingual non- = not eg. non-stopover- = too much eg. overeatpost- = after eg. postgraduate

re- = again eg. rearrange semi- = half eg. semicircle sub- = under eg. subconscioussuper- = above eg. supernaturaltrans- = across eg. transatlantic tri- = three eg. tricycleunder- = not enough eg. underestimateuni- = one eg. unicycle

There are certain prefixes which mean not or show an opposite state or process. These are: un- eg. unbelievableim- eg. impossiblemal- eg. malfunctionin- eg. incompetent

ir- (before r) eg. irresistibleil- (before I) eg. illegaldis- eg. disagree

Suffixes -ee (with passive meaning) eg. employee-er (with active meaning) eg. employer-ful a) = with eg. careful b) : indicates quantity eg. spoonful-hood - childhood

-ish a) = with the quality of eg. childish b) = rather eg. smallish-less without eg. careless-proof safe against eg. waterproof

To describe people we add -ar, -er, -or to the end of the verbs eg. lie - liar, rob - robber, create – creator

-ist, -ian to the end of nouns or verbs

eg. type - typist, music - musician

Do not forget to make any necessary spelling changes.

I. Make nouns from the following words.

employ - instruct lonelypost portray reluctantexcept translate excellentexpand injure intelligentaccept refer accuratepublish apologize exciteddevelop examine fragilecombine pollute regulardrive judge stupid

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inspire use isolate

II. Fill in the right form of the words in brackets.

The 1) ...length... (long) of the journey was beginning to cause a lot of 2) ............................. (frustrate) for everyone involved. Unfortunately, father got the blame, as he had been responsible for the 3) ............................. (organise) of the trip. 4) ............................. (impatient) had begun to set in when we realised we'd been given the wrong 5) ................................ (direct) by a well-meaning pedestrian. What is more, father's 6) .......................... (popular) was not 7) ............................. (increase) by his 8) ......................... (insist) that we stop every hour or so to observe the scenery. The trip to France, he'd said, would 9) ............................. (broad) our horizons and provide us with both 10) ........................ (amuse) and 11) ...................... (educate). However, in 12) ........................... (real), it turned out to be an 13) .......................... (bear) waste of time and effort. It was then that we made the 14) ................... (decide) never to listen to one of father's 15) ..................(propose) again.

III. Add the correct prefixes to the beginning of the words.

1 The ...anti-... government protesters marched to parliament. 2 John ................. slept and was late for work.3 Many people who wanted tickets were disappointed because the organisers had ................. estimated the singer's popularity.4 He is taking a ................. atlantic flight from London to New York.5 When the ambulance came, the man was ................. conscious after being knocked down by a car.6 The ................. president of the United States was honoured at a ceremony, five years after he resigned. 7 People who can only speak their own language are called ................. lingual.8 Superman is a comic strip character who has ................. human strength.9 There were violent scenes as ................. government and anti-government demonstrators fought outside parliament.10 ................. racial fighting between the two minorities had led to civil war in the country.11 John left his job because he was ................. able to deal with such a large amount of work.12 The two countries ................ operated to prevent the shipment of drugs from one to the other. 13 That child looks very thin. I think he must be ................. fed.14 Don't ................. feed the dog or it'll get fat.15 The media gave her so much attention she became a ................. star overnight. 16 He never goes out or talks to people; he's so ................. social.17 Tom knew the information was somewhere in his .............. conscious, but he couldn't remember it. 18 I always find the day after Christmas an ................. climax.19 The man had to ................. apply the paint because the first coat wasn't sufficient. 20 Ghandi achieved a lot through ................. violent action.21 The neighbouring tribes found it difficult to ................. exist peacefully. 22 We caught the ................. continental train from Paris to Istanbul.23 As these programmes are ................. changeable, they can be used with any computer system. 24 We weren't allowed onto the ferry because it had been ................. booked.

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71

WORD FORMATION IN CONTEXT

USE THE WORD IN THE CAPITALS AT THE END OF EACH LINE TO FORM A WORD THAT FITS IN THE SPACE IN THE SAME LINE.

1. Leaving a job

I recently left my job in an (1) ........................ agency after a disagreement with my boss. She accepted my(2) ............................ but warned me that because of the (3) ………….............. situation, I might have to get used to the the idea of being (4) .............................. for a while. I thought that she was trying to make a point, but after I had made overfifty (5) .............................. to other companies, I realised that shewas right. Although I am a (6) ............................. designer, I didn't receive any offers of a job. After that I triedworking from home, but it was not very (7) ...................... Then I became an (8) ........................... in a fast-food restaurant, even though my (9) ....................... were extremely low. I wish I had accepted early (10) .......................... from my old job. That is what I disagreed with my boss about!

ADVERTISEMENT

RESIGNECONOMY

EMPLOY

APPLYQUALIFICATION

PROFITEMPLOYEARN

RETIRE

2. How a hobby can make you angry!

Recently I decided to take up (1) ………………….. as a hobby. I havealways taken snapshots, but I have never been very (2) ……………….My snaps were either a complete (3) …………..……….. for technical reasons, or were just not very (4) ………………….. FirstI decided that to be (5) ……………………, I would have to buy newequipment. Just then I had an (6) ………………….. piece of goodluck. A friend who works in a camera shop said shecould sell me a (7) ………………………camera. A customer had left it at the shop to be repaired, but there had beena (8) ……………………., and it was actually for sale. I thought this was a rather (9) ………………….. explanationand so I asked her some more questions. It turned outthat she had had a (10) ……………………. with the customer and he had thrown the camera at her in anger because she had disliked his photos.

PHOTOGRAPHSKILLFAILIMAGINESUCCESSEXPECT

VALUE

UNDERSTANDBELIEF

AGREE

3. Father and son

My next-door neighbour has a very unusual (1) ..................... . He has long hair with a (2) ..................... in the middle, and usually wears an old pair of jeans and a (3) ..................... shirt. His clothes are very (4) ..................... for working in a bank, but that is what he does! Unless he (5) ..................... when he gets to work and changes his clothes! His clothes are usually filthy and I am sure he never washes them or takes them tothe (6) ..................... . When he wears a coat it is always old and (7) ..................... , and even on very cold days it is(8) ..................... all down the front. The funny thing is that hisson is very (9) ..................... , always wears the latest styles, and never wears casual clothes, even on an (10) ................. occasion.

APPEARPARTSTRIPESUITDRESS

CLEANWEARBUTTONFASHIONFORMAL

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4. A house in the country

When Ann decided to move house, it was mainly becauseshe was tired of the (1) ......... she lived in. It was crowded,there was a (2) ............ of parking places, andthe view from her (3) ........... windows was of distantfactory chimneys. Luckily she arranged the (4) .............of her house very easily, and with a small (5) .......... fromthe bank, was able to buy a house in the country. It was anold farm building, which had been (6) .......... and turned intoa modern house. After loading all her belongings into a van,Ann managed to get them into the new house (7) .......... . DAMAGEShe (8) ............. most of the rooms with what she alreadyFURNITUREowned. Even her curtains were the right (9) ..........for the LONGwindows and she only had to buy a new (10) .............for COOKthe kitchen. It seemed too good to be true. Surelysomething was bound to go wrong!

NEIGHBOURSHORTSTAIRSSELLLEND

BUILD

DAMAGEFURNITURELONGCOOK

5. A letter of apology

I am writing to apologise for the (1) ................ of your Happy Holiday Coach Tour to Aberdeen. (2) ................ our luxury coach was involved in a (3) ................ in France a week ago, and our driver has been (4) ................ obliged to remain there for the moment. The coach was travelling on a road (5) ............ for heavy traffic, and the accident was (6) ................ . Luckily none of the passengers suffered any (7) ................ , and we have complained to the authorities that the road needs (8) ................ Our new coach will be fitted with (9) ................ seat belts for the safety and comfort of passengers. We will of coursereturn the (10) ................ you have made for your holiday as soon as possible.

CANCELFORTUNECOLLIDEEXPECTSUITAVOIDINJUREWIDEADJUST

PAY

6. Supermarkets

Nowadays, a great (1) ............... of different food is available from large supermarkets. There are rarely any (2) ............... of fresh food, and there is far less (3) ............... of our having to rely on (4) ............... products. Does this mean that supermarkets have become the most (5) ............... shops of all time? Certainly they seem to have made some kinds offood less (6) ............... and most people enjoy shopping in them. There has been a (7) ............... in the number of (8) ............... made against supermarkets in recent years. The assistants are no longer (9) ............... , but smile and try to be helpful. Above all, supermarkets have shown a (10) ............... to listen to their customers, and to adapt tocustomers' needs.

VARYSHORTLIKELYFREEZESUCCESS

EXPENSEREDUCECOMPLAINPOLITE

WILLING

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7. Arthur's life of crime

At his last trial, nobody believed in Arthur's (1) ............... . He had been accused of the (2) ............... of a valuable Chinese vase, and was also charged with ten other (3) ............... . The value of the (4) ............... goods was said to be over £10,000. Arthur said in his own (5) ............... that the vase had been put into his car (6) ............... . He also pointed out that the Chinese vase was a fake, and was almost (7) ............... . The judge did not believe Arthur's story. He told Arthur he was a hardened (8) ............... and that he deserved a severe (9) ............... . Then the judge sentenced Arthur to five years (10) ............... . Arthur just smiled. He had spent most of his life in prison and so he was used to it.

INNOCENTTHIEFOFFENDSTEALDEFENDACCIDENTWORTHCRIMEPUNISHPRISON

8. The School Play

Congratulations to all involved with the school (1) ............ of The Woman Next Door. The (2) ............ was carried out by the Art Department, and the posters were very (3) ............ . We certainly have some very (4) ........... students in our school! Many people helped with building and painting the (5) ............ and the play was written by the English Department, who managed to create an (6) ............ story, with excellent songs. The music was written by Sue Porter, who also (7) ............ the singers on the piano. Everyone enjoyed a thoroughly (8) ......... evening, and there was a long round of (9) ............ at the end. Jim Barren gave a brilliant (10) ........... as Sergeant Moss, and Liz Aitken was a delightful Mrs Jump. Well done everyone!

PRODUCEADVERTISEIMAGINEARTSCENE

AMUSECOMPANYENTERTAINAPPLAUDPERFORM

9. A pet parrot

From early (1) .........Jane had always wanted a pet parrot.Her parents told her that a parrot was an (2) ......... pet, but Janeinsisted. She was worried about the (3) .......... of the rainforestsDESTROYwhere parrots live, and she felt that parrots needed more(4) ......... . Her father argued that a parrot would suffer from(5) .......... if it lived in a house. He also explained that pet parrotsLONELYare caught by (6) ........... , who need money and don't care aboutprotecting species. `They catch the parrots and send them toEurope in (7) ......... boxes,' he told her. `And in any case, parrotsAare very (8) .......... and don't make good pets.' Jane soon madean interesting (9) ........... , however. She found a pet shop whichDISCOVERbred parrots instead of importing them. So she took all her(10) ............ and bought a tiny S. American parrot, which shecalled `Pixie'.

CHILDSUITDESTROY

PROTECTLONELYHUNT

WOODOBEYDISCOVER

SAVE

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10. Jack's real character

How easy is it to understand another person's character?My friend Jack, was once a rather (1) ........... person. He was always getting into trouble at school because he was so (2) ........... . In class he was very (3) ............ and never stopped makingjokes. The teachers all told him he was (4) ............. because he interrupted them. When I met him he was very (5) ............ and didn't want to talk to me at all. People told me that hestole things, and that he was (6) .............. . His school work was terrible. He didn't take any (7) ............. in his writing, he never spent enough time doing his homework, and hewas not at all (8) ............. . One day he saw a gang of boys attacking an old man. Jack hated (9) ............. and he fought them all until they ran away. He was awarded a medalfor (10) ............ . After that, people changed their mindsabout him.

ANNOYOBEYTALKPOLITEFRIEND

HONESTPROUD

CONSCIENCEVIOLENT

BRAVE

11. How does the video work?

When I was young, I always dreamed of becoming afamous (1) ............. . When I was at school I decided to study (2) ............. , and then become a millionaire by inventinga wonderful new (3) ............... which would make the world a better place. Unfortunately, I wasn't very good at technical subjects. Any time I operate any kind of (4) .............. , something terrible happens. Machines which use (5) .............. , such as computers or televisions, always seem to give me a(6) ............... shock. The instruction booklets are always(7) ............... . They never help me at all. Nowadays you need to have (8) ............... knowledge just to turn on the video. To my great (9) .............. it is always a child of six who helps me out of my (10) ............... .

SCIENCEENGINEPRODUCE

EQUIPELECTRIC

POWERUSESPECIALEMBARRASSDIFFICULT

12. A modern Robinson Crusoe

After a (1) ............ between two ships in the Atlantic, Alan Connaught from Dundee ended up (2) ............ living on a desert island. `I fell (3) ............ and no-one noticed.A few hours later I found myself lying (4) ........... on a beach after swimming for miles. It was (5) .......... too, not warm and sunny, like Crusoe's island. The only (6) ............ I could find was to dig a hole in the sand as a shelter.'After an (7) .......... in the weather, Alan waited to be rescued. `There was little food and no fresh water. It was an (8) ........... life, and I felt ill most of the time. I suffered from (9) ........... too, but then I found a village on the other side of the island!' he said. `The people had moved there after the (10) ............ of their homes by a volcano. Luckily they had a radio, and a ship soon came to rescue me.'

COLLIDEEXPECTBOARDEXHAUSTFREEZESOLVE

IMPROVEHEALTHLONELY

DESTROY

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13. A visit to the doctor's

Jim decided to visit the doctor after his trip to the jungle.He was normally a tall (1) ............ person, but over the past month he had lost a lot of (2) ........... . He had also noticed that his ankles and knees had become rather (3) .......... .He thought that he might have eaten or drunk something (4) ..... or caught some kind of (5) ............. disease. The doctor took some blood for tests and told Jim to go back a weeklater. This time the doctor had an optimistic (6) ......... on her face, and Jim felt quite (7) .............. . `Don't worry,' said the doctor, `it's nothing serious. You haven't caught an (8) ......... disease, or anything terrible like that. It's a simple virus, andyou will need some (9) .......... . Take these tablets twice a day for two weeks, and you'll make a full (10) .......... '.

MUSCLEWEIGHPAINPOISONINFECT

EXPRESSHEARTCURE

TREATRECOVER

14. Money! Money! Money!

Helen had always dreamed of becoming a (1) ........... WEALTHwoman, and imagined living in a (2) .......... mansion, LUXURYand how her friends would praise her (3) ........... GENEROUSwhen she gave them expensive presents. In reality shewas usually hard up. She had some (4) ........... and a SAVEsmall life (5) ......... , but her antique shop was not really INSUREvery (6) ......... . Every time she took money out of the bank, PROFITthe (7) .......... checked her account, and told her how little CASHthere was in it! Helen had taken out a (8) ........... a month LENDbefore. How could she repay it? Then one day she noticedan old painting in her shop. She had thought it was (9) ......... WORTHbut as she brushed away the dust, she saw the (10) ......... SIGNat the bottom. It said `Renoir'! She was rich at last!

WEALTHLUXURYGENEROUS

SAVEINSUREPROFITCASHLEND

WORTHSIGN

15. Film review

`Battle for your heart' is the new film starring HughGrace. I'm afraid that my first (1) ................. was not very favourable. The scenes of violence are (2) ................. and the main character, Tony, is simply (3) ................. . The audience is supposed to feel great (4) .................for Tony, an army officer, who is accused of (5) ................. because he fails to attack the village where the (b) ................. Miranda lives with her old father. Tony savestheir lives, and although the idea of marrying himhas little (7) .................for her, Miranda agrees to it out of (8) ................. . However, she is still in love with Alex, one of the enemy army, and wants to remain (9) ................. to him. The dialogue and the acting are just as badas the plot. At the end, I breathed a sigh of (10) ................. . This is definitely one to miss!

IMPRESSOFFENDIRRITATEADMIRECOWARDADORE

ATTRACTGRATEFULFAITH

RELIEVE

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16. School report

Margaret started English Literature this term, and Iam afraid that her (1) ............... to the subject has not been entirely (2) ............... . She has not shown much enthusiasm, and does not always pay (3) ............. in class. Her assignments are often (4) ............... , because she is so untidy, and because of her (5) ............... to check her work thoroughly. She failedto do any (6) ............... before the end of term test, and had poor results. She seems to have the (7) ............... idea that she can succeed without studying. She has also had many(8) ............... and has frequently arrived late for class. This has resulted in several severe (9) ............... . Although Margaret is a (10) ............... student in some respects, she has not had a satisfactory term.

INTRODUCESUCCESSATTENDREADFAILREVISEMISTAKE

ABSENTPUNISHGIFT

17. Evening classes

Recently I decided to go to evening classes twice a week. During the day I work in a (1) .......... agency as a telephonist. It is not a very interesting (2) .......... and I get bored. I also got tired of coming home every evening, putting a (3) ........... meal in the oven, and then watching TV So I decided to take up (4) ......... as a hobby. Perhaps I should give you an (5) ...........for my choice. Learning a skill is a good (6) ........... to the problem of boring work. Also, I felt I was a (7) .......... because any time I tried to put up a shelf, for example, it always fell down! Now I am quite a (8) ............ wood-worker! I am working on the (9) ............ of some furniture at the moment. And although there are onlytwo other girls in the class, I don't feel any (10) ............ . I've turned out to be the best student in the class!

SECRETARYOCCUPY

FREEZECARPENTEREXPLAINSOLVEFAIL

SUCCESSCONSTRUCT

EMBARRASS

18. How to become Prime Minister

Jack had never wanted to be a (1) ................. . First of all, he suffered from terrible (2) ................. and blushed violently when he had to make a speech. He also (3) ................. with people who refused to vote. After all, what difference didit make? As a speaker, he was slow and (4) ................. and never knew what to say. He began his career as a last-minute(5) .................for a speaker who failed to turn up. Later he learned to (6) ................. his tie, give a big smile, and read the speech which had been prepared by his (7) ................. speech- writer. People liked him. `He has a kind of (8) .................', they said. They did not mind that he had no (9) ................. , and seemed quite (10) ................. in what he was saying. They applauded him and then made him Prime Minister.

POLITICSSHYSYMPATHY

ORGANISE

PLACESTRAIGHTPERSONINNOCENTIMAGINEINTEREST

NOUN -ion, -ance, -ence, -ment, -ness, -y, -cy, -al, -ist, -ian, -ar/or/er, -ee…ADJECTIVE -able, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less, -proof, -ish, -ed/-ing…VERB -en, -ify…ADVERB -ly…

NEG. PREFIXES un-, im-, in-, ir-, il-, dis-, mal- …

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ELECTRONICS Electronics is a branch of engineering and physics. It deals with the emission, behaviour, and effects of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception, and storage of information. This information can be audio signals in a radio, images (video signals) on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer. Electronic systems are important in communication, entertainment, and control systems.Electronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components, at the heart of which are semiconductors. Transistors, which are made of silicon, are made from semiconductors. Commercial products range from cellular radiotelephone systems and video cassette recorders to high-performance supercomputers and sophisticated weapons systems. In industry, electronic devices have led to dramatic improvements in productivity and quality. For example, computer-aided design tools facilitate the design of complex parts, such as aircraft wings or intricate structures, such as integrated circuits.I. Increase your vocabulary by writing the associated words from a key word. Noun Verb Adjective activation . .. amplify .emission . .. . entertainingextraction . extracted. generate .. integrate .reception . .. recover .reliability . .storage . .. transmit .

II. Choose the correct word in the following sentences.1 Transistors/inductors are the key component in electronics.2 They consist of three layers of silicon semiconductor/superconductor. 3 All electronic/electrical systems consist of input, a processor and output, and usually memory.4 The input receives/resists and converts information while the output converts and supplies electronically processed information.5 The memory may not be present in simple systems, but its function is the storage/transmission of information for the processor.6 Continual developments in electronics give us increased reliability/recovery in electronic devices. 7 Electronic equipment controls microprocessors/microwaves in, for example, weapons systems, cellular radiotelephone systems and domestic appliances. 8 Electronic devices have improved our lives by providing high quality communication/combination and entertainment.

III. Use the word in brackets to form a word which fits in the sentence.1 The weak audio signal entering a radio is ……………………by the ……………….…..thus making it audible. (amplify)2 Computer games are just one example of electronic systems being used for ………………….. (entertain)3 Due to developments in mobile telecommunications systems, a new ………….……of mobile phone is now available. (generate)4 IC stands for ……………….. circuit. (integrate)5 Computer software is ……………………if it does what the manual says it should. (rely) 6 One area of electronics is concerned with the ……………………of information. (store) 7 The ……………………of signals to satellites is made by microwaves. (transmit)8 A computer chip is capable of holding vast amounts of ………………..information. (store) 9 ……………………of speech was first carried out through ………………of the amplitude of a radio signal. (transmit, modulate)10 In a laser, energy is released in the form of ………………….. light. (emit).

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NUMBERS

1. Say these numbers.

100 – one hundred200 - two hundred221 – two hundred and twenty-one (AmE – and can be omitted)

2. Say these decimal numbers.

4.56 7.3040.9 12.121.08 0.602

Write decimal points as a point (.), not a comma (,). 5.7 5,7After the point say numbers separately. 3.25 three point two fiveBefore the point say numbers together. 25.25 twenty-five point two fiveBefore the point 0 is zero or nought (not oh). 0.4 zero point four

or nought point fourAfter the point, 0 is zero or oh. 0.05 zero point zero five

or zero point oh three

TODAY'S EXCHANGE RATEBase currency: €

€ - Euros£ - British Pounds¥ - Japanese yen$ - American dollars

Ask your partner about the missing rates.

A: I need some… What's the exchange rate today?B: It's…A: OK. That's fine, thanks.

3. What parts does your telephone number have?

+386 4 2804000 ext 43country area number extensioncode code

4. Saying statistics and fractions.

3% three per centSay these statistics: 23% 69% 1.5% 22.33% twenty-two point three three recurring1/2 (a) half

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Say these fractions:

1/3 ……………. 2/3 ………………1/4 …………… 3/4 ………………1/5 …………….. 3/10 ……………..1/10 …………….. 3/8 ………………

Say these percentages as fractions:

25% is a quarter50% 75% 20% 10% 90%

Complete the text with the following numbers: 1.3, 2, 21, 79, 70. Use each number once.

…………….per cent of the earth is covered by water. The air on the planet is ………….. per cent nitrogen and ………………. per cent oxygen, and carbon levels are increasing. Cities cover ……………. per cent of the world's land surface and the world's population is growing by …………….. per cent a year.

Complete the text by writing the fractions: 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, 1/2.

………………. of world’s population lives in cities. People in cities use ………………. of the worlds’s energy. ………………. of the world’s energy is used for transport, and cars use half of that. …………………. of the world’s cars are in Western Europe and North America.

The pie chart below represents the sales of an international newspaper. Use the information from the chart to complete these sentences:

a. The majority of sales are in ………………………. .b. Almost a quarter of sales are in ……………………… .c. Almost three-quarters of sales are in ……………………. .d. Two very small areas for sales are in …………………….. and …………………. .e. …………………….. represent a fairly small percentage of sales.

5. Calculations.

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Write the symbols.

multiplied by □ equals □ minus □ plus □ divided by □

Complete and say the equations.

8 □ 4 = 2 Eight divided by four equals two.

6 □ 12 = 18 15 □ 3 = 12 8 □ 2 = 4Work with a partner.

A – dictate a sum. B – write it down and say the answer.ExampleA: Nine multiplied by three, minus six, plus four equals…B: It equals twenty-five.

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6. Dimensions

height → How ……...high…….. is it? 5 inlength → How ………...………. is it? 6 inwidth → How …………………..is it? 9 inweight → How …………………..is it? 12 gdepth → How ……………...…...is it? 20 m

Look at the specifications and complete the text about the Robosaurus.

SPECIFICATIONSHeight (standing) – 12m Length of teeth – 30 cmHeight (folded up) – 4 m Jaw pressure – 140 kg/cm2

Length (folded up) – 14 ½ m Weight – 26 tonnesWidth (folded up) - 2 ½ m

The Robosaurus is a 12 ………………………. entertainment robot. It's designed to lift, crush and burn cars. It …………………… 26 tonnes and it's controlled by a human pilot who sits inside its head. 60 m flames come out of his nose, and its mouth opens and closes with a pressure of ………………….. . It can lift cars 15 m in the air and bite them in half with its ………………….. teeth. After shows, the robot becomes a trailer and it can travel by road to the next city. It can fold up to just …………………… long, 4 metres…………………., and 2 ½ metres ………………………. .

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SHAPES

1. Complete the sentences using the words from the list.

THE SHAPE THE DESCRIPTION It's a circle. It's circular /round.

It's a triangle.

It's ……………. .

It's a square.

It's ……………. .

It's a ………. . It's semi-circular.

It's a rectangle. It's ……………. . It's an ………. .

It's oval.

It's a ………... . It's spherical.

It's a ………... .

They’re cubic.

It's a cylinder. It's ……………. .

It's a cone. It's ……………. .

2. Work with a partner. Ask and answer questions about these things.

What shape is a watch / a traffic cone / a stamp / a floppy disc / a traffic sign / a CD / a dice / a can / a half-moon / a table-tennis ball / an egg / one side of a pyramid / a protractor / a marble?

Note: We can also add –shaped to the word. a heart-shaped box, a star-shaped cookie cutter

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 1

Information systems collect, organize, store, process, retrieve and display information in different formats (text, video, and voice). Information technology allows very fast, automated manipulation of digital data and their transformation from and to analogue.

Two basic technologies have been responsible for the development of the necessary hardware: integrated circuits and digital communications. Parallel advances have been made in software, particularly easy-to-use software products to create, maintain, manipulate, and query files and records. Many of these software programs are designed for use both by computer professionals and enthusiastic amateurs. Another important factor is the development of computer networks. (→ IT 2)

As technology develops, new models and types of computer appear. At the heart of all computers is the hardware. However, without software, computers are just dumb boxes, unable to perform any calculations or operations.

Models and types of computer

desktop • laptop • mainframe • notebook • server • terminal • workstation

Computer hardware

CPU (central processing unit) • dot matrix printer • expansion card • inkjet printer • keyboard • laser printer • monitor • mouse • RAM (random access memory) • scanner • screen • storage devices

Computer software

applet • application software • browser • database software • email software • graphics software • operating system • search engine • spreadsheet • word processing

Many words in the field of IT come from American English. So you may see the following spellings:

British English American English programme programanalogue analog

The area of IT is developing very quickly; and the language to describe hardware, software and applications is also evolving at a high speed. As a result new noun + noun combinations often change to single nouns

noun + noun →→ single noun lap top laptopnote book notebookwork station workstation

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desk top desktop

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1. Label the diagram.

2. Combine one word from A and one word from B and match it with the appropriate definition in C.

A B Ccreate products a monitor will do this on a computer screencentral information this describes the format of 0 and 1 in which information is storedsoftware processing unit these enable a computer to perform word

processing, to create databases, and to manipulate numerical datadisplay card when two or more components are combined and

then incorporated into a single packagedigital files to make new programs, utilities or documentsexpansion network a group of electronic machines connected by cables

or other means which can exchange information andshare equipment (such as printers and disk drives)

integrated data the principal microchip that the computer is built aroundcomputer circuits you plug this into a slot to add features such as video, sound, modem and networking

3. Complete each gap in the following text with a phrase from the table above.

1 The computer monitor will _______________ _____________ so you can see it on screen.2 Information is stored on a computer as ___________________ _____________________ .3 Spreadsheet and graphic software are examples of _______________ ________________ .4 Digital communications and _____________ ____________ have allowed developments in hardware to be made.5 In order to organise data you should _________________ ________________ where you can store data. 6 When several computers are linked together you have a ____________ ______________ .7 The part of the computer which interprets and carries out instructions is the _______________ ________________ .8 An _______________ ______________ can be inserted in your computer to give your computer extra capabilities.

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 2

A network includes:- techniques- physical connections- computer programs

used to link two or more computers.Network users can:

- share files, printers and other resources - send electronic messages

- run programs on other computers.

Each network operates according to a set of computer programs called network protocols for computers to talk to one another. Computer networks can now be interconnected efficiently through gateways. The biggest network is the World Wide Web. It consists of a large number of smaller interconnected networks called internets. These internets may connect tens, hundreds, or thousands of computers. They can share information with each other, such as databases of information. The Internet allows people all over the world to communicate with each other effectively and inexpensively.

Before a network can operate, it needs physical connections so that signals can be transmitted. After the network has been connected, it is ready for operation.

Network connections

bandwidth • baud • bits per second (bps) • optical fibre • packet receive • signal • transmit • transmission speed • twisted pair

Network operation

configure • download • hack • hub • install • Internet service provider (ISP) • local area network (LAN) • switch • transmit • upload • web page • website • wide area network (WAN) • wireless

A prefix comes at the beginning of a word and usually has a specific meaning, for example inter = between.

Look at the following prefixes and their use in the above IT words/phrases:

prefix meaning of prefix example of use

inter- between Internet, interconnect, interactive, internationalintra- within intranet, e.g. company intranettrans- across transmit, transfer, transactionco-/com-/con- with combine, compatible, connect, configureup- up (to Internet) upload

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down- down (from Internet) download, downtime, i.e. when the network is down (not working)

1. Choose the correct word in each of the following.

1 The speed with which a modem can process data is measured in ………………...a) bandwidth b) bits per second (bps) c) signal2 Cables consisting of several copper wires each with a shield are known as ………… cables. a) twisted pair b) optical fibre c) power cables3 Computers that are connected together within one building form a …………………a) WAN b) ISP c) LAN4 If you transfer a file from a remote computer to your computer, you ………………….a) download b) upload c) run5 To send out information is to ……………………a) signal b) packet c) transmit6 A document containing information and graphics that can be accessed on the Internet is …………………a) a website b) a web page c) the World Wide Web

2. Complete the words in the following sentences by adding the prefix inter-, intra-, trans-, com-, con-, up- or down-.

1 Last month computer _______time cost the company over €10,000 in lost production.2 The computers in the production department have now been successfully _______connected with those in the planning department.3 Once you have completed payment details the data will be _______mitted via a secure link. 4 We cannot network these computers because the systems are not _______patible.5 Many companies distribute internal documents on their own _______net.6 Once the home page has been completed, we'll be ready to _______load the site.7 Cables are being laid throughout the building as the network requires physical _______nections. 8 Using the network he was able to _______bine the data from different reports.

3. Here is a list of instructions for someone wanting to set up a small network. Put the instructions in the correct order.

a Make wiring and layout plans for your network.b Hook up the network cables by connecting everything to the hub. c Check that each computer has an IP address and give it a name.d If you're installing a small network, twisted pair will be adequate. However, in order to span greater distances and to minimize magnetic and electrical interference use fibre optic cable.e Decide on the type of network you want to install. To enable you to transfer large amounts of data, choose Fast Ethernet (100BaseT).f Install network adapters in the computers.g Add an Internet gateway to your network to set up a shared internet connection.h Install driver software for the adapter driver and install client software to share printers and files.i Check which protocols are installed and add any other protocols you require.

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j Get the hardware you need: an Ethernet adapter card for each computer that doesn't have an Ethernet port, a hub if you've got more than two computers, cables and wall jacks.

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

1. Presenting visual information.

It is easy to produce tables, graphs, charts and diagrams to illustrate number-based information, thanks to word processing software and desktop publishing packages.

Examples:- A Pareto chart is a type of bar chart typically used to improve quality, process

capability, or to conserve materials and energy.- A bar graph uses either horizontal or vertical bars to show comparisons among

categories. - A pie chart helps you to visualize the relative importance of several categories of a

variable but it does not show movement.- A flow chart is used to illustrate the stages in a process.- A table gives very precise information, but its visual impact is rather poor.- A graph is good for showing movements and how one thing varies against another. - A diagram is an illustration designed to show how a machine or system functions.

Label the following visuals with these words:

bar chart, curve, diagram, dotted line, flow chart, graph, horizontal axis, pie chart, table, vertical axis

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2. Understanding and describing graphs.

Look at the graphs. Complete by using BY or TO . Note: To describe a point something reaches, use……… . To describe the difference between two points, use ……... .

Energy bills fell ………..…€600,00 in the second quarter.Energy bills fell …………. €200,00 in the second quarter.

Unemployment fell ………… 10%.

Pollution increased ………… 4%.

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Look at the two charts below.a. How many people work for Telecom?b. What percentage of them work in Germany?c. What proportion of the staff:

- work in factories?- design new products?- work with customers?- manage company business from offices?

HUMAN RESOURCES (by function)

HUMAN RESOURCES -TOTAL: 40,000(by geographic area)

Look at the graph about a German company. Are the statements below true or false? Correct the false one.

a. Telecom earned more in 1985 than in 1984.b. 1982 was a better year than 1981.c. The company earned more than €12,000 billion in 1984.d. The earnings for 1981 were higher than for 1983.

Complete these sentences with the correct year.

a. Telecom's earnings fell by 12% in …….. .b. The company's earnings rose by 6 % in …….. .c. The company's earnings rose to €11.600 billion in ……. .d. The company's earnings improved between …………. and 1984.

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Choose the correct word from the box to complete the following.

distribution, random, scale, sampling, statistics, mean, median, mode

1. The collecting, classifying and analysing of information shown in numbers is known as …………………….. .

2. The middle value of a set of numbers is known as the ……………………. .3. The average value is also known as the ………………….. .4. The value which occurs most often is the …………………… .5. 1,480 ball bearings were measured as part of quality control. The results are

shown in a histogram. The histogram shows frequency …………………. .6. The figures are based on a ……………………. of 2,000 ball bearings. They

were chosen at ………………….; in no particular order, time or pattern. The measurement ………………….. is in millimetres. Answer the following questions from the graph below.The median is ……………………. . The mode of distribution is ………………………. . The mean is …………………….. .

3. RAISE – RISE

Raise and rise describe upward movement, but they mean different things. When you pull down on the ring, it RAISES the load. (lifts it up)The load RISES. (moves up)

Complete the sentences with raise or rise.

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a. The sun ………………in the east.b. The switch ………………the pressure.c. The thermostat …………….the temperature if it gets too cold.d. Hot air ………………. .e. The wheel turns and it ……………… the rod.f. The temperature ………………. in the summer.

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INTERNETThe Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location.Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology.

The first recorded description of the social interactions that could be enabled through networking was a series of memos written by J.C.R. Licklider in August 1962 discussing his "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone could quickly access data and programs from any site. In spirit, the concept was very much like the Internet of today.

The Internet has changed much in the two decades since it came into existence. It was conceived in the era of time-sharing, but has survived into the era of personal computers, client-server and peer-to-peer computing, and the network computer. It was designed before LANs existed. It was envisioned as supporting a range of functions from file sharing and remote login to resource sharing and collaboration, and has spawned electronic mail and more recently the World Wide Web. But most important, it started as the creation of a small band of dedicated researchers, and has grown to be a commercial success with billions of dollars of annual investment.

One should not conclude that the Internet has now finished changing. The Internet, although a network in name and geography, is a creature of the computer, not the traditional network of the telephone or television industry.The availability of the Internet along with powerful affordable computing and communications in portable form (i.e. laptop computers, two-way pagers, PDAs, cellular phones), is making possible a new paradigm of nomadic computing and communications.This evolution will bring us new applications - Internet telephone and, slightly further out, Internet television. New modes of access and new forms of service will spawn new applications, which in turn will drive further evolution of the net itself.The most pressing question for the future of the Internet is not how the technology will change, but how the process of change and evolution itself will be managed.

No one actually owns the Internet, and no single person or organization controls the Internet in its entirety. The Internet relies on a physical infrastructure that connects networks to other networks. There are many organizations, corporations, governments, schools, private citizens and service providers that all own pieces of the infrastructure, but there is no one body that owns it all. There are, however, organizations that oversee and standardize what happens on the Internet and assign IP addresses and domain names, such as the National Science Foundation, the Internet Engineering Task Force, ICANN, InterNIC and the Internet Architecture Board.

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web ( the Web ) interchangeably, but in fact the two terms are not synonymous. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related things. The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols . The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium of the Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP protocol, only one of the languages spoken over the

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Internet, to transmit data. Web services, which use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange business logic, use the Web to share information. The Web also utilizes browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Netscape, to access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also contain graphics, sounds, text and video. The Web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet, not the Web, is also used for e-mail, which relies on SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages between servers), Usenet news groups (forums), instant messaging (text-based communication in real time over the Internet – chat rooms) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol, the protocol for exchanging files over the Internet). So the Web is just a large portion of the Internet, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.

In 1995 Federal Networking Council (FNC) agreed that the following language reflects the definition of the term "Internet". "Internet" refers to the global information system that -- (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons; (ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications.

The history of the internet goes back to the 1950s and 60s.A brief timeline highlighting some of the major occurrences over the past 48 years:

1958 President Eisenhower requests funds to create ARPA. Approved as a line item in Air Force appropriations bill.

1962 •J.C.R. Licklider & W. Clark write first paper on Internet Concept, "On-Line Man Computer Communications."

March 1972

First basic e-mail programs written by Ray Tomlinson at BBN for ARPANET: SNDMSG and READMAIL. "@" sign chosen for its "at" meaning.

1980 Tim Berners-Lee writes program called "Enquire Within," predecessor to the World Wide Web.

1981 IBM announces its first Personal Computer. Microsoft creates DOS. Nov. 1983 Domain Name System (DNS) designed by Jon Postel, Paul Mockapetris, and Craig

Partridge. .edu, .gov, .com, .mil, .org, .net, and .int created. 1984 •William Gibson writes "Neuromancer." Coins the term "cyberspace". March 15, 1985 Symbolic.com becomes the first registered domain.

1986 5000 hosts on ARPAnet/Internet. 1987 • 10,000 hosts on the Internet.

• 25 million PCs sold in US. 1989 • 100,000 hosts on Internet.

• anti-virus software available for free. 1990 ARPAnet ends. Tim Berners-Lee creates the World Wide Web. 1992 "Surfing the Internet" is coined by Jean Armour Polly. April 1994 • Netscape Communications founded.

• Java 's first public demonstration. Dec. 1994 Microsoft licenses technology from Spyglass to create Web browser for Windows 95.

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April 2008 Total World Users – latest data - 1,319,872,109 (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm)

I. USING THE INTERNET

1. Look at this list of things you can do on the Internet.- Join special interest chat groups- Play games- Speak to people over a video phone

Add other activities to the list. …………………………………………………………………Which of the items on your list interest you most? Why? Which have you done? Do you enjoy using the Internet? Do you find it useful?

2. Look at these verbs. They are all common computer commands. Match each word with an icon below.

connect open help print save undo cut copy paste search view

Now use words from Exercise 2 to complete the sentences.a. You…………..a computer to the Internet by a normal telephone line.b. You can get advice by selecting »………«. c. If you give a command by mistake you can …………… it.d. The ……………..command allows you to see the text as it will be printed. e. To move text from one place to another, you use the ……….. command. Then you go

to the place where you want the text to be and………… it there.

3. READ THE TEXT about a company and then EXPLAIN in not more than 20 words what Intra does.

INTRA is a Swedish market communications agency, with 27 employees and offices in Uppsala and Stockholm. It works with companies that want to promote themselves or their products and is involved at every stage of a project: establishing a campaign's aims, making suggestions for its content, producing and distributing materials, and evaluating its success.Intra works with traditional media to sell a client's products or create an image, although it is better known for its use of interactive media. These allow two-way communication between the client and customers. While the choice of media depends on a company's aims, budget and target group, Leit Nordlund, Managing Director of Intra, believes that at least one medium should be interactive.

There are many advantages to Web sites from a company's point of view, so creating them is an important part of Intra's work. Despite being in the far north of Europe, Swedish companies can reach a global audience, particularly if their sites are in English. They know how many people visit their sites, and information can be updated quickly and cheaply.

Of course, companies do need to advertise their Internet address in more traditional ways; the Swedish dairy company Arla, for example, advertised its new site on its milk cartons. The Arla Web site is one that Intra helped to create. The site is extremely popular and includes activities and educational material for children, recipes and the sale of

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cookery books, as well as campaigns. Arla's breakfast campaign for instance, reminded people that breakfast is a healthy meal, and a good time for the family to talk to each other.

Intra forms relationships not only with clients but also with suppliers. Some of these suppliers may become partners in a project, with their own project managers - when market research is needed, for example, or highly technical assistance like connecting a Web site to a customer database.4. What are the purposes of:

- a Web site- a database- an Internet address

Which of these are traditional marketing media? Which are interactive? Which can be both? Can you add to the list?* magazines and newspapers * television * the World Wide Web* direct marketing by mail * radio * the telephone (telemarketing)

How can traditional media include interactive features, do you think?

5. Look at these sentences from the text and the linking words in bold.

• Intra works with traditional media, ... although / though it is better known for its use of interactive media.

• While/Although the choice of media clearly depends on a company's aims, ... Leif Nordlund ... believes that at least one medium should be interactive.

• Despite / In spite of being in the far north of Europe, Swedish companies can reach a global audience.

a What is the function of the words in bold?b In which sentence can but replace the words in bold? What is the usual position of but in a sentence?c What structure follows despite / in spite of? Rewrite the third example sentence using although.d Look at a different structure which can follow despite or in spite of. Which words can although replace? • Despite the fact that they are in the far north of Europe, Swedish companies can reach a global audience.

6. Read these comments by Intra staff. Combine the sentences using the words in brackets, making changes if necessary. Is there more than one possible position for each linking word?

a 'Our offices are both in Sweden. We have international contacts through an association of marketing agencies in Brussels.' (although)b 'The association is in Brussels. Its correspondence is usually in English.' (but)c 'Some of our clients are only interested in Swedish customers. They will reach a global audience if they advertise in English.' (while) d `I work mainly in Swedish. I need English when I search for information on the Internet.' (despite)e `Web site design is interesting. It is difficult to work on a small screen format.' (though)

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f 'Many of our Finnish clients are Swedish-speaking. Some prefer to write to us in English.' (in spite of).

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HTTP (for HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the primary method used to convey information on the World Wide Web . The original purpose was to provide a way to publish and receive HTML pages. HTTP is a request/response protocol between clients and servers. An HTTP client, such as a web browser, typically initiates a request by establishing a TCP connection to a particular port on a remote host. An HTTP server listening on that port waits for the client to send a request string, such as "GET / HTTP/1.1", followed by an email-like MIME message which has a number of informational header strings that describe aspects of the request. Some headers are optional, while others (such as Host) are required by the HTTP/1.1 protocol. Upon receiving the request string, the server sends back a response string, and a message of its own, the body of which is perhaps the requested file, an error message, or some other.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an Internet Standard for the format of e-mail.The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. Using TCP, applications on networked hosts can create connections to one another, over which they can exchange data or packets. TCP supports many of the Internet's most popular application protocols and resulting applications, including the World Wide Web and email. In TCP the combination of a port and a network address (IP-number) is called a socket: e.g. the TCP port numbers.A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with text, images, and other information typically located on a web page at a website on the World Wide Web . Text and images on a web page can contain hyperlinks to other web pages at the same or different websites. Web browsers allow a user to quickly and easily access information provided on many web pages at many websites by traversing these links. Popular browsers available for personal computers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape etc. Web browsers are the most commonly used type of HTTP user agent. Although browsers are typically used to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or content in file systems.

In computing, HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a markup language designed for the creation of web pages and other information viewable in a browser .

A markup language combines text and extra information about the text. The extra information, for example about the text's structure or presentation, is expressed using markup, which is intermingled with the primary text. The best-known markup language in modern use is HTML), one of the foundations of the World Wide Web.A common feature of many markup languages is that they intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file. Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML:<h1> Anatidae </h1><p>The family <i>Anatidae</i> includes ducks, geese, and swans,but <em>not</em> the closely-related screamers.</p>The codes enclosed in angle-brackets <like this> are markup instructions (known as tags), while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document.

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small local area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings such as a college. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network ( WAN ) . LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can be transmitted over a telephone line; but the distances are limited, and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.

Current LANs are most likely to be based on switched Ethernet technology which is the most common for PCs. Ethernet is a frame-based computer networking technology for local area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of ether. The Ethernet hub was developed to make the network more reliable and the cables easier to connect.

A twisted pair 10BASE-T Cable is used to transmit 10BASE-T Ethernet

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UNDERSTANDING & WRITING EMAILS

1. Look at the list of the phrases that are often used in emails and say whether they:

a offer helpb ask people to do thingsc introduce good or bad newsd thank peoplee refer to future contactf refer to an attachment

1 I'm sorry, (but) we can't .... .. ...2 Looking forward to meeting you. .......3 (Please) Could you let me know as soon as possible? .......4 Tnx a lot. .......5 I'm Pleased to tell you that we can give you a 3% discount. ........6 We would be pleased to produce these parts for you. .......7 I'd appreciate it if you could send ... .......8 Thanks for getting back to me so quickly. .......9 I am attaching the figures you asked for. .......10 I'm afraid (that) we don't have any ... .......11 We would be happy to send you a sample. .......12 We look forward to working together with you. .......13 Can you sign the contract and send it back to me? .......14 Thank you for letting us know about ... .......

2. Use some phrases in 1 to complete these emails.

3. Five people need help. Who do you think they are writing to – a colleague, a customer, a supplier, etc? Which emails are urgent?

4. Match these replies to the correct email in 3.

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ROBOTICS

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Robotics is the field of computer science and engineering concerned with creating robots, devices that can move and react to sensory input . Robotics is one branch of artificial intelligence . The term robotics was introduced by writer Isaac Asimov in his science fiction book I, Robot, published in 1950.

Since 1970 an International Symposium on Robotics has been organised every year on a different continent, in a different country and another city. The Symposium is systematically organised in conjunction with an International Robot Exhibition. The International Federation of Robotics, a professional non-profit organisation, was established in 1987. The purpose of the International Federation of Robotics is to promote research, development, use and international co-operation in the entire field of robotics to act as a focal point for organisations and governmental representatives in activities related to robotics. For more details, you can see their Web Site at: www.ifr.org, which includes both industrial and service robots. The term robot was coined by Czech playwright Karl Capek in his play R.U.R (Rossum's Universal Robots), which opened in Prague in 1921. Robota is the Czech word for forced labour.

A robot is a machine designed to imitate human actions. It can perform a range of tasks that are often too dangerous or monotonous for a human to do. In fact, robots free humans from heavy and boring work. Robots are now widely used in factories to perform high-precision jobs such as welding and riveting. They are also used in special situations that would be dangerous for humans - for example, in cleaning toxic wastes, around volcanoes or defusing bombs.

ROBOTS IN INDUSTRYThe first robot was introduced in 1961 by General Motors in New Jersey, USA. Although they were invented in America, Japan is now the world's leading maker and user of industrial robots. The first robot in Japan was brought from the USA in 1967. By 1978 Japan was making 10,000 robots a year, by 1980 twice as many. By the 1990s half the world's working robots were in Japan mostly in the car and electronics industries.

ROBOTS VERSUS HUMANSUses are being developed for robots outside industry. In 1990, the US army introduced the “Robo-spy”, a remote-controlled, all terrain vehicle equipped with a video camera. This was designed to roam enemy territory, sending back information about forces and equipment. In 991, a robotic sheep-shearer was introduced in Australia; it could work almost twice as fast as human shearer. In 1993, a dairy farm in the Netherlands became the first to install a computer-controlled robot milking-machine.

Although great advances have been made in the field of robotics during the last decade, robots are still not very useful in everyday life, as they are too clumsy to perform ordinary household chores.

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Robo-spy

State-of-the-art remote bomb disposal technology, the telerob TEODOR, checks out suspect packages and makes controlled explosions. This German Army model is equipped with five cameras and a double shot disruptor.

Robot Assisted Micro-Surgery

AIBO

1. Look at AIBO the robot dog. Label the parts of his body with the words in the list.

face backmouth noseneck front legback leg foothead

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2. Read about AIBO, the robot dog.

AIBO (Artificial Intelligence roBOt) is a robot dog, developed by Sony. He is 27.4 cm long, 26.6 cm high, and weighs 1.5 kilos. You can control him with a computer, a remote control, or with voice instructions. AIBO is not just a toy. Sony developed and tested him as an electronic friend for old people.

Movable parts~ Mouth: 1 degree of freedom ~ Head: 3 degrees of freedom~ Legs:3 degrees of freedom x 4 legs (removable) ~ Ears: 1 degree of freedom x 2 ears~ Tail: 2 degrees of freedom~ Total: 20 degrees of freedomHe needs a 9 V battery and can operate for approximately 1.5 hours.

Price: approximately $1,300Here are some things AIBO can do.~ walk and run backwards and forwards~ stand on his back legs and raise and lower his

front legs~ see and remember things ~ understand the name you give him ~ dance~ understand 75 different voice instructions (Sit! Come! No!, etc. )~ take photographs~ make robotic dog sounds ~ learn new actions

Mark the sentences true (T) or false (F).1 AIBO is a toy for children. T/F2 He can remember his name. T/F3 He can bend his legs. T/F4 He can stand on his front legs. T/F5 He can raise and lower his front legs. T/F

6 He can turn on a light. T/F7 He can speak 75 words of English. T/F8 He can learn to do new things. T/F9 He can move his ears and tail. T/F10 He can bend his back. T/F

3. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial intelligence includes

games playing: programming computers to play games such as chess expert systems : programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms) natural language : programming computers to understand natural human languages neural networks : systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains robotics : programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.

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SAFETY

The average person finds it difficult to assess risks. For this reason, work practices need to be regulated. Examples of dangerous activities are:

- welding or grinding without goggles- working on a construction site work without a hard hat- working in noisy factories, cabs, on airport tarmacs and with outdoor machinery

without ear protection- working in chemical areas without protective clothing- smoking near hazardous substances.

Without regulation some employees will take risks.Health and safety is a part of employment (labour) law. It covers general matters such as:

- occupational health- accident prevention regulations- special regulations for hazardous occupations such as mining and building- provisions for risks such as poisons, dangerous machinery, dust, noise, vibration, and

radiation- the full range of dangers arising from modern industrial processes, for example the

widespread use of chemicals.

1. Read the labels. Which chemical:

a. needs a cool temperature?b. can't be used near water?c. needs safety glasses?d. is poisonous?e. needs a container with a tight lid?f. catches fire and burns easily?g. is dangerous for young people?h. needs open doors and windows?

2. Give these instructions in different ways . Use have to or must.

Keep your goggles on. You have to keep your goggles on.Never drink this.Keep this box dry.Make sure all the windows are open.Don't allow visitors in here.Make sure the lid is secure.Never leave this bottle in a hot room.Don't allow children to touch this box.

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3. Read some more safety instructions. Match the instructions to the symbols.

a. Maintain the saw in top condition. Lubricate moving parts and sharpen the blades.

b. Check electric wires and cables for signs of wear. c. Use a three-pin earthed plug and do not operate the saw in wet

conditions.d. Disconnect the saw from the power supply before changing the blade.e. Always use safety glasses when operating the saw.f. Keep the safety guard in position at all times.g. Never stand on the saw and don't overreach.h. Keep children and visitors away from the saw. i. Do not use the saw under the influence of alcohol or medication.

4. Look at the first page of an equipment manual.

CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGE1 Shipping and packing 32 Set up 73 Product functions 124 Operation 175 Maintenance 256 Troubleshooting 307 Warranty 358 Storage 389 Disposal 4210 Emergencies 44

Which chapter should you turn for information on:

a. how to start the equipment, run it and shut it down?b. how to store if it's idle?c. how to take the equipment out of its boxes and cases?d. how to throw it away when you no longer need it?e. assembling and installing the equipment?f. what the equipment can and can't do?g. what to do if it goes wrong?h. what to do if someone is hurt or there's a serious problem?i. what you need to do to keep it functioning well?j. who to contact if it breaks down in the first six months?

5. Match these safety hazards to the correct safety precaution.

a. TRIPS AND FALLSb. ELECTRIC SHOCKSc. CUTSd. EYE INJURIES AND HEARING DAMAGEe. CLOTHING GETTING CAUGHT UP IN A MACHINERY

WORKSHOP SAFETY PRECAUTIONS1. Wear goggles and ear protectors.2. Do not leave things lying on the floor.3. Wear short sleeved shirts or roll up shirt sleeves.4. Do not remove safety guards from machines.5. Do not use electric tools when the work area is wet. Make sure plugs are earthed. (AmE – grounded)

6. Describe the signs.

…………………….. …………………….. …………………… ………………..6. Identify the safety hazards. Then explain what these people

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SHOULD / SHOULDN'T DO.

a. A

man is riding on top of the fork-lift truck. He could fall off. He should / shouldn't …

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HEALTH AND SAFETY

1. Choose the correct word in each sentence.1. Store containers in a well-ventilated/good-ventilated place2. Wipe up any spillages immediately and wash/rinse with soapy water.3. Process cooling water can be returned/recycled.4. This chemical is toxic/intoxicating if swallowed.5. Leftover chemicals should be disproved/disposed of safely. ~ _6. Please wear protective gloves when fingering/handling this material. ~ _7. Remember that asbestos fibres can cause cancer/coma.8. Pregnant women should not take this medicine as it may cause birth defects/effects.9. Increased levels of radiation may lead to compared/impaired fertility. -o _10. Do not empty chemical paint products into the drains/grains.11. Protect/Avoid contact with skin and eyes. m -12. Do not use with other products as it may release dangerous fumes/fumigation.

2. Complete the following sentences with a form of the word in brackets.

1. When working in this area, please wear ……………………….. clothing (protect).2. Don't pour used chemicals into the drains as they will cause …………………….. (contaminate).3. Heating this liquid may cause an …………………… (explode).4. These chemicals must be kept in a locked cupboard because they are …………………….. (harm).5. While they repair the roof, we will close this department as a measure……………………….(precaution).6. …………………………… health is one part of Health and Safety (occupation).7. Working in a noisy factory without ear protectors is a ………………………….. activity (danger). 8. Petrol and oil are ……………………… chemicals (flame).9. Make sure the containers are ………………………… closed (tight).10. Make sure you are wearing breathing equipment before starting ……………………….. (fume).

3. The manager in charge of health and safety is explaining things to some new employees. Complete what he says by filling the blanks with the correct word from the box.

noise • protection • drowsiness • dust • accidents • smoke • poisonous • fumes • risks • burns • goggles

MANAGER: New government regulations mean that we are all required to be more aware of (a) …………………………….. in the workplace. As your employer, we will provide you with the necessary safety equipment. You must wear (b) ……………………….. to protect your eyes when working on this machinery. You should also wear ear (c) ………………………… because the (d) …………………………….. from the machines is high enough to cause damage to your hearing. And of course, there is a lot of (e) ……………………………. in the air, so please wear masks to stop you breathing it in. But, you too are responsible for your safety and for preventing(f) ………………………….. happening.

EMPLOYEE: Are we looking at fire risks?

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MANAGER: Yes, of course. Remember that it is very dangerous to (g) ……………………… near the chemical store. In fact, we have a no smoking policy throughout the company. Chemicals themselves are, of course, (h) …………………………… so they should never enter your mouth. They could cause (i) …………………………… if you get them on your skin. If you leave them without a lid, (j) ……………………………… may escape and cause headaches, (k) ………………………….. or dizziness.

4. Warning signs

I. Match the instructions with the warning signs.

1. Don’t enter.2. Be careful! Don't trip. 3. Wear a hard hat.4. Wash your hands. 5. Don't touch.6. Wear ear protection. 7. Don't bring cameras in here.8. Keep the aisle clear. 9. Use the machine's safety guard. 10. Open the door with care. 11. Keep cylinders secure and upright. 12. Secure your hair. 13. Don't bring food or drink in here. 14. Be careful! Slippery floor. 15. Lift with care.

II. Some signs have no instructions. Write the instructions for them.

Example: Sign v - Don't smoke.

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MODAL VERBS

LOGICAL ASSUMPTIONSMUST I'm certain/sure that sth is true He must be Tom’s son. He looks just like him.CAN'T, COULDN'T I'm certain/sure that sth is NOT true

That can’t / couldn’t be Sue over there. She’s in Paris on business.

POSSIBILITYCAN + pres. inf. general possibility The streets can get very slippery when it rains.COULD, MAY, MIGHT + pres. inf. it's possible/likely (in a specific situation); perhaps

If it gets colder tomorrow, it could/may/might snow.NOTE: In questions, we use can, could or might but not mayI can’t find him. Where can/could/might he have gone?

COULD, MIGHT + perf. inf. refers to the past – it was possible but it didn't happenHe drove carelessly yesterday. He might have had an accident but luckily he didn’t.

OBLIGATION – DUTY – NECESSITYMUST you are obliged to do sth, the speaker decides that sth is necessary

I must complete this project by Monday.HAVE TO it is necessary to do sth (sb else has decided)

The manager told me that I have to complete this project by Monday.MUST↔HAVE TOin questions

Must - do you insist that … Must I do this HW now?Have to – is it necessary for me to do it… Do I have to do this HW now?

SHOULD, OUGHT TO duty (less emphatic than must) Shop assistants should/ought to be polite to the customers.

NEED it is necessary to… Need I call the doctor today?(She doesn’t need to = needn’t go shopping this week.)

ABSENCE OF NECESSITYNEEDN’T, DON’T HAVE TO + pres. inf.

present/future – it isn’t necessary to do sth You needn’t/don’t have to/don’t need to take a taxi. I’ll drive you to the airport.

DIDN’T NEED TO, DIDN’T HAVE TO

it wasn’t necessary to do sth He didn’t need to/didn’t have to stay in a hotel.

NEEDN’T + perf. inf. it wasn’t necessary to do sth, but it was doneYou needn’t have asked Tom to help you. You can do it by yourself.

PROHIBITIONMUSTN’T, CAN’T it is forbidden to do sth… You mustn’t / can’t park your car here. (it’s against the law.)

CRITICISMCOULD, SHOULD, MIGHT, OUGHT TO + perf. inf.

it would have been better if you had (past), but you didn’t…She could/should/might/ought to have called the police. (But she didn’t.)

COULD, SHOULD, MIGHT, OUGHT TO + pres. inf.

it would be better if (present)…You could/should/might/ought to tell me if you’re going to be late.

STUDY THE EXAMPLES AND THEN WRITE THE SECOND SENTENCE BY USING A MODAL VERB.

I'm sure he comes from Italy. present infinitivePerhaps he will cook dinner.It's possible that she is having a party tonight. pres. cont. inf.Perhaps she'll be having a party tomorrow.I’m sure he didn’t receive the message.Perhaps they have won first prize. perfect infinitiveIt’s possible that she had visited a friend.

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I’m certain she was studying.Perhaps she has been shopping. perf. cont. inf.It’s likely that they had been watching TV.

I. Complete the sentences using must, have to, may, might, could or can't, as in the example. 1 Perhaps Tom will work late tonight. Tom may/might work late tonight.2 It's possible that Mary is trying to call us. Mary .......................................................... 3 The students are obliged to finish the test in one hour. The students ........................ 4 It's possible that Mum is working in the garden. Mum ............................................... 5 I'm sure Rachel is hungry. Rachel ............................................................................. 6 Perhaps Dad will take us out to dinner. Dad ............................................................. 7 I'm sure Lucy hasn't reached the station yet. Lucy ....................................................8 It is necessary for Grandma to take her medication every morning. Grandma ........... 9 It's likely that they have gone to the supermarket. They ............................................ 10 I'm certain Bob didn't leave the party early. Bob ......................................................

II. Fill in the gaps with must, mustn't or needn't/don't have to, as in the example. 1 A: You ...needn't/don't have to... do the washing up. I'll do it. B: Thanks, Mum.2 A: Paul ..................................... go to the dentist more often. B: I know. His teeth are in terrible condition.3 A: If we want to see the beginning of the film, we ..................................... leave now. B: Alright. I'm ready. 4 A: You ....................................... speak with your mouth full. B: I know. It's very rude. 5 A: Shall I mow the lawn? B: No, you .................................. . I did it earlier. 6 A: ....................................... I walk the dog now? B: Yes, it'll be dark in half an hour.7 A: John and I are going to the theatre on Friday night. B: You .................................. get a baby-sitter. I'll take care of the children for you.8 A: You ............................ forget to post those letters. B: I'll post them on my way to work.

III. Tick the correct sentence.1 a) You can't have called a taxi. I would have driven you to the station. b) You needn't have called a taxi. I would have driven you to the station. 2 a) Robert can't be very talented. He plays the piano, the violin and the flute. b) Robert must be very talented. He plays the piano, the violin and the flute.3 a) If Jane sings well in the competition, she might win a prize. b) If Jane sings well in the competition, she couldn't win a prize.4 a) You must go to the bank. I can lend you some money. b) You don't need to go to the bank. I can lend you some money.5 a) Terry looks tired. He must have been studying all night. b) Terry looks tired. He mustn’t have been studying all night.

IV. Read the situations and write what you would say using should, ought to, could, might, and the correct tense of the infinitive, as in the example.1 Your best friend failed a very important exam because she didn't study. What do you say to her? You ...should /ought to/might/could have studied for the exam. 2 Adam borrowed your favourite CD without asking you. You want him to ask you next time. What do you say to him?3 One of your classmates misses the school bus every morning because he gets up late. What do you say to him?4 Your younger sister took your scarf and didn't put it back in the right place. You want her to replace it next time. What do you say to her?

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5 You arranged to meet your friend at 6o'clock. He came at 7 o'clock but he didn't call you to tell you he'd be late. What do you say to him?6 Fred lost his keys in town yesterday. He didn't report it to the police. What do you say to him?V. Tick the correct item.

1 Dan can't be a teacher.a) I'm sure Dan isn't a teacher.b) I think Dan isn't a teacher.2 Need I take the tablets every day?a) Is it a good idea to take the tablets every day?b) Is it necessary to take the tablets every day?3 You needn't have bought me flowers.a) You bought me flowers.b) You didn't buy me flowers.4 If it is hot tomorrow, we might go to the beach.a) We will definitely go to the beach tomorrow.b) It is possible that we will go to the beach tomorrow.5 You ought to have apologised to Mary.a) You apologised to Mary.b) You didn't apologise to Mary.6 You mustn't steal.a) It is against the law to steal.b) It isn't necessary to steal.7 Alison has to work on Saturday. Her boss told her so.a) Alison wants to work on Saturday.b) Alison's boss wants her to work on Saturday.8 Sam must have finished lunch by now.a) I'm sure Sam has finished lunch.b) I'm sure Sam hasn't finished lunch.

VI. Underline the correct item.

1. A: Mustn't/Must I eat all my broccoli? B: Yes. It's very good for you.2. A: Must/Could I do the washing-up now? B: Yes, because I want to make a cake afterwards. 3. A: I saw a suspicious man in our street yesterday, but I didn't call the police. B: You ought to/need have called them immediately.4. A: The beach can/could get very crowded tomorrow as it's a holiday. B: Shall we go somewhere else instead?5. A: You mustn't/can wear high heels while you're on the boat. B: Alright. I'll take them off. 6. A: Where's Bill? B: Well, it's half past six. He needn't/must be at home by now.7. A: I've done all the ironing for you. B: You needn't have done/mustn't do that, but thanks anyway.8. A: Oh dear. The car seat is wet. B: Well, you shouldn't have left/didn't need to leave the car window open.9. A: Dad, can we go swimming? B: Not yet. You mustn't/needn't swim when you have just eaten.10. A: I photocopied some recipes from my cook book for you. B: Oh, Carmen! You couldn't have/needn't have! I went out and bought the book this morning.11. A: Liz crossed the road without looking. B: I know. She might/may have been hit by a car. She was lucky that she wasn't.12. A: I'm so angry. I just got a speeding ticket. B: Didn't you know that you needn't/mustn't drive over 35mph through the city centre?

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VII. Choose the correct item.1 Ben is very rude. He ............... have talked to Sarah that way.A could B shouldn't C mustn't2 It's very late. The children ............... be sleeping. A must B can't C shouldn't3 We ............... finish the project by Friday or else we'll lose the client.A might B needn't C have to4 You ............... made anything for the party. I have plenty of food.A needn't have B needn't C mustn't5 The north of England .................. get very cold during the winter.A may B can C could6 You .................. write and thank everyone for the birthday presents they gave you.A shouldn't B need C ought to7 John isn't at home. He ............... be at the gym. A might B couldn't C can't8 Susan has a broken leg. She ............... gone skiing.A can't have B couldn't C may9 It's your own fault you crashed the car. You ............... been driving so fast.A might not have B may not have C shouldn't have10 A: ............... I call David now? B: Yes, he said it was an emergency.A Need B Needn't C Could11 That ............... be Eve on the phone. She doesn't know our new number.A mustn't B needn't C can't 12 A: Why are Bob and Moira late? B: Well, they ............... missed the 5 o'clock bus. A could have been B might have C should 13 You .................. bring your tent with you. We can both sleep in mine.A need B don't need to C needn't have 14 You ............... have brought so many jumpers. I could have lent you some of mine.A needn't B couldn't C didn't need to 15 Diana must ............... the stage props all night. She looks extremely tired.A be preparing B have been preparing C have prepared

VIII. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.1 I'm sure Kevin didn't do anything wrong.have Kevin .................................................. ................................. anything wrong. 2 Perhaps they left the documents at home.have They ................................................... ................... the documents at home. 3 It wasn't necessary for her to call me today, but she did.have She ..................................................... ................................................. today. 4 Perhaps Lucy is at the shops.be Lucy ........................................................................................ at the shops. 5 I don't think the money has been counted yet.been The money ......................................... ...................................................... yet.6 It is forbidden to take these books home with you.not You .................................................................. these books home with you.7 I'm sure he is preparing his presentation.be He ....................................................................................... his presentation.8 It wasn't necessary for Chris to reserve a table in advance.need Chris ............................................................................... a table in advance.9 Why didn't you tell him about the problem?have You .......................................................................... him about the problem.10 People who want to join the club are obliged to pay £20.to People who want to join the club .......................................................... £20.11 Perhaps Sheila is on holiday.may Sheila ................................................................................................ holiday.12 Why didn't you clean up the mess?ought You ................................................................................................ the mess.

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QUALITY

Quality means meeting the minimum set of requirements in a product's specification and then being delighted that the customer's expectations have been met and exceeded. Therefore, the goal of a business should be to find out customer needs and then fine tune the process to ensure that they are met.

Quality improvement concepts have developed over several decades. They began simply as a method for detecting defective products by inspection at the end of the production line. In recent years the emphasis has changed from inspection to prevention. Today sampling methods monitor processes and beep them under control. The ultimate aim, of course, is zero defects.

I. Choose the correct word in the following sentences.

1. We must check/control the temperature regularly to make sure it doesn't rise.2. To compare the number of defects over the last ten years, it would be best to use a Pareto/bar chart.3. We try to detect/define faulty products before they are sent to our customers. 4. But it's a better idea to protect/prevent faulty products in the first place.5. Making sure that materials are stored correctly is part of process/inventory control. 6. We're sending our engineer who will repair/remake the faulty motor.7. We have had problems with the electronic equipment due to power errors/failures. 8. This process is very inefficient because of the volume of scrap/error left over.9. Here is a list of things we could do to improve quality and now we must define/prioritize them.10. Improving the design quality of these cars will add value/variability.

II. Choose the correct ending from B to complete each of the following sentences in A and then produce a short article about Japanese cars.

ALet us consider what happened when Japanese carsLocal manufacturers thought they were cheap But soon people noticed that they didn't break downAt the same time, Japanese manufacturers started trying toCustomers were delighted with the new cars The cars did more than simply satisfy customers' requirements,

B as often as British or American cars.which exceeded their expectations. they provided value for money.were first imported into the UK and America.and of low quality.meet customer needs in terms of style and design.

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III. Here is a memo from the head of quality control to the managing director. Complete it with words from the box.

improvement • sampling • defects • zero • prevent • analysis • monitor • continuous • cause/effect • defective • Pareto

M E M OFrom Sue Braun To Alois Vicent Re Quality control

As you know we recently carried out a (a) ………………….. analysis of the bottle manufacturing plant. Our aim was quality (b) …………………………. and to reduce the number of (e) ……………………….. products. As you can see from the attached (d) ………………………… chart, raw materials and system failures are the areas we must improve on.We will introduce new systems to change our (e) …………………………. methods and (f) ……………………………. raw materials more carefully. We carried out a system failure (g) …………………………… and we are now repairing the moulding machine. This will (h) ………………………….. future failures and reduce (i) …………………………….. . With(j) ……………………………. process improvement, our aim is (k) …………………………….. defects

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ISO

ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is the world’s leading developer of International Standards, a global federation of over a hundred national standards bodies with central secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO standards specify the requirements for state-of-the-art products, services, processes, materials and systems, and for good conformity assessment, managerial and organizational practice. ISO standards are designed to be implemented worldwide. More than 15000 ISO standards have been published so far, each identified by a document number.

ISO standards make a positive contribution to the world we live in. They ensure vital features such as quality, ecology, safety, economy, reliability, compatibility, interoperability, efficiency and effectiveness. They facilitate trade, spread knowledge, and share technological advances and good management practices. ISO is a global network that identifies what International Standards are required by business, government and society, develops them in partnership with the sectors that will put them to use and delivers them to be implemented worldwide.

ISO standards are widely respected and accepted by public and private sectors internationally. ISO – a non-governmental organization – is a federation of the national standards bodies of 149 countries, one per country, from all regions of the world, including developed, developing and transitional economies. Each ISO member is the principal standards organization in its country. The members propose the new standards, participate in their development and provide support in collaboration with ISO Central Secretariat for the 3 000 technical groups that actually develop the standards. ISO members appoint national delegations to standards committees. In all, there are some 50 000 experts contributing annually to the work of the Organization. When their work is published as an ISO International Standard, it may be adopted as a national standard by the ISO members and translated.

ISO International Standards are not in any way binding on either governments or industry merely by virtue of being International Standards. This is to allow for situations where certain types of standards may conflict with social, cultural or legislative expectations and requirements. This also reflects the fact that national and international experts responsible for creating these standards do not always agree and not all proposals become standards by unanimous vote. The individual nations and their standards bodies remain the final arbiters.

The common usage of "ISO" is to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard. Some examples of this are:

o The ISO number in photography is the measure of film speed, or the sensitivity of photographic film to light exposure. It is defined in international standard ISO 5800.

o An ISO image in computing is a disc image of an ISO 9660 file system.…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

1. What does ISO stand for?2. Describe in brief the process of creating an international ISO standard? 3. Are individual nations allowed to create their own standards?

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POLLUTION

Can WE change the climate?

The Greenhouse Effect The warming effect of the Earth's atmosphere is called the greenhouse effect. ………………from the Sun enters the atmosphere but is prevented from ………………… back into space by gases such as …………………..(produced for example, by the burning of fossil fuels), nitrogen oxides (from car exhausts), and CFCs (fluorocarbons -from aerosols and refrigerators). As these gases build up in the atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature is expected to ……………….. .

www.allrefer.com/.../p0001164-greenhouse-effect

Global Warming Global Warming is the heat on Earth's surface temperature………………. . It's …………… by burning too many Fossil Fuels and the Greenhouse Effect. Fossil Fuels are the remains of once-living organisms that are …………… to make energy. Some exaples are: Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas.

archives.zinester.com/13183/128920.html

Acid RainAcid rain is rain that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the………….. . Acid rain is a type of acid deposition, which can ……………… in many forms. Wet deposition

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is……………, sleet, snow, or fog that has become more acidic than normal. ………….deposition is another form of acid deposition, and this is when gases and dust particles become acidic. Both wet and dry deposition can be carried by the………………., sometimes for very long distances. Acid deposition in wet and dry forms falls on buildings, cars, and trees and can make lakes acidic. Acid deposition in dry form can be ………………….by people and can cause health problems in some people. /greenhouse gas: any gas that …………….infra-red radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), etc./http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/whatisacid.html

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Can WE make a difference?

1. ___ 2. ___ 3. ___ 4. ___

5. ___ 6. ___ 7. ___ 8. ___

Fill in each gap with only one word.

The Greenhouse EffectGases pollute the atmosphere because they are produced 1) ......... quickly to be cleared away naturally 2) ......... rain, winds or plant life. These poisonous gases 3) ............ from several sources such as oil producers, industries which burn fuel, and motor vehicles. When the gases are released, they have two harmful effects. 4) ........... , some of the gases are caught by rain clouds and fall as acid rain, 5) ........... damages the environment. Secondly, increasing amounts of carbon dioxide forms a cover over the earth, keeping the heat of the sun close 6) ......... the earth's surface just 7) ......... a greenhouse keeps heat in. The increase in carbon dioxide is 8) ........ worse by the cutting down 9) ....... forests. Trees use carbon dioxide, and the fewer trees 10) .... are, the more of this gas remains 11) ..... the air. The USA is now leading an international effort to limit deforestation. In 1996, Washington set goals for industry, and several international agreements12) ............. already been effective in reducing the production 13) ........... harmful gases. Only international cooperation can 14) .............. this problem which, if 15) ............. controlled, may threaten all life on earth.

How green are YOU?

Are you a friend of the Earth?

What kind of group is ?

Which are the three R’s of the environment?

Which could the 4th R be?

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TELEPHONING

I. USEFUL EXPRESSIONS.

1. Announcing identity.Person calling Person calledMy name is Mary Brown.Good morning. It's Tom Bennett here.

Can I help you?Marketing services. Good morning.

2. Asking if someone is in.Person calling Person calledCan I speak to Mr Lee, please?Can I speak to someone in Marketing?Could you put me through to Jane Hewitt, please?

Hold the line, please.Yes, just a moment.I'll just transfer you. Hold on, please, I'll see.Person wanted is not thereI'm afraid she isn't in at the moment. Would you like to call back later?I’m sorry she’s not available. Can I give her a message?You can contact her on her mobile. Her number is 0700 3455.

3. When will the person wanted be in?Person calling Person calledWhat time will she be back?Can I contact her tomorrow?

She should be back by 4 o'clock.She's due back tomorrow.

4. Calling offPerson calling Person calledI'll get back to you soon.Thank you very much. Goodbye.

Thanks for calling.We'll be in touch about it soon. Goodbye.

II. YOU HEAR THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS ON THE PHONE. WHAT DO YOU THINK THE SPEAKERS MEAN?

1. You're very faint.2. He's tied up at the moment.3. Can you bear with me for a second?4. I'll get back to you first thing on Monday.5. Sorry to keep you waiting.6. What's the area code for London?

7. Dial 9 to get an outside line.8. Press the star key twice.9. This is a very bad line.10. You're breaking up. 11. The reception is very bad. 12. Have we covered everything?

III. PUT THIS TELEPHONE CONVERSATION IN ORDER. … I'm afraid he's tied up at the moment.… Can I leave a message?… Good morning. How may I help you?… Certainly. So that's Jane Bennett from Green Planet, phone number 5684453 ext. 23.… I'll ask him to call you as soon as he's free.… Can you ask him to call me back as soon as possible? My number is 5684453 ext. 23.… Yes of course. What would you like me to tell him?… Thank you for your help. Goodbye. … Good morning. This is Jane Bennett from Green Planet, UK. I'd like to speak to Tim Robinson.… Thank you for calling. Goodbye.

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IV. WORK WITH A PARTNER.

a. ACT OUT A SIMILAR PHONE CONVERSATION BASED ON THE DIAGRAM BELOW. STUDENT A (CALLER) WHO WORKS FOR NEW-TECH, SLOVENIA, WOULD LIKE TO SPAEK TO MR MONROE OF JONES CO., AND STUDENT B (RECEPTIONIST) IS TRYING TO HELP HIM AS MR MONROE IS NOT AVAILABLE.

Receptionist Caller1. Answer the phone.3. Say he is not available.5. Say yes.7. Confirm name and number. Promise to give the message.9. Reply and say goodbye.

2. Ask to speak to Mr Monroe.4. Ask if you can leave a message.6. You want him to call you back. Give your number.8. Thank him.

b. YOU ARE THE ASSISTANT CLERK AT SLOTECH. THESE ARE THE THINGS YOU SHOULD REFER TO IN YOUR PHONE CALL TO MR HENRY DALE.

1. You call Mr Henry Dale. Enquire whether he has received the delivery note and invoice for the AA5E sensor switches order.

2. Inform him that a revised price list now applies to the AA5E sensor switches. Remind him that according to the quotation, the price list is subject to change. The invoice listing the new price of 12 € was sent without noticing the discrepancy with the original quotation (at 10 €).

3. Normally Mr Dale pays his monthly account punctually, but you have not received payment for last month’s account. Ask if there is a problem.

4. Apologize to Mr Dale for the delivery discrepancy. He is a long-standing customer, so you believe what he says. Ask for written confirmation of the delivery and billing discrepancy.

c. NEGOTIATING. IN THIS SIMULATION, ONE WILL BE PLAYING THE ROLE OF A SELLER AND THE OTHER OF A BUYER TO FINALIZE A DEAL ON THE SALE OR PURCHASE OF A PRODUCT. YOU MUST DECIDE WHAT TERMS, CONDITIONS, ETC. YOU ARE PREPARED TO SELL THE PRODUCT AT. THE PRODUCT IS AN ELECTRICAL COMPONENT. YOU SHOULD DECIDE ON THE PRODUCT TO SELL (IT SHOLUD BE A REALISTIC ITEM YOU ARE FAMILIAR WITH). THESE ARE THE LIMITS WITHIN WHICH YOU CAN MOVE:

1. What price you will accept: between € 50 - €1002. Quantities: can supply up to 2003. Delivery date proposed: between 6 and 10 weeks from now4. Guarantee period offered: from 6 months to a year5. Conditions of payment expected: ex-works, but will accept FOB

EXW (Ex-Works) = A trade term requiring the seller to deliver goods at his or her own place of business. All other transportation costs and risks are assumed by the buyer.FOB (Free On Board) = A trade term requiring the seller to deliver goods on board a vessel designated by the buyer. The seller fulfills its obligations to deliver when the goods have passed over the ship's rail. When used in trade terms, the word "free" means the seller has an obligation to deliver goods to a named place for transfer to a carrier. FOB destination designates that the seller is responsible for the goods until the buyer takes possession.CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight) - a sales contract term indicating that price includes cost, insurance and freight.

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WRITING FORMAL LETTERS

Dear Mrs White,………..

Yours sincerely,

Adam Hill

Dear Sir or Madam,………..

Yours faithfully,

Mark Adams

PARAGRAPH PLAN FOR LETTERSgreeting

Introduction: Paragraph 1 reasons for writing

Main body: Paragraphs 2, 3 development of the subject

Conclusion: Final paragraph closing remarks

full name

a. APPLICATION LETTER

COMPLETE TOM'S LETTER OF APPLICATION BY PUTTING ONE WORD INTO EACH GAP.

17 Hillside RdChesswood

17 January 1998

David BentonWorldwatch 13 Ferry RdBasingstoke

Dear Mr Benton,

I saw your ……………………………. for a business journalist in today's Guardian newspaper. I am very ……………………… in the job and I think that I have many of the necessary ………………………….. .

I ………………………… politics and modern languages at Oxford University. I am ………………….. in French, German and Spanish. I have ……………..……. widely in Europe and South America, and I …………………… worked as a business journalist for the BBC …………………………. the last five years.

I enclose a copy of my curriculum vitae. I look forward ………………………. hearing from you soon. Please let me know if you need more information.

Yours sincerely, Tom Mann

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b. LETTER OF COMPLAINT

READ THE LETTER AND FILL IN THE GAPS WITH WORDS / PHRASES FROM THE LIST.but also, furthermore, not only, however, in addition to, firstly, to make matters worse

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction at the disgraceful treatment I received at the Walford branch of Stimpson's Electronics yesterday afternoon.

(1) ………….……, the product I was given was not the model I had asked for. The new X-401 calculator was demonstrated to me by the sales assistant, and I agreed to buy it. (2)……………….., on unpacking my purchase, I saw that I had been given the smaller X-201 model instead.

(3) ……………….., this calculator was much cheaper than the model I requested and paid for. It didn't have many of the features I needed and was much more basic than the one I was shown to begin with.

(4) …………………….., I was deeply offended by the behaviour of the sales assistant when I went back to the shop to complain. He was (5) …………………. impolite, (6) ……………….. unhelpful. He refused to contact the manager when I asked to speak to him about the incident.

As you can imagine, I am extremely upset. I must insist on a full refund, (7) ………………….. a written apology from the local manager, or else I shall be forced to take further action. I expect to hear from you as soon as possible.

Yours faithfully, Charles AdamsCharles Adams

Para 1openingremarks

Para 2………….…………

Para 3 ………………………..

Para 4………………………..

Para 5……………

READ THE LETTER AGAIN AND LABEL THE PARAGRAPHS WITH THESE HEADINGS.

- closing remarks - 2nd complaint & examples / reasons- opening remarks / reasons for writing - 3rd complaint & examples / reasons- 1st complaint & examples / reasons

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c. LETTER OF INQUIRY

Charming farmhouse between Glasgow and Dundee. Most dates available. Sleeps 5. Pool.Contact Mrs Caroline Jones, 12, Sunny Rd., Stirling, UK

Available July?No. of bedrooms?Pool private?Where exactly?Prices & extras?Anything for children to do?Local airport & car hire?Dundee or Glasgow easier?

Dear Mr Jones,

I am replying to your advertisement in the Times on March 12 for the farmhouse, and there are a number of things I would like to ask.

I am interested in renting the farmhouse for the last two weeks of July for myself, my wife and two children aged 7 and 9. Could you let me know whether it would be free then, how much it would cost, and what the price includes?

Could you also send me some more details about the farmhouse itself? It would be useful to know exactly where it is, how many bedrooms it has, and whether the pool is private. I would also be grateful if you could give me an idea of what sort of activities we could organise for the children.

Finally, I would be grateful if you could let me know if there is a local airport and whether it is possible to hire a car there. If not, could you tell me whether it would be easier for us to fly to Dundee or to Glasgow?

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely.

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Jim Bennett

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JOBS AND CAREERS

I. THE IDEAL JOB

Work in pairs. Look at the photos and discuss these questions:

1. What would you enjoy about each of the jobs?2. What would you dislike about each job? Why?3. What are the most important things for you in your work? Arrange these aspects in

order of importance and add some more things you think are important:

earning enough money job satisfactionmeeting people kind bosshaving pleasant co-workers/colleagues earning plenty of moneysecurity low commute cost

4. Out of all the people you know, who has the job you'd most like to have? Why?5. If you could choose any job in the world to do, what would it be? Why?

II. A LETTER OF APPLICATION

Work in pairs. Imagine you want to apply for a job. Draft an application letter, following these guidelines:

1. Introduce yourself (name, age, nationality, etc.)2. Describe your relevant experience – or justify your lack of experience3. Describe your skills 4. Describe how you meet the requirements of the job5. Say when you are available for the interview.

III. COMPLETE THE JOB INTERVIEW.

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A Good morning, take ………………………….. .B Good morning, thank you.A My name is James Brown. I'm the personnel manager for …………………………………. Ltd.

And you are Tom Bennett?B That's ………………………………..A I see you graduated from …………………………………………….. six months ago.B Yes, I ………………………………………….. information technology.A So why do you want to work with us?B Well, your company has a good ………………………………….. Besides I enjoy working with

…………………………………. and I'd like to get some more work ………………………………...A What experience do you have?B I ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ..

I've ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….A Mmm, what qualities do you think are important for the job?B I’m sorry, what do you mean exactly?A I mean, the qualities you need to work with ……………………………………………………..B Well, you certainly must have …………………………………………….. . And another important

thing is………………………. You've got to show ……………………………. that you enjoy things. A OK, are there any questions you would like to ask me?B Er, yes, just one thing. Could you tell me if there are any possibilities that this temporary job is

changed into ………………………………………..?A Yes, of course.B Oh, I’m glad to hear that.A Well, thank you Tom. I’ll be getting in touch with people next week.B Thank you very much. Goodbye.

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MY LIFE CAREER

IV. MY LIFE CAREER

A career means more than just an occupation. One should be thinking of a life career - a term which includes every part of students' development and growth from childhood, through to teenage years and into adult life. A career is made up of all the things students do and the roles students fulfil. They combine to make the student a special and unique person, a person with a personal life style, unlike anyone else's.

Discuss the factors that influence our career decisions with a partner and then complete the diagram.

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