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PREFACE

III. InternationalGastronomic Tourim Congress which was planned to examine the impact of gastronomic traditions that stem from the food and beverage habits of numerous cultures and beliefs which have formed diverse layers in our geography throughout history and their impact on local and regional Tourism was held at İzmir’s new fair centre "Fuar Izmir" between 7 - 9 December 2017 by İzmir Fair Services Culture and Art Affairs (IZFAŞ), İzmir Congress and Visitors Bureau (CVB), Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (TURSAB), İzmir University of Economics (IEU) and Dokuz Eylül University (DEU)Totally 6631 participants visited the congress and 96 presenters shared their specialities and knowledge with the other participants.

The congress mainly comprises the influence of different cultures and beliefs on the cuisine and concepts of festivals including the best practice examples. Hence, the congress aims at its core to study the new gastronomic trends and the gastronomic heritage. The congress also included the tasting and cooking stories with the concept of sharing the culinary experiences and developing the knowledge of the sensory analysis experiences in different areas of beverages.

Considering its deep-rooted gastronomic diversity, accompanied by a vast entertainment culture, İzmir is without doubt a perfect platform to discuss the utilization of “gastronomic tourism” in regional marketing. Gastronomy is one of the ways; a society can expresses itself and its lifestyle. As the study of the relationship between food and culture, gastronomic is the main incentive of travel in today’s world, following “sightseeing”.

December, 2017

First Editor

Betül Öztürk

Izmir University of Economics

Culinary Arts and Management

PREFACE

Tourism is a phenomenon that has significant effects on masses in social, cultural, economic, political and environmental sense. Nowadays, as tourism has changed and developed rapidly, it can be said that the initiatives towards the concept of gastronomy, which is one of the most important of the emerging new trends. Gastronomy; reveals nutrition pleasure with combining food science, culinary and flavor creativity. The rapidly developing gastronomic heritage of cultural values in recent years is the main source of cultural attraction.

The geographical location of Turkey, thanks to national and cultural riches, has an important place in world tourism. The broadness of this cultural spectrum has opened the way for international recognition and economic development. The importance and interest shown in the culinary arts of food and beverages worldwide is increasing. Current studies focus heavily on the rise of gastronomy, the importance of food culture in terms of tourism, and the introduction of gastronomic tourism and destinations. Gastronomic tourism and one of the elements of its, local cuisine, has quite potential to add value to many destination in Turkey. A region of some tourists is among the reasons for preference and plays an important role in introducing new tastes and different traditions to tourists during holidays and sightseeing. Especially the regional differentiation of the culinary culture that the country has and the fact that each region has its own unique feature can provide a great advantage for gastronomic tourism to be used in different tourism varieties.

Nowadays, people are becoming more and more concerned with their cravings and drinkings. In tourism areas, gastronomy has become a touristic product in its own right besides the complementary feature of touristic products. The interest of tourism is growing day by day as well as the interest in tourism as a scientific discipline. The continuous increase in the number of scientific researchers and publishers who are interested in the field necessitates the interpretation and summarization of the resulting information complexity. This reveals the need for research in the field of tourism and gastronomy.

December, 2017

Second Editor

Turgay BUCAK

Dokuz Eylül University

Culinary Arts and Gastronomy

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CONGRESS HONORARY COMMITTEE

Aziz KOCAOĞLU President of the Congress

Mayor of Izmir Metropolitan Municipality

Chairman of IZFAŞ

Ekrem DEMİRTAŞ President of Izmir Chamber of Commerce

Başaran ULUSOY President of TURSAB

Prof.Dr. F. Can ŞIMGAN MUGAN Rector of Izmir University of Economics

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ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Asst.Prof.Dr. Betül ÖZTÜRK Izmir University of Economics

Bülent AKGERMAN Chaine Des Rotisseurs Izmir Bailli

Esra TOLGAY TURSAB Exhibitions Inc.

Hande ARSLANALP TURSAB

İlknur BODUR İzmir Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism

Onur Fatih GÖKÇEDAĞ IZFAŞ

Sevinç ÖZKAN DİVRİKLİ TURSAB Exhibitions Inc.

Sırma GÜVEN “Reseu Delice” Izmir Representative

Şamil AKŞİT Izmir Cook Association

Asst.Prof.Dr. Turgay BUCAK Dokuz Eylül University

Z. Gül ŞENER İZFAŞ

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SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr. Atilla AKBABA İzmir Katip Çelebi University, İzmir,

TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Bahattin ÖZDEMİR Akdeniz University, Antalya, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Cengiz DEMİR İzmir Katip Çelebi University, İzmir,

TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Derman KÜÇÜKALTAN İstanbul Arel University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Düriye BOZOK Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Ferah ÖZKÖK Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,

Çanakkale, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. F. Füsun İSTANBULLU DİNÇER İstanbul University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Hatice Ferhan NİZAMOĞLU Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya,

TURKEY

Prof. Dr. İbrahim BİRKAN Atılım University, Ankara, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. İge PIRNAR Yaşar University, İzmir, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Kamil BOSTAN İstanbul Aydın University, İstanbul,

TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Nilüfer KOÇAK Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, TURKEY

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Prof. Adriano Azevedo COSTA Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Lisbon,

PORTUGAL

Prof. António Silva MELO Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Lisbon,

PORTUGAL

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aslı ALBAYRAK İstanbul Arel University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Burhan KILIÇ Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla,

TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Çiğdem SABBAĞ Adıyaman University, Adıyaman, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Emel GÖNENÇ GÜLER Trakya University, Edirne, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Emrah ÖZKUL Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Işıl ÖZGEN Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. İsmail GEZGİN Ege University, İzmir, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kai Victor HANSEN University of Stavanger, NORWAY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mehpare TOKAY ARGAN Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Bilecik,

TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Murat DOĞDUBAY Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nuray TÜRKER Karabük University, Karabük, TURKEY

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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Osman N. ÖZDOĞAN Adnan Menderes University, Aydın,

TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Serhat HARMAN Batman University, Batman, TURKEY

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sibel ÖZİLGEN Yeditepe University, Istanbul, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Almaz SANDBAYEV Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi,

UAE

Asst. Prof. Dr. Betül ÖZTÜRK İzmir University of Economics, İzmir,

TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Birsen Bulut SOLAK Selçuk University, Konya, TUKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Burak MİL İstanbul Arel University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Dilek AKYALÇIN KAYA İzmir University of Economics, İzmir,

TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ebru ZENCİR Anadolu University, Eskişehir, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Emriye AY Giresun University, Giresun, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Gözde TÜRKOZ BAKIRCI Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Hürriyet ÇİMEN Ardahan University, Ardahan, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Hakan YILMAZ Anadolu University, Eskişehir, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. İbrahim Tuğkan ŞEKER Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, TURKEY

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Asst. Prof. Dr. İlkay GÖK Okan University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ÇAVUŞOĞLU Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,

Çanakkale, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mehmet ÖZEN Maltepe University, İstanbul, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Serdar SÜNNETÇİOĞLU Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University,

Çanakkale, TURKEY

Asst. Prof. Dr. Turgay BUCAK Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, TURKEY

Dr. Marta DROZDOWSKA University of Business Wroclaw, POLAND

Dr. Pearln LIN The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,

HONG KONG

Dr. Roya RAHIMI University of Wolverhampton, UNITED

KINGDOM

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Izmir University of Eonomics, Izmir, TURKEY

Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, TURKEY

SECRETARIAT

Rsch. Asst. Feray İRİGÜLER

Rsch. Asst. Çağlar AKTEPE

Mine GÜNEŞ Izmir chamber of Commerce, Izmir, TURKEY

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PROCEEDINGS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

GASTRONOMY TOURISM POTENTIAL OF TURKEY: AN

ASSESSMENT ON THE TURKISH ARTICLES WITH THE SUBJECT OF

“GASTRONOMY"

Gonca Guzel Sahin ......................................................................................................... 1

PROPERTIES OF MICHELIN STARRED RESTAURANTS

Serkan Bertan, Serap Alkaya ........................................................................................ 19

THE EFFECTS OF LOCAL MARKETS ON REGIONAL GASTRONOMY

TOURISM: SIGACIK LOCAL MARKET SAMPLE

Turgay BUCAK, Pınar GÜVEN ................................................................................... 37

THE IMPORTANCE OF OTTOMAN SHERBETS IN TODAY'S TURKISH

CUISINEAND GASTRONOMIC PREFERENCE FOR MELON SEED

SHERBET (SÜBYE)

Gözde TÜRKÖZ BAKIRCI, Aynur ZEYREK ............................................................ 52

THE IMPACT OF STREET AND FOOD FESTIVALS IN GASTRONOMIC

TOURISM THROUGH VISITOR’S EMOTIONS AND SATISFACTION. A

CASE OF ABU DHABI FOOD FESTIVAL

Almaz SANDYBAYEV ............................................................................................... 64

ASSESSING THE ADIYAMAN VINTAGE (KERGE) FESTIVITIES IN THE

CONTEXT OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM

Hülya YEŞİLYURT, Cem YEŞİLYURT , Çiğdem SABBAĞ, Çinuçen OKAT ........ 74

FOOD FESTIVALS AS A GASTRONOMIC EVENT AND ATTENDEES’

MOTIVATIONS: THE CASE OF INTERNATIONAL URLA ARTICHOKE

FESTIVAL

Feray İRIGÜLER, Osman Nuri ÖZDOĞAN ............................................................... 85

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GASTRONOMY TOURISM AND DESTINATION COMPETITIVENESS

Duran CANKÜL ......................................................................................................... 100

DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTS OF GRAPES AND GRAPE

PRODUCTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF (GASTRONOMIC) TOURISM

IN MANISA

Büşra DİKEN, Mustafa TEPECİ ................................................................................ 110

THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON RESTAURANT CUSTOMERS: A

DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

Hakan YILMAZ, Emel YALÇIN, Yaşar Mert DEMiRAL ........................................ 124

A GENERAL EVALUATION ON HITTITE AND PHRYGIAN CUISINE

CULTURE

Gonca KILIÇ, Nilüfer YÜCEDAĞ, Engin AYTEKİN .............................................. 140

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES IN THE AREA

OF GASTRONOMY TO THE PROMOTION OF REGIONAL

GASTRONOMIC TOURISM: IZMIR INTERNATIONAL

GASTRONOMIC TOURISM CONGRESS

Gözde TÜRKÖZ BAKIRCI, Turgay BUCAK, K.Nazan TURHAN ......................... 156

EXAMINATION OF CORRELATION BETWEEN WORKAHOLISM

DEGREES AND SATISFACTION WITH LIFE OF 4 AND 5 STAR

HOTELS’ CUISINE DEPARTMENT STAFF IN ESKİŞEHİR PROVINCE

Oğuz DİKER, Hacı Mehmet YILDIRIM ................................................................... 166

‘CITTASLOW’ AND ‘SLOW FOOD’ IN THE EYES OF FOOD AND

BEVERAGE BUSINESS MANAGERS: GÖKÇEADA SAMPLE

Onur ÖZDEN, Serdar SÜNNETÇIOĞLU, Ferah ÖZKÖK ....................................... 181

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GASTRONOMY TOURISM POTENTIAL OF TURKEY: AN ASSESSMENT ON THE TURKISH ARTICLES WITH THE

SUBJECT OF “GASTRONOMY”

Gonca GUZEL SAHIN Atilim University, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, Ankara,

Turkey [email protected]

Abstract:

Travelling for the purpose of experiencing the new and unbelievable food, wine

and other inimitable local gastronomy assets of another region is gastronomy tourism. Gastronomy tourism, in addition to being the most important means of economic development, it is also the most significant part of the fastly developing cultural tourism market. Many recent researches emphasized that the culinary culture of a target destination has a significant part in the travel experience. Turkish Cuisine with its in seven region having the advantage of having different climates and vegetation, reserves diversity of local taste and flavour in its cuisine. Therefore Turkish cuisine is perceived to be one of the most popular cuisine in the world. The aim of this study is to emphasize the importance of marketing strategy of the traditional Turkish cultural cuisine as a alternative tourism field.

In this research Turkish articles with the subject of “gastronomy” published in “Google Scholar” and Council of Higher Education Thesis Centre or foreign articles regarding the gastronomy potential of Turkey and master’s and PhD thesis on the subject have been analysed. A content analysis has been conducted as a result of the revision of the data gathered from 54 articles and 32 thesis within the scope of defined categories. Also frequency analysis has been utilised during the analysis of the data. According to the findings, gastronomy tourism has an important potential for the Turkish tourism sector.

Keywords: gastronomy, gastronomy tourism, Turkish cuisine, destination marketing, content analysis

INTRODUCTION

According to many research that are in recent years, an increasing number of tourist states that tasting local food where travel has been made consist a lot of part of their experiences and they say that impossible to know the region culture without tasting local food (Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald, 2011). Although gastronomy tourism is a new kind of tourism, the tour operators and travel agencies, which are

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marketing destination, are presenting gastronomic tourism for a long time (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). The increase of the interest in the gastronomy and local cuisines have not only had an impact on the tourism incomes, but also provided social and economic contributions to the local community. People’s interests in the quality of food, need for sustainable agriculture due to ecological concerns, health and nutrition concerns, access to wider information on foods and beverages, gained information regarding different cuisines have impact on the expectations and the buying behaviour of tourists. Improvement of gastronomy tourism in Turkey appears to be one of the most powerful tools to support the development of rural areas.

Marketing of regions on the basis of destinations and even the tourism activities in specific dimensions under the name of special interest tourism is of uttermost importance for many countries. A society’s cuisine culture is related to their life styles as well. In every country’s cuisine structure, preparation and cooking of food and equipment and kitchenware show great differences. In the world development about tourism are researched, it is seen that “gastronomy” has an important role in the marketing of touristic destinations. Gastronomic instrument that belongs to destinations are highly used in the marketing activities, demand on new products that are marketed and offered to tourist and income that obtained from gastronomic tourism activities are demonstrated with serious numeric data. A country’s cuisine culture is one of the most important factors for tourists to visit the country. Today it is of uttermost importance that the culinary heritage of the destination can be acknowledged as a tourism product. It is possible to present to the experience of the tourist, the food and beverages of quality by converting them into a tourism product. The expenditures on this tourism product would contribute to the economy of the region and local community and create a multiplier effect in the region (Deveci at al., 2013). In this sense, gastronomy richness are used as an instrument marketing destination. Gastronomy tourism is a factor of the cultural tourism market, which improves in the world rapidly, gastronomy tourism contributes both social and economic progresses, and it highly contributes intercultural communication as well.

In this context, “gastronomy tourism” can be integrated with various types of tourisms, besides being a type of tourism on its own terms. Gastronomy tourism being a new type of tourism, actually gastronomy happens to be presented as a tourism product by tour operators and travel agents abroad that are marketing destinations (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). Within the light of this, gastronomic wealth is also used a tool for marketing the destinations. Gastronomic wealth is known as a product diversification tool in cases, where the destinations have similar architecture, climate, price and other properties. It can be told that Turkey has a very important gastronomic tourism potential that is not completely used, when its gastronomic wealth is

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considered. In the world, the known oldest cuisine culture appeared in Mesopotamia. In course of time, this cuisine created China and Anatolian cuisines. Anatolian cuisine constitutes base of Ancieny Egypt, Ancient Greek and Ancient Rome cuisine. The known European cuisine derived from Ancient Rome cuisine as well. Turkey is an important tourism destination in terms of natural scenery and internationally known as one of the most favourite countries for its natural beauties. On the other hand, Turkey is in need of increasing the varieties of its tourism marketing possibilities by giving more importance to “cultural” and “heritage” tourism like many other successful destinations such as France, Italy, Spain, China are doing for years.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The term ‘‘gastronomy’’ is derived from gaster (stomach) and nomas (law). The word gastronomy was first used in Ancient Greece. Sicilian Greek Archestratus wrote a book in 4th century on food and wine in Mediterranean. Gastronomy was involved in several chapters of this book (Santich, 2004). The term gastronomy began to be used in literature with Gastronomie ou L’Homme des Champs a Table (Gastronomy or Man from Field to Table) by Joseph Bercholux in 1801 (Göker, 2011). The word “gastronomy” was in a poem of Jacques Berchoux in 1804 for the first time. In the definitions made by various authors, gastronomy appears as “research for good eating and drinking”, “converting the culture of eating and drinking into art”. Gastronomy means the properties that diversify the cuisines of countries or regions from each other, foods, eating habits and food preparation techniques of a country or region (Cömert & Özkaya, 2014). Different terms as culinary tourism and food tourism also exist to describe the tourism activities related to the food experience besides the gastronomic/gastronomy tourism. Rapidly growing gastronomy tourism is diversified with many subheadings as wine tourism, beer tourism, chocolate tourism, and cheese tourism. There are many countries in the world that can perform gastronomy tourism successfully, including the sub branches. For example France, Italy, Spain, Australia and Germany are among the countries that have a successful wine tourism in the world, and in cheese tourism, France, Switzerland, Italy and Netherlands have a worldwide fame.

Gastronomy Tourism or Culinary Tourism can be defined as the kind of tourism that has a high contribution to the motivation and behavior of travel to live a unique food and beverage experience (Kesici, 2012). Gastronomy tourism can be defined as the kind of tourism that has a high contribution to the motivation and behavior of travel to live a unique food and beverage experience (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). According to the researches conducted in member and candidate states to European Union, the gastronomy tourism has a serious amount of contribution to the economics

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of the country with number of enterprises, employment and added value. The gastronomy tourism is described as a journey to another region for purpose of experiencing region’s “unique, different and unforgettable” food, wine and specific gastronomic assets that are peculiar to that region. Today many countries that have unique local gastronomy culture develop and promote their regions for purpose of economical effects for regional development instruments and to protect and sustain local culture and meet demands of today’s tourist. Today, local gastronomy culture is one of the most important worth for tourism-aimed activities. For the purpose of secure and provide the sustainability of local culture diversities in the world, national and international organizations register and put under protection the local gastronomic assets.

In general, gastronomy tourism (Yüncü, 2010); is a whole that forms product and services that consumed by tourists which are effective in agriculture and economic improvement, effective in development of regional tourism, which is a part of local culture and marketing of local competitive region. The phrase “culinary tourism” was coined in 1998 and refers to international tourists who plan their travels partly or largely on the basis of a desire to experience different and exotic culinary specialities and traditions (Long, 2004). That is, the primary goal of such tourists is to explore, experience, and enjoy the unique gastronomy (or cuisine) of a particular destination (Wolf, 2006). A region having local foods will make a great contribution in advantages of this competitive. Quality food and drink in a region improve tourism products and tourist’s experiences in the region. It is known that in situation when gastronomical richness, architecture of destination, climate, price and other properties are similar, a production differentiation is used as a tool (Richards, 2002). Food has important place in sustainable tourism. This importance occurs in various proportions. Primarily tourist’s consumption of foods makes multiplier effect on region. In this way, local economy makes profit. Lastly in order to compete with region tourism competitive a variety of tourist attraction should be developed.

Gastronomy tourism has four different types of motivations as physical, cultural, social and prestige. First one is the physical motivation. Food is a must for life and tourist wants to eat food to live or to travel. Second one is cultural motivation; tourist wants to have food to learn a culture. Within this context simple local products are sufficient to motivate the tourist. Therefore, the visits to the primary production sites, restaurants and festivals, where the local food is presented play an important role. Third one is the social motivation of the tourist. Tourist takes active place in the gastronomy activity and that provides the social motivation. Fourth motivation is the prestige. The tourist makes prestige for himself out of sharing the experiences in the region, in the environments he is in (Guzman & Canizares, 2011). The main source of

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motivation for gastronomy tourism is to visit local or regional areas, food producers, restaurants, food festivals and special sights with the purpose of tasting a special dish or production stages of a food (Deveci et al., 2013). UNWTO described “Gastronomy tourism” as a set of recreational empirical activities related to food, in the gastronomic destinations. These activities include gastronomic travels festivals, markets and food producers, food fairs, food shows and experience of local and qualified food. Kozak (2002) states that cooking methods with local products have become important for destinations and catering businesses, traditional foods have become popular within the scope of gastronomy tourism and the customer expectations tend to exotic and nostalgic foods depending on the regions. Cultural tourism is not only limited to visits to museums, historical sights and art galleries but at the same time includes experiences related with gastronomy that is getting to know the cuisine and tasting the food of the region (Santich, 2004). Importance of the gastronomic wealth and cuisine of a destination as a tourism product increases day by day. Gastronomic experiences become one of the most important tourism activities for tourists travelling to a destination.

Gastronomy Tourism is an important and valuable symbol of local culture, one of the most efficient tools to achieve the sustainable rural development goals through its role in local agriculture and economic improvement and an important element in marketing with its positive contribution to the improvement of destination image. Gastronomy Tourism is candidate to become one of the most popular alternatives in the World travel market as the cuisine is one of the most important travel motivations to attract tourists to new and exotic destinations. In the most popular destinations of the world as France, Italy and Spain, gastronomy has become one of the most important touristic products. Many destinations are using gastronomy efficiently as a marketing tool. In the gastronomy tours organized in Europe there are; visits to the local wine makers, wine tasting, wine trainings, visits to vineyards and vine harvesting, participating in agricultural activities, visits to local cheese makers and cheese tasting, visits to local markets, visits to olive oil makers and olive oil tasting, festivals, local culinary courses, visits to culinary museums.

Gastronomic diversity is one of the most important elements for a destination. Within this context, gastronomy is an important element to create awareness in a destination and to support the destination for competing with other destinations (Deveci et al., 2013). Berno (2006) stated that the local and traditional gastronomic values had become to extinction with globalization; and the sustainable gastronomy goals could be achieved with a tourism understanding that supported the local agricultural activities and gastronomic heritage in the destination; by emphasizing that there would be an increase of demand to the local food and local cuisine with the recent gastronomy

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tourism, and mentioned that the demand in local and organic food would effect the protection of traditional culinary art with the sustainable restaurant concept.

Gastronomy tourism helps to level up for the label of regions (Boniface, 2003). Moreover, food can change the regions because cuisines help to have relation between the type of food and touristic places. A region’s food has important effects on choices of region and tourist experience having in that region. Some people travel to taste new cuisine cultures (Mc Kercher et al., 2008). Due to the fact that the “gastronomy” as an element of attraction of destination is a cultural heritage, it is a powerful tool and ranks as first in the expectations of tourists regarding the destination (Selwood, 2003). Role of gastronomic identity is big in creating a unique and different place and in competing with increasing competition for destinations. Gastronomic identity differentiates according to the cultural, geographical, ecological, economical structure and historical process in the time being. It is impossible to imitate these features that belong to the region (Kesici, 2012). Sustainable tourism is an important tool for sustainable development. According to Correia and others (2008); gastronomy is not only a merely element of attraction but also a complementary instrument of different cultural products. It has an important place in sustainable tourism with this complementary aspect. Gastronomy increases the local consumption as well providing yields to economy with the multiplier effect it causes. Furthermore, local cuisine being a symbolic element for the destination provides advantage for the destinations in competition with the provided attraction. The root of Gastronomy tourism lays in agriculture, culture and tourism. These three factors give opportunity of marketing and positioning of gastronomy tourism as regional attraction and experience. Agriculture provides the product; culture provides culture and authentic; and tourism provides substructures and services (Rand & Health, 2006).

Developing countries should bear in mind that the gastronomy has an important place in the development of a country and in marketing strategies. Gastronomic activities have a direct or indirect impact on the destinations. As an example, it prevents the destination to become monotonous and ordinary with its character of being authentic and exclusive to the region, increases the attraction of the destination, helps the society to strengthen by supporting the development in economy and socio culture. With the help of feeling of exclusiveness created by gastronomy, it increases the popularity of the destination. It plays an important role in formation of brand identity of the destination with the positive food experiences of the visitors. It forms a strong source of income for destinations. Gastronomy has an important power in increasing the competitive capacity of the destination and providing its sustainability, as well (Rand et al., 2003). Shenoy (2005) stated that all regions and destinations tried to create products of their own in order to differentiate from their competitors in a world tourism

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market, where the competition had been increasing day by day, and the local culinary was a unique source as a marketing instrument.

The consumption of local foods can contribute to some components about maintainability of this region. These components are participating and supporting the production of food and the agricultural activities, obstructing the authentic exploitation, being increased the attractiveness of touristic places, getting a stronger society, constituting vanity source, and having a stronger label (Telfer & Wall, 2000). Refreshment products had been considered as supportive products for many years in tourism sector and had not been deemed as travel motivation to attract tourists on its own. According to researchers Hjalager (2002) and Scarpato (2002), destinations like Tuscany and Lyons that use gastronomic products as a marketing tool, present them as touristic products along with their complementary character to the touristic products which therefore makes them popular. Today, more people start to travel because of food culture (Long, 2004). In many regions, gastronomy states importance as a marketing factor. For example, some travel agencies present the advantage of gourmet holiday to Italy and France regularly. These regions become like foremost vine destination in the world (Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Henderson (2009) claimed that food is the most important factor to increase the image of destination of food and drinks for tourists to constitute the general experience about destination. Hjalager and Richards (2002), states that tasting the local food is an important part of tourism because of being both an activity and amusement. In holidays, local foods and drinks have an important role for presenting new pleasures and cultures to tourists (Sparks, 2007). Gastronomy becomes the most important reason for tourists to travel because of tourists’ requests about new and special experience and alternative types of tourism (Rand & Heat, 2006). The vines which marketing by a true integrated way, constitute a chance for destination and restaurants sector (Cambourne & Others, 2003). In these days, gastronomy is important because it is accepted that gastronomy as a target for travelling to a destination. Gastronomic tourism is an alternative income resource for some regions that have not the probability to benefit from sea, sunshine and sand, and natural resources (Kivela & Crotts, 2006).

The consumption of local foods can contribute to some components about maintainability of region. These components are participating and supporting the production of food and the agricultural activities, obstructing the authentic exploitation, being increased the attractiveness of touristic places, getting a stronger society, constituting vanity source, and having a stronger label (Telfer & Wall, 2000). In many investigations, it is emphasized that local cuisine is important for maintainable tourism for destination (Sims, 2009). Even seeing strategic level, politic and regional progresses are related to local cuisine (Boyne & Hall, 2004). The cultural cuisine which

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is an important factor for tourism, has a big potential for marketing destinations and assisting the power of competition (Rand & Heat, 2006). Also, gastronomy tourism provide the advantage of competition and being label for region or country. Gastronomic identity ensures an important measurement of difference, improvements and advancement processes for a region. Consequently, cultural cuisine is on important state with respect to improvements of destination and economic progress (Henderson, 2009).

The root of East Asia cuisine depends on China cuisine.When it is looked the developing process of Turkish cuisine, it is seen that after Turk settled in Anatolia, they began to adopt Anatolian cuisine and combined and enriched with Middle Asia cuisine carried with them. The variety of Turkish cuisine is related to many factors. The geographical location of Turkey and historical processes has been through contribute highly to forming the Turkish cuisine culture and creating diversity of cuisine.(Durlu-Ozkaya, 2009). The cuisine culture which was brought Turks from Middle Asia was enriched and diversified as result of affecting other communities (Baysal, 1993). The Turkish cuisine which is inheritor of Ottoman cuisine, affected to Balkan and the Middle East and it affect this cuisines. Arabian cuisine also affected to Turkish cuisine. Especially, in southeast region cuisine, Arabian eating habit has a great affect. As palace cuisine affected by western countries and it affects their countries. In geographical places where Turkish people lived affected the cuisine culture’s variety as well. The nourishment type which is consist of meat and fermented milk comes from the Middle Asia, developed agricultural system depened food comes from Mesopotamia, fruit and vegetables come from Mediterranean and Aegean cultures, and they determine the Turkish cuisine culture (Baysal,1993; Durlu-Ozkaya et al., 2009). The historical processes of Turkish people also affect the Turkish cuisine culture because Turkish cuisine culture has the long development from past to today. Turkey is an important tourism destination in terms of natural scenery and internationally known as one of the most favourite countries for its natural beauties.

On the other hand, Turkey is in need of increasing the varieties of its tourism marketing possibilities by giving more importance to “cultural” and “heritage” tourism like many other successful destinations such as France, Italy, Spain, China are doing for years. In this sense, the concept of culinary tourism product has been accepted as a new aspect. This new dimension will contriubute on tourism marketing of Turkey in many different ways. The success of a destination affected to the power of competition. It is easier that the marketing activities, which makes with strength and original attractiveness, are more successful because these original components provide to have the power of competition to destinations (Yavuz, 2007). Remmington and Yüksel

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(1998), The most important reason for tourists to come again to Turkey is food, and food gives help to have pleasure on the 4th of rank.

Many of the tourists who prefer to visit Turkey, want to recognize Turkish cuisine culture, but generally, it is impeded to these wishes because of the foods which belong to the same country with tourists. Also, when the Turkish cuisine’s foods are not made in original descriptions and presented by unsuitable way, it causes to learn the Turkish cuisine in a wrong way. Istanbul is the most developing city for tourism because of festivals and activities. Due to being 2010 European Culture Capital City, the aim of Istanbul is to show the world that the union of east and west cultures. In Istanbul, people start to do some gastronomic activities last years because the interest about gastronomic tourism increases day by day, and Istanbul cuisine is one of the best cuisines in the world. With the use of local refreshment culture of Turkey that has a positive image with cuisine culture in the world the attractiveness of the rural tourism destination can be increased. The fact that Turkey has plenty of values as rural markets, local cheese makers, vineyards, traditional olive oil makers, traditional food courses, food festivals and food culture, would create a difference for Turkey in gastronomy tourism.

RESEARCH METHOD AND FINDINGS

Turkish articles with the subject of “gastronomy” published in “Google Scholar” and Council of Higher Education Thesis Centre or foreign articles regarding the gastronomy potential of Turkey and master’s and PhD theses on the subject have been analysed within this research. A content analysis has been conducted as a result of the revision of the data gathered from 54 articles and 32 theses within the scope of defined categories. Also method of frequency analysis has been utilised during the analysis of the data. According to the findings, gastronomy tourism has an important potential as a kind of alternative tourism for the Turkish tourism sector. Keywords “gastronomy”, “gastronomy tourism”, “culinary”, “Turkish cuisine”, “culinary tourism”, “food”, “food tourism”, “local cuisine”, “regional cuisine”, “wine”, “wine tourism” have been taken as basis for the scanning in order to define the articles and thesis to be used in the study. As a result of the scanning, 54 articles and 32 thesis have been analysed with regard to “date of publish, journals that the articles were published in, distribution of theses by the universities, research subjects, keywords, research methods, data gathering methods, data analysis methods, conclusions”.

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Figure 1. Distribution of Articles by Years of Publish

According to Figure 1, revised articles were published between 2004-2015. 31.5% of them were published in 2014, 20.4% in 2015, 18.5% in 2013 and 9.3% in 2010. Taking into consideration the distributions of articles by years of publish, the number of articles in the field of gastronomy has increased in particular after the year 2010.

Figure 2. Distribution of Thesis by Years

According to Figure 2, analyzed thesis were prepared between 1998-2014. 21.9% of them were prepared in 2014, 12.5% in 2011, 12.5% in 2010, 9.4% in 2012. Taking into consideration the distributions of theses by years, the number of thesis in the field of gastronomy has increased in particular after the year 2010. As a result of these findings, it can be said that in Turkey, the academic studies in the field of gastronomy have started quite recently. Gastronomy tourism is a new research field for Turkey.

DistributionofArticlesbyYearsofPublish

2004

2005

2007

2008

2009

DistributionofThesisbyYears

1998

2003

2006

2007

2008

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Figure 3. Distribution of Articles by Journals

According to Figure 3, 29.6% of the articles were published in Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 13% in Eko-Gastronomi Dergisi (Journal of Eco-Gastronomy), 7.4% in Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi (Journal of International Social and Economic Sciences), 3.7% in Journal of Yaşar University, 3.7% in Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (Journal of Institute of Social Sciences of Dumlupınar University). The margin of the other journals is 1.9%.

Figure 4. Distribution of Thesis by Universities

According to Figure 4, 9.4% of the thesis were prepared in Ankara University, 9.4% in Canakkale Onsekizmart University, 9.4% in Gazi University, 9.4% Namık

DistributionofArticlesbyJournals

JournalofTourismandGastronomyStudies

Eko-GastronomiDergisi

UluslararasıSosyalveEkonomikBilimlerDergisi

DistributionofThesisbyUniversities

MersinUniversity

SelçukUniversity

AnkaraUniversity

BalıkesirUniversity

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Kemal University, 6.3% in Atilim University, 6.3% in Istanbul University, 6.3% in Sakarya University, the ratio in other universities is 3.1%.

Figure 5. Distribution by Research Subjects

It can be observed in accordance with Figure 5 that the analysed articles and thesis mainly focus on subjects as; 41,9% on “gastronomy tourism”, 39.5% on “local cuisine culture”, 30.2% on “Turkish cuisine”, 26.7% on “gastronomy in destination marketing”, 15.1% on “alternative tourism”. Other leading research subjects are “food culture”, “sustainable gastronomy”, “sustainable rural development”, “promotion of Turkish cuisine” and “Turkish wine sector”.

Figure 6. Keyword Analysis

According to Figure 6, most commonly used keywords in a total of 86 articles and theses were; “gastronomy tourism” by 26.7%, “gastronomy” by 24.4%, “Turkish cuisine” by 19.8%, “tourism” by 12.8%, “local cuisine” by 8.1%, “destination marketing” by 7% and “wine” by 7%.

DistributionbyResearchSubjects

GastronomyTourism

LocalCuisineCulture

TurkishCuisine

KeywordAnalysis

GastronomyTourism

Gastronomy

TurkishCuisine

Tourism

DomesticCuisine

Wine

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As to the research method in the analysed articles and thesis; qualitative research method was utilised for 51.2%, quantitative research method was utilised for 40.7%, and qualitative and quantitative (combined) research method was utilised for 8.1%. “Survey” is the most preferred method of data gathering by 37.2%. “Interview” by 26.7%, “secondary data sources” by 19.8%, “survey and interview” by 8.1%, “case study analysis” by 5.8%, “observation” by 2.3% was among the data gathering methods. When the analysis methods used in the researches are reviewed, it can be seen that in the 40,7% of the researches were conducted with “descriptive analysis”, 12,8% with ANOVA, 10,5% “t test”, 7% with “factor analysis”, 7% with “chi square test” and 4,7% with “Mann Whitney-U test”. Other utilised analysis methods were; “clustering analysis, regression, correlation and regression, content analysis, tukey’s test, correlation, Kruskal Wallis H test, NPar test/Run test”.

Distribution of the research results shows that the most important and commonly accentuated results are respectively;

• Importance and wealth of local cuisine culture,

• Inadequacy in the promotion of gastronomy tourism,

• Importance of gastronomy in the presentation of the destination,

• Importance of gastronomy in the development of region,

• Importance of Turkish Cuisine culture and the need to promote thereof,

• Lack of umbrella organization for gastronomy tourism,

• Lack of local and national plans regarding gastronomy tourism,

• Importance of gastronomy in destination competition,

• Importance of gastronomy in sustainable tourism,

• Importance of gastronomy in universities,

• Necessity to increase the researches in the field of gastronomy,

• Importance of gastronomy tourism for Turkey,

• Importance of wine sector in Turkey and inadequacy of efficient marketing activities.

Today, when the competition is extremely high, destinations have to put their factors of attraction in good use by making a difference in many fields in order to be

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able to compete with the other destinations. Changing market choices should be very well analyzed and development of attraction factors of the destination must be planned. Historical and cultural values take the lead in the attraction factors of the destination. Gastronomy has an important place in means of cultural attraction and is also a difference simulating marketing element with its inherence to a destination. When the improvements about tourism are researched, it is seen that gastronomy has an important role for marketing the touristic destinations. The marketing activities which used gastronomic factors that relate to destinations, the income which are from gastronomic tourism activities and requiring new products prove with serious numeric data. Gastronomy carries a potential to increase the worth of many destinations. The Ottoman and Turkish cuisines which are in the world’s best cuisines, assist big additions to be label for destinations with a right location and attractive image (Güzel, 2009). According to the analysis of researches; in Turkey, tourism policies had been limited to the coastal mass tourism in the coastal zones of Aegean and Mediterranean regions, utilizing sea, sand and sun potentials of the country, win the purpose of maximum contribution to the national economy, by attracting foreign tourists.

CONCLUSION

Gastronomy tourism is a kind of tourism that appeals to tourists with high income, intellectual identity, between the ages of 35-55, like to travel to destinations with different cuisine cultures, open to new experiences, like consuming the food, where they are produced, want to share their experiences with others, and spend much. Gastronomy is an important part of tourism and creates a strong image with the attractiveness formed exclusive to the region in the development of the destination under the pressure sourced by the competition on tourism. Day by day tourism activities are globalized. At this point, it is necessary to analyse the gastronomy market well in order to be successful in the development of gastronomy. Taking into consideration that countries like Canada, South Africa and Australia that do not have even a cuisine culture of their own have based their tourism strategies mainly on gastronomy and have succeeded, and many destinations in Europe have created a brand value with gastronomy tourism, it can be better understood how powerful actually a marketing tool this potential is for Turkey, which could still not be valued.

According to research results; in Turkey the studies on gastronomy tourism mainly intensify in 2010 and after. Majority of the articles were published in Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies and Eko-Gastronomi Dergisi. The academicians publishing in this field preferred the national journals rather than the international ones. More qualified publishes in the international journals would have important contributions to studies both in sectorial sense and in the field of gastronomy tourism.

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Analysed articles and thesis emphasized the importance of marketing the gastronomy tourism in Turkey as a kind of alternative tourism by focusing on the wealth of Turkish cuisine culture. The necessity of removing the obstacles before the development of gastronomy tourism by solving problems like the lack of planning in the field, particularly the problems in the field of education, the lack of umbrella organization, inefficiencies in promotion and marketing was pointed out. Turkey’s culinary tourism activities should be enriched and developed in below ways:

• Improving agri-tourism activities • Establishing farm vacations • Tasting/buying packaged local products/farmer’s markets • Improving traditional dining experiences • Visiting cheese factories • Starting winery tour and tasting and visiting wine factories • Opening culinary schools • Improving possibilities for dining in Turkey’s many fine restaurants

In Turkey, the type of being branding has moved into public policy arguments for Turkey to be in today’s global world. The argument turns around how to create and sustain the image of country that is attractive for tourists while making benefit. Turkey is represented with a number of natural beauties such as sun, sea, sand and the ruggedness of the Mediterranean coastline. Culinary tourism has potential to get worth to many destinations for Turkish cuisine, which is one of richest cuisine in the world, with correct positioning and with attractive image, which will be created will highly, contributes to branding destination. The lack of enough public relations and advirtisement activities of turkish cuisine is the most important problem we face in tourism marketing of Turkey. In summary, Turkish cuisine has a great potential and by taking the necessary actions this potential will be realized and achive the successful level of main european destinations such as France, Italy and Spain. Suggestions are improved for marketing Turkey as a culinary destination;

• Improving national, local and sector brand images • Choosing goal markets (including domestic markets) • Creating the familiarness and enhancing the profile of cuisine tourism

marketing places. • Improving an adequate bank of culinary images for use in marketing programs • Improving companion and commitment of funds to help link smaller culinary

tourism tools • The importance of companion at all levels and between government and

industry as well as associating culinary tourism with other tourism yields

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As one of the most important instruments of sustainable tourism and regional development, gastronomy tourism is a potential strength for Turkish tourism that should be put to good use. Gastronomy tourism is one of the most important elements of tourism marketing and this new concept will contribute at a great level on the tourism marketing of Turkey. To achieve this aim, cooperation between local inhabitants and private sector should be realized. Gastronomy tourism will positively push local economic growth and these results will be efficient and satisfactory for both sides. Today’s culinary traditions have been impressed by a long history of transmigration, together with regional product availability. Chefs have associated cultural traditions and local products, producing new forms and styles of cooking. Scaffoldings from different geographical regions across the country will emphasize the rich variety susceptible in Turkish gastronomy tourism influenced, not only by global but also by regional pressures, which can be branded under the umbrella of the cuisine in Turkey.

The study identifies that gastronomy is important linked to the destination marketing and the destination’s image in multidimensional forms. It can also be emphazied that gastronomy and culinary experiences are powerful tools for marketing Turkey’s unique gastronomy.

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PROPERTIES OF MICHELIN STARRED RESTAURANTS Serkan BERTAN, Serap ALKAYA

Pamukkale University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management, [email protected]

Abstract

This study analyzes factors taken into account by inspectors during the process of evaluation for Michelin Star awards in cases of 93 three-star and 347 two-star restaurants. In scope of the study, a total of 440 restaurants were analyzed, located in France, Italy, Germany, USA, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Singapore, China, Austria, Greece, Ireland, Luxemburg, Portugal, Switzerland, and Brazil. Necessary data were gathered from "www.viamichelin.com" address by checking two-star and three-star categories separately. Information was given on the number of restaurants with Michelin Star by country, price range of restaurants and number of photos. Then, most frequently used keywords for restaurants were analyzed per restaurant, cuisine, requirement and country. Consequently, the present study could be considered as an effort to provide guidance for other restaurants in the process of Michelin Star award.

Keywords: Michelin, Michelin Star, Restaurant, Inspector.

INTRODUCTION

Michelin Star is the best implementation known for many years in the sector where classification of restaurants according to certain criteria such as price, commentary, cuisine etc. is challenging (Bucak and Köse, 2014). The guide prepared by Andre and Edouard Michelin in 1900s as a marketing strategy is considerably important for restaurants (Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2007; Svejenova; Planellas and Vives, Luis, 2010; Liu et al., 2014; Gehrels et al., 2006).

As one of the oldest and most important implementations in restaurant evaluation systems, Michelin Star has been launched with a single star in 1926, followed by the addition of two and three stars in 1931 (Akoğlu; Çavuş and Bayhan, 2017; Bucak and Köse, 2014) so as to effect restaurants’ images considerably (Gehrels et al., 2006; Subakti, 2013). Michelin Star is quite influential in restaurant choices of consumers (Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2007ab) as well as competitive conditions between restaurants (Bucak and Köse, 2014).

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The present study analyzes number of restaurants with Michelin Star per country, price range of restaurants, number of photos, as well as most frequently used words for restaurants per restaurant, cuisine, requirement and country.

LITERATURE REVIEW Michelin Star is considered as an important evaluation and classification system

in the restaurant choice of guests (Subakti, 2013). There are 1977 restaurants with 1 star, 345 restaurants with 2 stars, and 93 restaurants with 3 stars (viamichelin.com).

Three-star restaurants are characterized by exceptional cuisines and perfect dishes prepared with the best ingredients by top chefs (“Exceptional cuisine, worth a special journey!”), two-star restaurants are characterized by original dishes, masterfully prepared by the chef and his/her team (“Excellent cooking, worth a detour!”); and one-star restaurants are characterized by different tastes in dishes prepared with high-quality ingredients as well as extraordinary care according to high standards (“High quality cooking, worth a stop!”) (Gehrels et al., 2006; viamichelin.com; Subakti, 2013; Bucak and Köse, 2014; Akoğlu; Çavuş and Bayhan, 2017; Surlemont, et al., 2005).

Michelin criteria include quality of ingredients, mastery in preparation-cooking, creativity, value (for price), quality, decoration, coherence of atmosphere and menu, hygiene, butique and innovative quality of the restaurant, and chef being the owner of restaurant or having a work background in restaurants with Michelin Star (Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2007; Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2007b; http://yemek.com).

METHODOLOGY Population of the study consists of 440 restaurants in total, including 93 three-

star and 347 two-star restaurants around the world, according to August 2017 data, as obtained from “www.viamichelin.com” address. Full count was obtained from the universe consisting of 440 restaurants. The study is based on the data obtained from “www.viamichelin.com” website.

Viamichelin is a website that provides online help in choosing and planning the best destination while also enabling making reservations in hotels and restaurants, as well as informing about traffic and weather (www.michelin.com.tr, 14.11.2017). In scope of the study, a total of 440 restaurants were analyzed, located in France, Italy, Germany, USA, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Singapore, China, Austria, Greece, Ireland, Luxemburg, Portugal, Switzerland, and Brazil. Necessary data were gathered from "www.viamichelin.com"

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address by checking two-star and three-star categories separately. Data gathering tool was “www.viamichelin.com” website.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Data related to 93 three-star and 347 two-star restaurants which were gathered

from “www.viamichelin.com” website are as follows.

Table 1. Restaurants with Three and Two Michelin Stars around the World

Country Number of Restaurants

Number of Stars

Price Range Currency Number of Photographs

France 26 3 140 314 Euro 13 83 2 84 204 Euro 11

Italy 8 3 123 249 Euro 0 41 2 81 176 Euro 0

Germany 10 3 133 230 Euro 12 39 2 96 173 Euro 10

England 4 3 110 156 Pound 0 20 2 67 123 Pound 0

U.S.A 14 3 75 150 Dollar 0 24 2 73 146 Dollar 0

Belgium 2 3 187 427 Euro 0 20 2 96 188 Euro 0

Swiss 3 3 156 291 Swiss Franc 0 19 2 118 243 Swiss Franc 0

Spain 9 3 146 197 Euro 0 23 2 97 150 Euro 0

Denmark 1 3 2000 2000 Danish Krona 0 2 2 897 1375 Danish Krona 0

Monaco 1 3 220 330 Euro 0 1 2 59 280 Euro 0

Netherlands 2 3 109 177 Euro 0 19 2 80 158 Euro 0

Norway 1 3 2600 2600 Norwegian Kr.

0

South Korea 2 3 165000 240000 Korean Won 0 3 2 140000 263000 Korean Won 0

Singapore 1 3 248 498 Sing. Dollar 0 7 2 161 294 Sing. Dollar 0

China 9 3 811 1888 Chinese Yuan 0 26 2 618 1871 Chinese Yuan 0

Austria 7 2 74 161 Euro 3 Greece 2 2 81 143 Euro 0 Ireland 1 2 45 105 Euro 0 Luxembourg 1 2 75 130 Euro 0 Portugal 5 2 90 160 Euro 0 Sweden 3 2 1816 2031 Swedish

Krona 0

Brazil 1 2 280 610 Brazilian Real 0

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According to the data in Table 1, the highest number of three-star restaurants is found in France (26) while the lowest number of three-star restaurants is found in Denmark, Monaco, Norway and Singapore (1). The highest number of two-star restaurants is found, again, in France (83) while the lowest number of two-star restaurants is found in Monaco, Ireland, Luxemburg and Brazil (1). According to their price range on the basis of Euros, the country with the highest price range among three-star restaurants was Belgium (187-427 Euro) while the highest price range among two-star restaurants was found in Monaco (59-280 Euro). Again, according to their price range on the basis of Euros, the country with the lowest price range among three-star restaurants was Netherlands (109-177 Euro) while the lowest price range among two-star restaurants was found in Ireland (45-105 Euro). According to findings on numbers of photos uploaded by restaurants on Viamichelin website, three-star restaurants in France came first with an average of 13 photos, followed by three-star restaurants in Germany with an average of 12 photos. Two-star restaurants in Austria, however, were found to have shared only 3 photos in average. Restaurants in Italy, United Kingdom, USA, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, Denmark, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Singapore, China, Greece, Ireland, Luxemburg, Portugal, Sweden and Brazil have not shared any photos on the website despite the option to add photos.

Table 2 presents information found on “www.viamichelin.com” regarding the cuisines of 93 three-star and 347 two-star restaurants around the world. According to findings, the widest variety in the category of cuisine is found in Germany and USA (8). Germany and USA are followed by Belgium (7), United Kingdom (6), China (6), France (4), Italy (4), Singapore (4), Netherlands (3), Austria (2), Denmark (2), South Korea (2), Spain (2), Portugal (2), Greece (2), Brazil (1), Ireland (1), Luxemburg (1) and Monaco (1). The most preferred cuisine by restaurants among all cuisine categories is observed to be “Creative Cuisine”. France (39) takes the first place in the category of creative cuisine, followed by Italy (29), Spain (20), Netherlands (15), Germany (14), Belgium (12), Austria (5), Portugal and United Kingdom (4), Brazil, Singapore and Greece (1). In modern cuisine category, France (35) is ranked in the first place, followed by USA (16), Italy (9), United Kingdom (8), Germany and Netherlands (4), Belgium and Spain (3), Austria (2), Denmark, Monaco and Portugal (1). France (3) takes the first place again in the seafood category, followed by Italy (2), Belgium, United Kingdom and USA (1). According to the findings, Asian cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in Germany, International cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in Germany, Organic cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in Belgium, Canton cuisine is found only in 12 restaurants in China, Innovative cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in China, American cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA, Indian cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA, and Scandinavian cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA.

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Table 2. Countries and Their Cuisines

Cre

ativ

e

Cre

ativ

e Fr

ench

Cla

ssic

Cui

sine

Mod

ern

Cui

sine

Mod

ern

Fren

ch

Seaf

ood

Asi

an

Cla

ssic

Fre

nch

Mod

ern

Fren

ch

Tra

ditio

nal

Inte

rnat

iona

l

Org

anic

Can

tone

se

Chi

nese

In

nova

tive

İIta

lian

Japa

n

Kor

ean

Am

eric

an

Indi

an

Scan

dina

vian

France 39 0 8 35 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Germany 14 0 2 4 0 0 2 6 8 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Austria 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Belgium 12 0 0 3 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Brazil 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 China 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 12 1 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 Denmark 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Korea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Netherlands 15 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 England 4 1 0 8 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ireland 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Spain 20 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Italy 29 0 2 9 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Luxembourg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Monaco 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Portugal 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Singapore 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 U.S.A. 0 0 0 16 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 Greece 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Figure 1 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants. An interpretation is put forward through content analysis according to emphasis intensity by looking at the notions emphasized the most or the least (Kozak, 2015: 138). According to Figure 1, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as restaurant, chef, cuisine, dishes, ingredients, menu, modern, style, elegant, creative, contemporary, cooking, taste, quality, French, perfect, wine, best, service, classic, super, traditional, terrace, team, experience, etc.

Figure 1. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star

Figure 2 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants’ cuisines. According to Figure 2, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as creative, cuisine, modern, French, contemporary, classic, canton, innovative, sea food, Japanese, Mediterranean, Korea, Italian, organic, Indian, international, traditional, American, Asia, sushi, Scandinavian, British, China, Shanghai, Greek, country, etc.

Figure 2. Most frequently used words for cuisines of restaurants with Michelin Star

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Figure 3 presents the content analysis regarding the details on required information about two- and three-star restaurants. According to Figure 3, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as reservation, proper, required, dinner, menu, tasting, Sunday, lunch, Saturday, accessible, limited, surprise, interesting, Friday, weekends, Thursday, dogs, wheel chair, winter, special, air condition, etc.

Figure 3. Details to know about restaurants with Michelin Star

Figure 4 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Germany. According to Figure 4, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, restaurant, classic, modern, creative, elegant, quality, style, food, wine, service, ingredients, perfect, inside, chef, best, German, team, setting, elaborate, masterful, beautifully, taste, friendly, presentation, etc.

Figure 4. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Germany

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Figure 5 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in USA. According to Figure 5, most frequently emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, dining room, chef, menu, new, cooking, service, ice, restaurant, black, contemporary, good, desserts, lobster, food, wine, caviar, ingredients, chocolate, cream, truffle, elegant, tables, etc.

Figure 5. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in USA

Figure 6. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Austria

Figure 6 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Austria. According to Figure 6, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as ingredients, wine, perfect, creative, modern, food, production, restaurant, professional, quality, intensive, decoration, powerful, extraordinary, taste, chef, detail, cellar, effect, service,

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concept, elaborate, invention, distinguishing, architecture, stylish, guest, global, space, etc.

Figure 7. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Belgium

Figure 7 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Belgium. According to Figure 7, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as chef, menu, cuisine, food, restaurant, modern, creative, elegant, terrace, production, organization, ingredients, tastes, classic, decoration, creations, wines, gastronomic, authentic, skill, best, beautifully, sophisticated, suggestion, pleasure, sea, tables, choice, blend, etc.

Figure 8 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in China. According to Figure 8, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as restaurant, canton, cuisine, traditional, chef, menu, ingredients, China, chicken, service, wine, cooking, contemporary, Tokyo, lobster, innovative, elegant, special, pork, French, team, comfortable, expert, view, fish, attention, impressive, etc.

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Figure 8. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in China

Figure 9 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in France. According to Figure 9, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, restaurant, chef, tastes, ingredients, decoration, contemporary, place, super, local, classic, best, creative, great, experience, amazing, cooking, team, talent, delicate, French, tradition, style, sea, etc.

Figure 9. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in France

Figure 10 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in South Korea. According to Figure 10, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as Korea, food, ingredients, restaurant, chef, cuisine, seasonal, traditional, protected, elegant, tastes, contemporary, French, fascinating, stylish, wine, fresh, elaborate,

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ceramic, commenting, availability, approach, aesthetics, better, liquor, derived, experience, labels, custom, fermented, luxury, etc.

Figure 10. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in South Korea

Figure 11 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Netherlands. According to Figure 11, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as chef, restaurant, ingredients, style, elegant, tastes, tasty, quality, cooking, beautiful, modern, contemporary, combination, fantastic, wine, sophisticated, fashionable, intense, products, designer, super, best, clean, trendy, great, amazing, original, exotic, urban, pleasure, character, refinement, saloon, unique, etc.

Figure 11. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Netherlands

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Figure 12 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in United Kingdom. According to Figure 12, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as dishes, restaurant, service, cooking, French, menus, ingredients, tastes, production, quality, modern, balanced, smart, attentive, perfect, characteristic, choice, atmosphere, London, experience, best, sushi, elegant, comfortable, different, style, combination, original, sophisticated, seasonal, etc.

Figure 12. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in United Kingdom

Figure 13 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Spain. According to Figure 13, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, restaurant, chef, contemporary, ingredients, style, innovative, gastronomic, food, super, creative, technique, tastes, guests, traditional, impressive, unique, terrace, classic, wine, garden, textures, elegant, glass, entry, experience, combination, talent, special, perfect, design, etc.

Figure 13. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Spain

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Figure 14 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Switzerland. According to Figure 14, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, restaurant, home, modern, service, menu, classic, style, perfect, team, quality, chef, creative, elaborate, guests, ingredients, relaxed, dishes, great, quiet, individual, tradition, friendly, French, night, interesting, combination, exciting, cute, gastronomy, symphony, sincere, lake, decoration, design, concept, pleasure, old, personnel, etc.

Figure 14. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Switzerland

Figure 15 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Italy. According to Figure 15, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as restaurant, cuisine, dishes, chef, elegant, menu, traditional, creative, decoration, fish, Italian, romantic, focus, meat, sea food, modern, ingredients, tastes, Mediterranean, innovative, regional, guests, attentive, international, sophisticated, perfect, characteristic, contemporary, recipe, tasty, terrace, garden, ambiance, option, choice, beautifully, clean water, delight, view, wine, pleasure, style, city, etc.

Figure 16 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Portugal. According to Figure 16, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as cuisine, restaurant, attractive, menus, Portugal, wine, taste, chef, best, terrace, super, dishes, classic, innovative, contemporary, elegant, decoration, thanks, glass, entry, modern, presentation, international, cellar, guests, gastronomical, beautiful, bright, ambiance, creative, popular, different, phenomenon, county, color, expertise, experiences, etc.

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Figure 15. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Italy

Figure 16. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Portugal

Figure 17 presents the content analysis regarding most frequently used words by Michelin inspectors for two- and three-star restaurants in Singapore. According to Figure 17, most emphasized words are observed to include primarily words such as restaurant, dishes, ingredients, sophisticated, Japanese, world, caviar, steak, quality, balanced, French, chef, warm, sichuan, sincere, wine, glamorous, innovative, cooking, detail, Asia, chandeliers, etc.

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Figure 17. Most frequently used words for restaurants with Michelin Star in Singapore

CONCLUSION

In the study, factors taken into account by Michelin inspectors in the process of Michelin Star award were analyzed in scope of 440 two- and three-star restaurants in total, located in France, Italy, Germany, USA, Belgium, Sweden, Spain, Denmark, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Singapore, China, Austria, Greece, Ireland, Luxemburg, Portugal, Switzerland, and Brazil. According to the findings of the study, the highest number of three-star restaurants is found in France while the lowest number of three-star restaurants is found in Denmark, Monaco, Norway and Singapore. Again according to the findings of the study, France is the country with the highest number of two-star restaurants as well, while the lowest number of two-star restaurants is found in Monaco, Ireland, Luxemburg and Brazil. According to their price range on the basis of Euros, the country with the highest price range among three-star restaurants is observed to be Belgium with a range of 187-427 Euros while the highest price range among two-star restaurants is observed in Monaco with 59-280 Euros. According to their price range on the basis of Euros, the country with the lowest price range among three-star restaurants is observed to be Netherlands with a range of 109-177 Euros while the lowest price range among two-star restaurants is observed in Ireland with 45-105 Euros.

Most varieties in cuisine category were observed in Germany and USA. They were followed by Belgium, United Kingdom, China, France, Italy, Singapore, Netherlands, Austria, Denmark, South Korea, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Brazil, Ireland, Luxemburg and Monaco. The most preferred cuisine by restaurants among all cuisine categories was observed to be “Creative Cuisine”. France took the first place in the category of creative cuisine, followed by Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, Austria, Portugal, United Kingdom, Brazil, Singapore and Greece. The most preferred

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cuisine by restaurants among all cuisine categories was observed to be “Creative Cuisine”. France took the first place in the category of modern cuisine, followed by USA, Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and Spain, Austria, Denmark, Monaco and Portugal. France took the first place again in the seafood category, followed by Italy, Belgium, United Kingdom and USA. According to the findings of the study, Asian cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in Germany, International cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in Germany, Organic cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in Belgium, Canton cuisine is found only in 12 restaurants in China, Innovative cuisine is found only in 2 restaurants in China, American cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA, Indian cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA, and Scandinavian cuisine is found only in 1 restaurant in USA.

The results of content analysis regarding the most used words by Michelin inspectors about two- and three-star restaurants suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as restaurant, chef, cuisine, dishes, ingredients, menu, modern, etc. The results of content analysis regarding the most used words by Michelin inspectors about the cuisines of two- and three-star restaurants suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as creative, cuisine, modern, French, contemporary, classic, contemporary, canton, innovative, sea food, Japanese, Mediterranean, Korea, Italian, organic, etc. The results of content analysis regarding the details to know about two- and three-star restaurants suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as reservation, proper, necessary, dinner, menu, tasting, Sunday, lunch, Saturday, etc.

The results of content analysis regarding the most used words by Michelin inspectors about two- and three-star restaurants in Germany suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as cuisine, restaurant, classic, modern, creative, elegant, quality, style, food, wine, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding USA suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as cuisine, dining room, chef, menu, new, cooking, service, ice, restaurant, black, contemporary, good, desserts, lobster, food, wine, caviar, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Austria suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as ingredients, wine, perfect, creative, modern, food, production, restaurant, professional, quality, intense, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Belgium suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as chef, menu, cuisine, food, restaurant, modern, creative, elegant, terrace, production, organization, ingredients, tastes, classic, decoration, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding China suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as restaurant, canton, cuisine, traditional, chef, menu, ingredients, China, chicken, service, wine, cooking, contemporary, Tokyo, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding France suggested that the most emphasized

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words were words such as cuisine, restaurant, chef, tastes, ingredients, decoration, contemporary, place, super, local, classic, best, creative, great, experience, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding South Korea suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as Korea, food, ingredients, restaurant, chef, cuisine, seasonal, traditional, protected, elegant, tastes, contemporary, French, fascinating, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Netherlands suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as chef, restaurant, ingredients, style, elegant, experience, tastes, tasty, quality, cooking, beautiful, modern, contemporary, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding United Kingdom suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as dishes, restaurant, service, cooking, French, menus, ingredients, tastes, production, quality, modern, balanced, smart, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Spain suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as cuisine, restaurant, chef, contemporary, ingredients, style, innovative, gastronomic, food, super, creative, technique, tastes, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Switzerland suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as cuisine, restaurant, home, modern, service, menu, classic, style, perfect, team, quality, chef, creative, elaborate, guests, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Italy suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as restaurant, cuisine, dishes, chef, elegant, menu, traditional, creative, decoration, fish, Italian, romantic, focus, etc.; the results of content analysis regarding Portugal suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as cuisine, restaurant, attractive, menus, Portugal, wine, taste, chef, best, terrace, super, food, classic, innovative, etc.; and finally, the results of content analysis regarding Singapore suggested that the most emphasized words were words such as restaurant, food, ingredients, sophisticated, Japanese, worlds, caviar, steak, quality, balanced, French, chef, etc.

REFERENCES

Akoğlu, Aylin; Çavuş, Osman ve Bayhan, İsa. (2017). Michelin Yıldızlı Restoran Şeflerinin Moleküler Gastronomi Algı ve Eğilimleri: San Sebastián, İspanya Örneği, Journal of Tourism And Gastronomy Studies, 5/1, 43-5.

Bucak, Turgay ve Kose, Zeynep Ceren. (2014). The Aplication of Michelin’s Star Standarts in Restaurant Business; Hamburg Le Canard Sample, Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 21-35.

Gehrels, S. A., Kristanto, S., & Eringa, K. (2006). Managing Word-of-Mouth Communication in Michelin Starred Restaurants in the Netherlands. Jurnal Manajemen Perhotelan, 2(2), 47-56.

Kozak, M. (2015). Bilimsel Araştırma: Tasarım, Yazım ve Yayım Teknikleri, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara.

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Liu, Chih-Hsing Sam; Su, Ching-Shu; Gan, Bernard ve Chou, Sheng-Fang. (2014). Effective restaurant rating scale development and a mystery shopperevaluation approachInternational Journal of Hospitality Management 43 (2014) 53–64.

Ottenbacher, Michael and Harrington, Robert J. (2007a) The Culinary Innovation Process, Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 5:4, 9-35,

Ottenbacher, M., & Harrington, R. J. (2007b). The innovation development process of Michelin-starred chefs. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(6), 444-460.

Subakti, Agung Gita. (2013). Overview Michelin Star Reputation Restaurant In Hospitality Industry, Binus Business Review, Vol. 4, No. 1, 290-299.

Surlemont, B., Chantrain, D., Nlemvo, F., & Johnson, C. (2005). Revenue models in haute cuisine: an exploratory analysis. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 17(4), 286-301.

Svejenova, Silviya; Planellas, Marcel and Vives, Luis (2010). An Individual Business Model in the Making: Chef’s Quest for Creative Freedom, Long Range Planning 43 (2010) 408-430.

http://yemek.com/michelin-yildizi-nedir-nasil-alinir/, Erişim Tarihi: 14.11.2017. http://www.michelin.com.tr/servisler/michelin-yol-kilavuzu, Erişim Tarihi:

14.11.2017.

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THE EFFECTS OF LOCAL MARKETS ON REGIONAL GASTRONOMY TOURISM: SIGACIK LOCAL MARKET

SAMPLE Turgay BUCAK1, Pınar GÜVEN2

1. Dokuz Eylul University, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department,Seferihisar, İzmir, Turkey

2. Adnan Menderes University, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department,Kuşadası, Aydın, Turkey

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Gastronomic tourism has become a tourism area where people are more interested in the day after day. Destination evaluations have also begun to create activities that combine their own cultures and cuisines to provide significant contributions to the regional economy and eventually to the branding of the region.An example of such a destination in Turkey is the Seferihisar district of İzmir, which has Turkey's first "slow city" title. Seferihisar day by day is getting well known and the region is becoming an important destination in terms of gastronomic tourism. In this study, the effects of the Sığacık local market, which is important in the recognition and development of Seferihisar district, to regional gastronomic tourism were examined. For this purpose, 15 face-to-face meeting were held with Seferihisar municipality, who took part in the service and initiative of Sığacık local market, related nongovernmental organizations and market traders. In the results of working; Sığacık provides significant contributions to the promotion of regional gastronomy and economy in the local market.

Keywords: Seferihisar, Sığacık, Local Market, Gastronomy Tourism

INTRODUCTION

Tourism sector, with the emergence of alternative tourism types, the concept of classical holiday "sea, sand, sun" is getting new dimension each day. As it is known, the expectations of those who visit another country include the desire to meet new tastes, to recognize new cultures and to see new places (Uyar and Zengin, 2015). In this context, gastronomy tourism has become an increasingly important and tourism-leading factor.

Gastronomy tourism; is defined as strategically effective activities taking place among rising tourism trends, effect of wide scope and high awareness of the scope of

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activity and playing an important role in promoting the local people and the place where the activity is carried out and seriously contributing to the development of the region and countries (Bucak and Aracı, 2013). One of the most important elements that a destination has is gastronomic variety. Today, destinations need to make a difference in many ways in order to be able to compete with other destinations and make the best use of their attractiveness. Gastronomy has an important place in terms of cultural appeal and at the same time, it is a distinguishing marketing element because it is specific to the destination. It reflects the cultural identity and heritage of the region with the presentation of local cuisine. At this point Gastronomy is an important element in creating awareness for the destination and ensuring that the destination can compete with other destinations (Deveci et al, 2013). Gastronomic identity varies according to cultural, geographical, ecological, economic structure and historical process. It is not possible to imitate these features in the region (Kesici, 2012). Turkey is a preferred country for gastronomic tourism with its long history, rich cuisine and tourist attraction. The geography in which Turkey is located, when dealt with the gastronomic elements, which it has in its scope in terms of tourism and especially attractive factors, reveals deep and effective strategic riches. These include food festivals, wine festivals, and local markets. Adana, Mersin, Hatay, Urfa, Mardin and famous for its local tastes, there are cities that attach importance to gastronomic tourism. According to the researches made, it is stated that 20-25% of the tourists who visited the region prefer gastronomic tourism (Aslan, 2010). Activities within the scope of gastronomic tourism provide unique experiences to tourists and contributing to the cultural exchange among the people of the world while also contributing to the development of cities and becoming a brand city (Bilgili et al, 2012). Gastronomy tourism is an important marketing tool for marketing destinations; because gastronomy tourism is a type of tourism that can be realized for 12 months of the year. Hence, the destination can benefit for twelve months from the economic, socio-cultural, infrastructure advantages provided by tourism. This is an important marketing tool for marketing gastronomic tourism destination (Kivela and Crotts, 2005).

According to World Food Traders (WFT) (2013), the benefits of gastronomic tourism destinations are listed as follows (Bayer, 1992): The more visitors, the greater the sales (room, airplane seat, food, drink, car rental), advertising, tax revenue, new competitive advantage or sale of differentiated products and services, increase in tourism awareness in society awareness, increased awareness with local food resources, utilization. When the activities in gastronomic tourism are evaluated in the regional manners, the advantages to the related destination are so high and valuable that they cannot be denied. The impact of conventional tourism types on the image and sustainability of destinations is a strategic consideration. The activation of the attractiveness of the existing tourist regions in this context, apart from the tourism of

39

different destinations, is at the point of deepening the destinations in the perceptions of the tourists (Bucak and Aracı, 2013). Therefore cultural culinary is an important condition in terms of economic development and destination development. In order to develop gastronomic tourism and to provide financial support to the region, official assistance and studies be needed (Henderson, 2009).

LOCAL MARKETS

Local markets; where locality-specific products are offered for sale, where the cultural and historical characteristics of the area are included, and where the local producer and consumer meet. In addition to being an indispensable type of traditional shopping, it is a unique element in economic, social and cultural terms. They are often organized once a week, sometimes twice a week. In local markets, the products are exhibited and presented to the public. Some markets have separated from each other in terms of their historical background, spatial dimensions and variety of exhibited products, and have become a product of tourism (Ataberk, 2010). Turkey's Aegean Region is very rich in terms of the number of local markets. This region has markets with different characteristics, including Foça earth market, Tire market, Ödemiş market, organic markets. Foça Earth Market is the only member of the World Market Network which has 28 members in 8 countries all over the world. Established to comply with healthy and fair nutrition laws, these markets play an important role in protecting local food cultures and biodiversity and ensuring that domestic producers of good, fair and clean produce meet consumers (http://www.izmirdergisi.com/tr/). Unlike other market places, local markets contain the cultural and historical features of the region they are in. In these markets, approximately 80% of the products found on the counter are derived from products grown in the region and the sellers are made up of the locals of the region. In this context, local markets; The awareness level is increasing day by day, contributing significantly to the tourism sector in the framework of its content, importance and scope of activities, contributing significantly to the people of the region and the region where the activity is being carried out (Getz, 2010).

SIGACIK LOCAL MARKET

Seferihisar is located in the south west of İzmir and in the Aegean Region. Seferihisar became a district in 1884 before the Republic. Today, it is one of the 30 districts of Izmir. Seferihisar, which has the title of "slow city" (cittaslow), is located within the borders of Sığacık, Akarca, Ürkmez and offers potential for summer tourism (http://www.sigacikpazari.com/).

Seferihisar's cuisine, which is Turkey's first slow city, is made up of many local products. Some of these delicacies are samsades, okalavadan sıyırma, tatlı tarhana,

40

yuvalaça, ekmek dolması, kuru mantı, enginar dolması, loklok. Mandarin, which is grown and festivated intensively in the region, mandarin dessert, mandarin lokumu, dried mandarin variety is consumed. In 2011, "Topan Karakılçık Wheat" discovered in Seferihisar's Gödence Village, was started to be produced by grinding and turning into flour in the village mill and became one of the prominent products of the region's cuisine. Also different from other cheese varieties in the regional cuisine, Armola cheese is a soft cheese made in a tulle made from goat cheese juice and cheese cracks with lor and yoghurt, and only in this region in our country and only limited quantity is produced (http://seferihisar.bel.tr/).

Sığacık has become a rapidly becoming a branded destination, especially with the local market established on Sundays. This market; it also includes regional handcrafted products of the district residents as well as regional flavors of the region. In order to address these products in detail; In the Sığacık local market, certain benches selling only fruits and vegetables are gathered in an area; other products are pasta and vegetable pastry products, pickle varieties, jam varieties, sorbet varieties, jewelery and ornamental designs, textile products, souvenirs. Apart from these, along with the recognition of the district, the number of restaurants, local cafes and pensions has also risen. The purpose of the establishment of the Sığacık local market; natural life, slow life concepts to people to remind and to live. Seferihisar municipality put this project into practice 8 years ago and went to the individual district houses to inform about the market will be built and the features will carry. According to the information obtained from the municipal police of Seferihisar municipality, at the beginning 50-60 marketers were found, but nowadays, this number has exceeded 300. Currently, up to 150 petitions are waiting to open the counter.

RESEARCH

In this study, Sığacık local market sample was examined to investigate the effects of local markets on regional gastronomic tourism. '' What is the size of the local market of Sığacık affecting the gastronomic tourism of region? '' answer was searched. As a data collection tool, qualitative research method, interview technique and semi-structured questions were used; has been applied to the person at the primary level about the marketplace and the traders. One of the reasons for this method is to reach intellectual, perceptual and emotional information about the research topic of the individuals. During the conversation the voice recorder was used and then converted into writing.

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The 15 participants who participated in the study were coded as follows:

Table 1. Participants and codes participating in the survey

PARTICIPANT CODE

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION

P1 Seferihisar Mayor P2 President of Hıdırlık Agricultural Development Cooperative P3 Seferihisar Chamber of Craftsmen and Artisans P4 Seferihisar Municipality Police Department P5 Sığacık market craftsmen (Binnaz) P6 Sığacık market craftsmen (Ayşe) P7 Sığacık market craftsmen (Neziha) P8 Sığacık market craftsmen (Anita) P9 Sığacık market craftsmen (Hande) P10 Sığacık market craftsmen (Adnan) P11 Sığacık market craftsmen (Oktay) P12 Sığacık market craftsmen (Günay) P13 Sığacık market craftsmen (Bahar) P14 Sığacık market craftsmen (Nurgül) P15 Sığacık market craftsmen (Oya)

RESULTS

The answers to the questionnaires and the findings are as follows:

Could you tell us about Seferihisar's gastronomic identity and cuisine?

The common response of all participants in the question was expressed as olive oil dishes made with herbs. P1 answered “This region, which has been used as a 500-year uninterrupted living space, has created its own culture and therefore its own cuisine as a result of its long history. In this kitchen; a synthesis was created with Yoruk cuisine on the one hand and Cretan cuisine on the other”. P2 stated that those who came from the peninsula of Mora during the period of exchange constitute their own kitchen and added as follows: “Especially in times of absence, they thought about what they could do with the grass growing in the region and found very rich olive oil dishes with herb varieties”. P7 stated that it has a considerable place in pastry products and that pasta products are diversified with herb varieties in spring. In particular, they

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emphasized that locals and Mora immigrants know better about the regional cuisine and that they also include them in their kitchens. P8 said that, "Maritime and farming are the main sources of living here. Therefore, these activities are also reflected in the cuisine of the region. Dessert made with citrus products and meals made with herbs and vegetable varieties are found here in every home kitchen. " P12 stated that the people of the region frequently used fish dishes and different seafood because of their livelihoods in their kitchens.

What are the food and drinks of Seferihisar in the foreground for you?

In the answers given by the participants, the names of the dishes spoken by two or more people in the majority were taken into consideration. When Table 2 is examined, the majority of the participants think that the dishes made with mixed herb varieties, kuru mantı made with chickpeas and keşkek are the food of Seferihisar cuisine. Apart from that, the families that deal with maritime emphasize the importance of the products coming from the region such as deniz fasulyesi, kaya koruğu and adabeyi fish.

P1 especially emphasized that kuru mantı was a product of the efforts of people to cant find meat at that time and to produce food with their products. Also, Armola cheese was the result of trying to get a new cheese from the cheese in hand. P2 emphasized that Heybeli soup made with kuru börülce is cooked in regional cuisine. P1 and P2 sayed that Armola cheeses are only specific to this region. P5 stated the importance of zucchini meal in the local cuisine. In addition, P10, which is a market maker selling jam products, said that it is possible to encounter the jars produced with citrus cultivars from the livelihood sources of the region frequently. The gum jam is described as another different flavor from the Mora and Greek immigrants. P15 mentioned the importance of kuru biber, kuru patlıcan dolması and yaprak sarma as well as kabak çiçeği dolması.

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Table 2. Local dishes of the region according to participants

FOOD NAME

PARTICIPANT CODE

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15

Lambada X X X X X X X

Samsades X X X X X X X

Kuru Mantı X X X X X X X X X X X X

Şevketi Bostan

X X X

Karışık ot X X X X X X X X X X

Ekmek Dolması

X X X X X

Deniz Fasulyesi

X X

Kabak Çiçeği Dolması

X X X X X X X

Keşkek X X X X X X X X X X

How long have you been a market trader? Could you give information about the exchange of day-to-day changes in the establishment of the Sığacık local market?

The rapid development of the common thinking Sığacık local market of all participants has been the completion of the branding of the region and thus the overpopulation of the population. P1 has that idea, “The day-to-day change from the establishment of the market was an extraordinary change and this change has taken place not only as an economic contribution but also as social and social development. Both production diversified, people started to take more interest in the land, and women were brought to the forefront in the society economically and socially. These changes were realized only thanks to the Sığacık local market”. P2 stated that “when the market was planned to be established, home and house were informed about every market, but when it was first established, it started with about 20 women and they were already formed by women within the Hıdırlık Agricultural Development Cooperative”. In other words, women who were initially more active and able to see the future, showed interest in the subject, but now there is no place for bench in front of the houses.

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P4 already said that only the hosts opened it, but now the people from outside Sığacık are very demanding and there are no empty streets anymore. There is more then 350 counter, 3-5 new requests every day, but they have not been able to give new bench for 6 months. It also emphasized that there are now 15-20 different activities in advance when at the begining only food and knitting work take up space on the counters. P5 is a seller in market for 5 years, the visit is more every year and Sığacık local market is very important in promoting the region. They said that women are keen on getting money, trying to produce more kinds of products, and that these kinds are increasing every year. P6 focused on the social benefits provided by the Sığacık local market and the benefits it provides to women. He added importance of the advancement of the neighborhood of the Sığacık local market, the increase of social life and the financial gain provided to the people of the region. It is stated that P8 has been seller in market for 7 years and that overcrowding due to Sığacık local market is now inverse to the calm city title but it is also advantageous in terms of its transformation into tourism zone. P10 talked about Sığacık local market, social and cultural developments and added: “The outlook from the outside has improved the viewpoint of the people of the region and this has affected many things from their behavior to their clothes. As their economy grew, social life developed and changed.” P12 stated that the recent restoration work is particularly effective in promoting the market and therefore increasing interest as; “The residents of the house took the place of the neglected streets at no charge and received colorful and flashy streets, and the attendance of the visitors caught their attention. It also caused an excessive increase in house and rent rates”. P13 emphasized that, thanks to the Sığacık local market, women are increasing their self-confidence, starting to have a say in the house, and being a ladder to the women.

What are you selling in the market? What can be sold? What are your suggestions?

In Table 3, P1, P2, P3 and P4 are not shown. This is due to the fact that these participants do not have a counter but are employed in state institutions. Among the products sold according to Table 3, most of the products made with pastry are seen. Eight exhibitors stated that the homemade pastries, the baklava varieties, were more demanded by the visitors and that they cook these varieties due to the high sales. Although the products vary according to the season, everyone tells that they are trying to produce all the varieties that can be done in the garden and with the products in the region.

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Table 3. The names of the products for which the participants sold

PARTICIPANT CODE PRODUCT

NAME P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15

Types of pastries, cookies

X X X X X X X X

Types of dolma

X X X X

Şerbet X X

Types of jams

X X X X X X

Dried herbs X

Baklava X X X X

Tomato paste

X X X X

Tarhana X X

Vegetable Types

X X

P4 Sığacık has stated that the productivity of the ladies has increased since the first establishment, the horizons have expanded and therefore the product variety has increased rapidly. “Everyone is trying to cook a meal, and working people have the opportunity to buy and taste the food they can not prepare at home” said. P5 although they do not live very well because they open their counters in front of their homes, many other counters can direct as many items as they can put on a single table. Although they do not live that problem because they open their counters in front of their homes, many other benches can direct as many items as they can put on a single table. In addition to the products listed in Table 3, P5 also sell mercimekli köfte, kabak köftesi and gözleme. P6 sells üzüm pekmezi, nar ekşisi and egg, unlike the products in table 3. P7 sells a product called kavurga and is the only vendor in the market. P8 sells different products such as zencefil şekerlemesi and krokanlı fıstık. P10 complains that there are not many kinds except baklava and pastry tipes in the counter. He stated that he tried to make dozens of different kinds of mandarin and citrus jams, but that the ladies did not make local dishes, but instead they turned to pastry and baklava varieties

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where they could earn more money and did not even make the most famous dishes with nohutlu mantı.

How much of what you sell in the local market is produced by you?

This question has been said by all participants that they produce all the products on the counters themselves. P7 stated that he buys kavurga product from another city and then sold it. Approximately 70% of the sellers in the Sığacık local market have emphasized that they do not obey this rule from the other stands and they also sell products they have bought from abroad. P2’s statements are as follows; “We particularly warn the owners of the counters in this regard. Everytime they do something wrong, it isnt effect only them but also effect the characteristics of the Sığacık local market. Unfortunately, over-growth of the market brings with it the difficulty of control and therefore we are also faced with products that are ready from abroad”.

Table 4. Quantities of products according to participants

PARTICIPANT CODE PRODUCT

NAME P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15

Types of pastries, cookies (piece)

3 tray

3-4tray

4-5tray

3-4tray

1 tray

10 tray

5 tray

4 tray

Types of dolma

10 kg

15 kg

5 kg

5 kg

Şerbet (lt.) 5 lt

3-5lt

Tipes of jams (piece jar)

5-10 3-5 5-10 30-40

15-20

20-30

Dried herbs (package)

15-20

Baklava (piece)

2 tray

2 tray

1 tray

1 tray

Tomato Paste (kg.)

2 kg

2 kg

2-3kg

2-3kg

Tarhana (kg.)

2-10kg

3-4kg

Vegetable types (kg.)

30-40 kg

20-30kg

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How many products do you sell at Sığacık local market?

In Table 4, P1, P2, P3 and P4 are not shown. This is due to the fact that these participants do not have a counter but are employed in state institutions. Participants did not know exactly how many products they were selling, but they gave information on the average sales volume. These amounts vary directly with the season, the weather, and the number of visitors resulting from many other influences. The P7 adds an average of 20 kg of kavurga sold. P8 has sold 9-10 boxes of candies.

What is the size of the contribution of sales to you and the district economy?

P1 stated that “The contribution of the Sığacık local market to the district economy is indisputably high and gives serious support. It opens up the branding of the city and makes it permanent. In the coming period, more and more unknown beauties will come to the forefront and will continue to attract even more attention to sightseeing. In this respect, the cultural and historical beauties of Seferihisar will be continued for the next generations. Apart from this, at the end of every Sunday at least 500 TL passes to the sellers. This amount is also raised but not lowered. This provides a great deal of support to the family budget”. P2 sayed that thanks to Sığacık local market financial opportunities of the families are get increased. P3 stated that the local market in Sığacık is especially important for the housewives to contribute to the domestic economy. He stated that not only the people of the region but also the people from outside the region and especially from Istanbul started to reside and that this contributed to the development of the city and the opening of new business lines. Almost all the houses in the castle turn into a hostel, and all of them are full on work. P4’s statements are as follows; “It is a direct sale to the consumer without any intermediary. This allows the manufacturer to gain more. Housewives who live in the house without any income are now actively working. They both contribute to the domestic economy and live the happiness of the manufacturer”. P5 stated that 30% of the home economy is covered by its own counter. P5 added that the district economy is very influenced by the Sığacık local market, it can be seen with the excessive rise in house and rent prices. P6 stated that the main source of income for the their family is the market counter and that they earn an average of 2,500 TL per week. It also puts about 50% profit on its products. The P7 participants earn around 4,000 per month from their sales. P9 said he did not have a pension but they earned more than a pension from this market. P10 gets all of its income from the Sığacık local market and adds 20% profit to its products. She added that the local market contributed enormously to the economy of the province and that the income level of the people and the house prices

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were very high. P11 stated that it opened this counters as an additional hobby to its business and provided 15% of its subsistence from here. P12 sells products with 50% profit and earns monthly kitchen cost thanks to sales. The P13 participant said that he was covering 30% of the home economy and he added that the contribution to the county economy was great thanks to the visits. P14’s statements as follows; “I earn 70% of home economy, so I earn more than my husband now. When he saw this gain he even came to help me. This is a great opportunity and happiness that the Sığacık local market gives us”. P15 also stated that 50% of the home economy is covered by market sales.

Is the introduction of the Sığacık local market enough? What are your suggestions about the subject?

P1 stated that “I think that the study of Sığacık local market should become a model and should be applied to different regions. There is only one rule: everyone will sell what he produces. We are trying to enforce this rule. I hope that market places will be established in many places like this”.

All the participants think the presentation is quite sufficient. Especially Sığacık's local market is very satisfied with the counter ownership, the activities of the mayor and the promotion of the region and there are no additional suggestions or requests. P7 added that introduction is not enough. The incoming visitors says that you think it is like a normal market place, and that they need to aware that it is a local production market. Apart from this, all the attendants added that the number of visitors coming in every year increased and that it continued in summer and winter. P11 emphasized that the series and films shot have an important place in promotion. He also stated that the Seferihisar mayor has had sufficient promotion activities and that there is no additional activity.

Do you find the support of cooperatives, associations, municipalities enough? What are your expectations?

All participants indicated that the municipal support was adequate. Especially, they are stated that all participants have to pay a very small fee for counters and mayor refreshed their homes and streets without paying any fees. P2 only thinks that the municipality needs to be a bit more strict about supervision. Creating a product scale or creating a platform can help to markers themselves and ensure that they warn each other. In this regard, P2 added that the seferihisar municipality have more responsibility about Sığacık local market. In addition, the P3, P7 and P11 municipalities are concerned about the inadequacy of parking. Both the market sellers and the guests staying on the motel have indicated that they have suffered intense troubles in this issue and that they have continued fighting for this reason. P6, P9, P10, P13 and P15 also want to increase the controls against externally introduced products. They also added

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that hygiene problems, such as the fact that the trays on which the food box is kept are always open, require hygiene training for market traders.

CONCLUSIONS

Seferihisar Sığacık local market has been serving since 2010 and has shown a significant growth when compared to its initial size and scope. Today Sığacık local market has about 350 counters and all this counters continues to sell. Almost all the streets in the castle are filled with counters and about 70% of the houses are served as hostels.

Seferihisar cuisine appears to have been influenced by different cultures, resulting in different flavors of the region. The region's own olive-oil dishes, herb varieties and other delicacies have taken their place on market benches and they are of interest. The local delicacies made by the locals with their products offer a great opportunity for the working people who can not cook at home, as well as a different experience for the traveler from other regions. In addition, care and maintenance shown to the market area has also increased. Houses and streets were restored with emphasis on visibility. All these innovations and local dishes made up of home-cooked meals attract visitors, and the number of visitors increasing each year and the interest they show in the market area show that this will continue to increase.

Sığacık has made a great contribution to the development, promotion and branding of the local market region. Especially the contribution of the people of the region to the economy is very important. In every market setting, the owners of the counters vary in their earnings and the support they provide to their home economy is also of considerable importance. Approximately %90 of the counters are woman sellers. Thanks to the Sığacık local market, housewives who had no previous income started to gain their economic independence. Not only economic but also social developments have been experienced in the region. The happiness of producing housewives increases their self-reliance, their productivity increases as they are sold on their counters, and they are trying to create new ideas. As aspects of perspectives expand, entrepreneurial movements increase and therefore their confidence increases. The market area has become a business center on this track. Increasing number of visitors day by day arise to the need for a place to stay and the residents of the region turned it into a hostel by evaluating it. For this reason, the number of hostels seems to increase. Homeowners have now turned their gardens into restaurants and have increased their profits. It is also observed that there is a significant increase in the rents of houses and rents. This concerns the population of the direct market area. It is observed that there is no difficulty in publicity due to activities and activities that the municipality has made. However, it is revealed that seller of counters rules, which are the characteristics of Sığacık local market, violate the rule of selling their own produce

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and brought ready products from the outside. It has also been seen that some of the sellers with counters are also restless.

As a result of the study, Sığacık local market provides a significant contribution to the regional economy, especially in the economic sense. As a result of this support, the gastronomic tourism in the region is gaining momentum.

The following suggestions can be made at the end of the study:

- Seferihisar municipality based control mechanism should be established for

the inspection of the products sold in the Sığacık local market. (For example hygiene,

sanitation, external product inspection, price, quality etc.)

- Superstructure improvement should be provided. (For example, parking place)

- In this study, the Sığacık local market has been examined and subsequent

studies can be compared with other local markets. In addition, the study can be made

more extensive and regional markets can be examined.

REFERENCES

Arslan, Ö. (2010). Yabancı Turistlerin Yiyecek İçecek İşletmeleri, Personeli ve Türk Mutfağına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi: Alanya Örneği, Yayınlamamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.

Ataberk, E. (2010). Yerel Pazarlar Turizm İlişkisi ve Tire, 1. Ulusal Tire Sempozyumu, Ege Üniversitesi, İzmir.

Bayer, M. Zekai. (1992). Turizme Giriş, İstanbul Üniversitesi İşletme Fakültesi Yayını, Sayı: 253, İstanbul, s.5

Bilgili, B., Ö. Yağmur, ve H. Yazarkan (2012). Turistik Ürün Olarak Festivallerin Etkinlik ve Verimliliği Üzerine Bir Araştırma (Erzurum Oltu Kırdağ Festivali Örneği)”, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 117-124.

Bucak, T. ve Aracı Ü. E. (2013). Türkiye‟de Gastronomi Turizmi Üzerine Genel Bir Değerlendirme, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 16, Sayı: 30,213-217

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Deveci, B., Türkmen, S. ve Avcıkurt, C. (2013). Kırsal Turizm ile Gastronomi Turizmi İlişkisi: Bigadiç Örneği, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 3 (2), 30-31.

Getz, D. (2000). Developing a research agenda for the event management field. Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda, Proceedings of Conference on Event Evaluation, Research and Education, Editors John Allen, Robert Harris, Leo K Jago and A J Veal. Sydney: Australian Centre for Event Management, University of Technology Sydney

Henderson, J. C. (2009). Food Tourism Reviewed, British Food Journal,111 (4), ss. 317-326.

Kesici, M.(2012). Kırsal Turizme Olan Talepte Yöresel Yiyecek ve İçecek Kültürünün Rolü. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 14 (23), 33-37.

Kivela, J., Crotts, J.C. (2005). Gastronomy Tourism. Journal of Culinary Science & Tourism, 4 (2-3), 39-55.

Uyar, H., ve Zengin, B. (2015). Gastronomi Turizminin Alternatif Turizm Çeşidi Olarak Değerlendirilmesi Bağlamında Gastronomi Turizm İndeksinin Oluşturulması, Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3, 17, ss. 355-376

http://seferihisar.bel.tr/

http://www.izmirdergisi.com/tr/

http://www.sigacikpazari.com/

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THE IMPORTANCE OF OTTOMAN SHERBETS IN TODAY'S TURKISH CUISINEAND GASTRONOMIC PREFERENCE FOR

MELON SEED SHERBET (SÜBYE)

Gözde TÜRKÖZ BAKIRCI1, Aynur ZEYREK2

1Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Dokuz Eylul University, 35460 Seferihisar, İzmir, Turkey

2 Food Control and Research Laboratory, Edge, 35020 Bornova, İzmir, Turkey [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract:

Turkish food and drink culture has an important place in the world. In addition to the rich food types that were transferred from Ottoman cuisine to Turkish cuisine, the culture includes diverse traditional drinks. Among these drinks are the sherbets, which are consumed in today's Turkish Cuisine as a drink and for health. Among the sherbets is melon seed syrup, which is starting to lose popularity. This study, which was conducted by a literature review, revealed that there have been only a limited number of studies on Ottoman sherbets and sübye. For this reason, it is necessary to revive interest in traditional sherbets and sübye, which have gastronomic importance, and increase associated advertising campaigns. Efforts should also aim to improve the quality of regional sübye to increase its shelf life and study factors related to the human consumption of these drinks, thus increasing the attraction of Izmir as a destination.

Keywords: Turkish Cuisine, Sherbet, Melon Seed Sherbet, Sübye, Traditional Drink

INTRODUCTION Turkish culinary culture is very diverse and rich and includes Black Sea

culinary culture, Aegean culinary culture, Mediterranean culinary culture, and Mesopotamia and Anatolia culinary culture (Sarioglan & Cevizkaya, 2016). The rich variety of Turkish cuisine is based on many influences. In short, the diversity of the products available in the Central Asian and Anatolian lands played a role in developing the new flavors of this culinary culture; these new flavors were developed in the palaces of the Selçuk and Ottoman empires, involving the interaction of many different cultures over a long historical process (Hatipoglu & Batman, 2014). The formation of these cultures has resulted in various crops being grown in different regions, the products of which appear in different foods and drinks. In addition to the rich food types belonging to Turkish cuisine, it also contains diverse traditional drinks. Drinks that were transferred from Ottoman Place cuisine to Turkish cuisine include milk, ayran, boza,

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salep, compote, and sherbet (Ozdogan & Işik, 2008; Kaya, 2011). Among them, the sherbets, which are an important gastronomic component, are one of the most important traditional drinks in Turkish cuisine.

HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE SHERBET

Sherbets are drinks that are consumed to relieve thirst, accompany meals, and treat various diseases. The Turkish people made drinks, some of which caused inebriation and some that did not, and the later were called a ‘drink’ Sherbets, including ready-made juices and sparkling drinks, were one of the most common drinks in the Middle East and Asia until the mid-20th century. The sherbet culture originated in the Arab basin to the East. Sherbet was quickly accepted in Iran, India-Pakistan, and Mongolian through trade and expeditions by Muslim Arabs and eventually spread to China. It is acknowledged that the Arabs contributed significantly to the formation of a new culture related to the preparation and presentation of sherbet in these geographical regions. The distribution of sherbet to the West largely occurred during the Ottoman Empire. In the Western world, sherbet is known by different names derived from the word sherbet used by the Ottomans. In the sixteenth century, sherbet, which was an Ottoman drink, was introduced as a drink under different names into diffrent cuisines, including into Italian cuisine as "sorbetto", French and German cuisines as "sorbet", Spanish cuisine as "sorbete", Serbian cuisine as "šérbe", and Portuguese cuisine as "sorbette" (Bilgin, 2012). It is known that sherbet in the Ottoman Empire was created by the Turks, and even in the 11th century, it emerged as a traditional drink prepared from fruit juices and consumed every hour of the day (Haydaroglu, 2003). Sherbet was a component of daily life in the Ottoman Empire, and it affect traditional patterns of behavior and was one of the most important and delicious food products, as it was always presented to guests in every house (Badifu, 1993).

Sherbets were not only a drink but also a sociological phenomenon. These indications are found in Turkish Literature. Ahmed Eflâkî, a religion and astronomy scholar who lived during the Karamanoğulları period, refers to sugar sherbet, and it was reported that milk and sorbet were given to newborns (Oral, 1956). Sherbet is mentioned among the fragrant and complex foods in the Selçukname. In the same work, it was stated that an odor is added to sherbets made from fruit and milk. Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi said "three things I like most in life, sema, hammam and sherbet". The sherbets mentioned by Mevlana are honey sherbet, rose water sherbet, sugar sherbet, grape sherbet, god sherbet, and rose water sugar sherbet, and the sherbets offered at weddings include narbon sherbet and pure sugar sherbet. Mevlana also frequently spoke of sherbet and gülbeşeker (Surucuoglu & Ozcelık, 2005). Evliya Çelebi stated that musk, amber, rose water, and violet were added to the syrups, and

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occasionally it was possible to mix the appropriate fruits. The Travels of Evliya Celebi note a wide variety of sherbets: Albanian sherbet, spiced sherbet, Athens sherbet, cüllab sherbet, cinnamon pilgrim sherbet, imam sherbet, carnation rose sherbet, carnation grape sherbet, shiraz sherbet, and violet sherbet. The Tabita-nâme work, which was written in the 14th century with the aim of teaching about human health, noted that the sherbet sellers at the bazaars, under the heading of the beverages, were called "fukkâ" (Kut, 1999).

An area called the helvahane was created in the Ottoman palace to provide a place to produce sherbet and desserts. The helvahane was formerly known as the sherbethane. It is possible to identify all types of helvahane sherbets that were produced, including blends of violet (benevşe), rose maa rose sugar, rose and lemon, red rose, lotus, calabash, mulberry, jujube, quince, quince leaf cherry, tamarind, and daffodil, which could obtained in pharmacies (Gursoy, 2004). In the last period of the Ottoman Empire, sherbet, pastries, and desserts made in the palace helvahane were sold in the palace for money, especially to high-level state officials. In addition to the sherbets made in the helvahane, sherbets came from different places to the Ottoman Palace. The main ones include red rose, rose, and lemon sorbet from Edirne made with syrup from corn, shamans, Bursa pomegranate, and Yanbolu's anberbaris (female salty, Berberis vulgaris) (Akcicek, 2002; Ozlu, 2011).

Sherbets are present in houses, obtained by the lady of the house or by someone under her control. Especially in the summer months, almost every candy shop sells sherbet. Confectioners fill glass containers with sherbets, and they add plenty of ice to keep them cold. Peddlers are known to walk around with cups on their waist in the summer months (Ozdogan & Işik, 2008).

It is necessary to discuss certain terms and traditions that are still valid and used to understand the sherbet culture. Among the idioms used today are, ‘like sherbet’ to describe lyric sounds, ‘it contains death sherbet’ to describe a deceased person, ‘I drank cranberry sherbet’ to describe a person who is bleeding, and ‘sherbet according to pulse’ to describe a sycophant. In addition, it has become a tradition to serve sherbet at engagement, birth, and circumcision ceremonies (Oguz, 2002). Sherbets are available as refreshing drinks at all hours of the day and can be served with meals (Inaltong, 2016). Since coffee and tea were not very common, guests were served sherbet. At Ramadan tables, sherbet is served instead of water. It is also a tradition to offer sherbet after a birth in Anatolia (Akcicek, 2002).

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DEFINITION OF SHERBET AND SHERBET VARIETIES

The general description of sherbet from Palace cuisine to Turkish cuisine with the blending of different cultures includes the form of the watery state of the yeast that is produced by dissolving the sugar in water. Sherbets are similar to sugar water, which is also called sugar sherbet or sugar syrup. Another definition is the diluted sugar sherbet of mixed syrups produced by the addition of sugar to various plants, flowers, fruits, roots, shells, or seeds. In milk sherbet, rose sherbet, and others, flowers are mostly used to add flavor and color to fruit sherbets (Oguz, 2002). It is stated that the traditional sherbets are made two ways. The first method is to squeeze the fruit juice and then add sugar to it. The second method is to squeeze the syrup of the fruit together with the sugar and then let it cool. With the second method, darker sherbets are obtained. They last longer than those made using the first method, and the beverages are usually mixed with some cold water to bring about the desired consistency of the liquor (Savkay, 2000).

Different varieties of sherbet are made from various fruits and plants in Ottoman cuisine, including strawberry sherbet, tamarind sherbet, mulberry sherbet, cranberry sherbet, rose sherbet, melon seed sherbet, apricot sherbet, carob sherbet, cranberry sherbet, raisins sherbet, almond sherbet, orange sherbet, peach sherbet, cinnamon sherbet, citrus sherbet, grape sherbet, lime sherbet, and lily sherbet (Gursoy, 2004).

In addition to the use of sherbet at the table, it is also known for its health benefits. Grape sherbet is known to have protective effects on the digestive system, skin health, and cancer. Mint sherbet has been used in the treatment of different diseases since ancient times. Mint is mainly used to benefit the respiratory tract and eye health. There are 41 varieties of spices in tamarind sherbet, which is widely used in Ottoman cuisine. Its blood-forming effect helps regulate the digestive and intestinal systems (Sarioglu & Cevizkaya, 2016). Cinnamon used in cinnamon sherbet has skin protective, gas extractor, and antiseptic properties (Gurson & Ozcelikay, 2005). It is stated that the lohusa sherbet given to Lohusa is useful for meeting liquid and energy needs (Bolsoy & Nevin, 2006). The greatest feature of carob sherbet is that it is effective against shortness of breath, and it has therapeutic properties against expectorant strength and asthma (Batu, 2011). Meyan sherbet is a popular drink of the summer months in and around Adana. Licorice is a popular sweetener found in many soft drinks and food products. As a traditional herbal medicine, it is effective against stomach ulcers, abdominal pain, inflammation of the intestines, asthma, and respiratory tract diseases (Zengin, Oktay, Al, Ari, Bogan, Yilmaz & Yildirim, 2013).

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Sübye (Melon Seed Sherbet)

The sherbet culture has spread over a large geographical area and has produced hundreds of varieties. Honey, rose leaves, fruit, spices, nuts, and mixtures thereof are widely used in the production of sherbet (Sarioglu & Cevizkaya, 2016). It is known that our traditional beverages include different types and combinations that are produced and consumed locally according to our cultural traditions and have carried over to today's Turkish cuisine. Among these drinks is melon seed sherbet or sübye.

Sübye is a melon seed sherbet that is also known as İzmir sherbet. Sübye is a traditional cold drink derived from dried melon seeds. There are various rumors about the origin of the sübye. This drink is not known in the neighboring provinces, and this beverage was brought to Izmir by Jews immigrating from Spain about 500 years ago. Sübye is a legacy left by the Jewish people who settled in the Tire Zone in Izmir. For this reason, sübye, the melon seed sherbet, is a tradition of those who live in Tire, Bergama, and Milas (Intalong, 2016).

Cold sübye beverages consist of melon seeds, sugar, and water (Badifu, 1993). The melon seeds used for making sübye can be used fresh or dried. The recipes vary according to different sources. As a result, both types of melon seed pith are used. When fresh and filled melon seeds are washed, they are mixed with water, beaten in the air while wet, and then rubbed and drained by hand. If the core remains inside the seed, it is re-pounded and drained again by mixing with some water. Then, they are mixed with sugar and allowed to settle. After the seed husks are broken, they are removed from the sübye by filtration before serving (Tosun, 1998). To prepare sübye using dried melon seeds, the dried melon seeds are soaked in water at room temperature (25°C) for about 30 minutes. Sugar and water are then added in amounts determined by the blender, and the mixture is homogenized at low speed for about 2 minutes and then filtered. The pulp remaining in the filter is homogenized again in the blender with a set amount of water, and the filtration process is repeated. The filtrates from all steps are collected to produce the sübye drink (Karakaya, Kavas, El, Gunduc & Akdogan, 1995). The process for obtaining sübye is shown schematically in Figure 1.

The melon seed, the raw material of sübye, is rich in protein, fat, and minerals. These seeds are vastly nutritious, furnishing the human diet with good quality proteins (Sobowale, Adebiyi & Adebo, 2015). A study on the nutritional value of sübye found it to be a source of iron and magnesium. However, it has been determined that it contains reasonable quantities of protein. When the content of melon seeds was investigated, the crude oil, protein, and fiber contents were found to be 37.8%, 25.2%, and 15.4%, respectively. The content of sulfuric amino acid (methionine and cysteine) was found to be higher than that in soybean. It has also been determined that the melon

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seeds contain significant quantities of minerals, especially potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium (Lazos, 1986). Investigations have also determined the energy, moisture, and macro- (Table 1) and micronutrient contents (Table 2) of the resulting melon seed drink.

Drying of melon seeds

Addition of water and sugar

Homogenization of mixture in a blender

Filtering of mixture through cheesecloth

Homogenization of the pulp remaining in the cheesecloth in a blender with a certain amount of water

Repeat filtering

Collection of the filtered liquid

Obtaining the sübye

Figure 1. The process for obtaining sübye

Although it depends on the melon type, melon seeds contain approximately 30-40% oil (especially linolenic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic fatty acids, phytosterols, and tocopherols); 15-25% protein (globulin, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and lysine amino acids); 15% fiber; the minerals potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, and phosphorus; and vitamins B and C, with an energy value of 2.5 MJ / 100 g (Lazos, 1986; Mello & Narain, 2000). In a study that examined some of the constituents of melon seeds and bitter almond obtained from Manisa / Kırkağaç and Denizli / Tavas in Turkey, the amount of crude oil was determined to 33.23%, and the amount of crude protein was determined to be 24% in melon seed samples, and linolenic acid was found to be a significant fatty acid (60.01%) in melon seed oil (Tekin & Velioglu, 1993). Another study characterized the nutritional composition of cores

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obtained from Cucumis melo hybrid AF-522 and reported that the melon seeds contained high levels of fat (30.8%) and protein (14.9%); the fatty acids linolenic acid (64.1%), oleic acid (19.4%), palmitic acid (9.5%), and stearic acid (4.9%); and arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, methionine, and lysine. The acid, peroxide, iodine, and saponification values were found to be 2.06, 4.96, 111.8, and 210.6, respectively, in the oil extruded with hexane (Mello & Narain, 2000). Another study on Cucumis melo var. saccharinus reported similar results for the seeds, which contained high levels of fat (32.3%) and protein (19.3%); the fatty acids linolenic acid (51%), oleic acid (31%), palmitic acid (8.5%), and stearic acid (6.1%); arginine (13.4%), aspartic acid (8.9%), and glutamic acid (19.7%); and proportionally lower amounts of methionine and lysine were also found in the oil extracted with hexane; the acid, peroxide, iodine, and saponification values were 1.76, 4.02, 109.6, and 191.4, respectively (Mello, Bora & Narain, 2001).

Table 1. Energy content and proximate composition of the melon seed beverage

Energy (kcal/100 g)

Energy (kj/100 g)

67±1.09a

280 ±4.54

Moisture (%) 86.36 ± 0.13

Fat (%) 1.92 ±0.15

Protein (%) 1.28 ±0.15

Ash (%) 0.27 ±0.03

Carbohydrate (%)b 10.2 ±0.08 a Mean ± standard deviation b Carbohydrate value was determined by difference

Source: Karakaya, Kavas, El, Gunduc & Akdogan, 1995

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Table 2. Micro-nutrient contents of the beverage

Micro-nutrient Content (mg/100 g)

Magnesium 22.2 ± 4.48a

Iron 0.90 ± 0.14

Arsenic -

Vitamin C 0.31 ± 0.01 a Mean ± standard deviation

Source: Karakaya, Kavas, El, Gunduc & Akdogan, 1995

Sübye production is economically and environmentally important because it uses food waste, melon seeds, as the raw material (Badifu, 1993). Melon seeds are generally used as nuts and emulsifying, flavoring, and thickening agents (Akubor, 2003). In this period of declining natural resources, food production from food waste has great importance. Moreover, although melon seeds are considered to be food wastes, they have been used for medical purposes since the Ottoman times. It has been reported that melon seeds can aid in dorsal and chronic or acute eczema (Sabanci, Celebi & Icier, 2014). As an alternative medicine, sübye is also used to induce a restful sleep, balance the digestive system, and resolve diarrhea and constipation problems within a few hours (Sarioglu & Cevizoglu; 2016). In addition, food producers in underdeveloped or developing countries have focused on the search and development of alternative milks and dairy products from vegetable sources due to inadequate milk resources, consumers' dietary preferences, and sensitivity to allergens and dairy products. Soy, almond, rice, and coconut milks are widely produced worldwide and consumed as vegetable milk. A study conducted on melon seed milk showed that it can be used as an alternative vegetable milk. Sübye was shown to be an alternative to soy because it is high in protein (3.6%), low in fat (4%), and free of lactose (Bastioglu, Tomruk, Koc & Ertekin, 2016). Thus, it can be used as an alternative food source for lactose-intolerant individuals and vegans since it is a plant-derived milk.

Only one study has been conducted to determine and increase the shelf life of sübye. Melon seed milk and banana puree supernatant were prepared from melon (Colocynthis citrullus) seed and banana (Musa sapientum) fruit, respectively. Banana puree supernatant (16%, v/v) was used to replace melon seed milk to obtain a melon-banana beverage. Some portions of the beverage were processed at 85 °C, 100 °C, or 121 °C for 15 min, while others were treated with citric acid, sodium benzoate, and sodium benzoate with pasteurization (85 °C, 15 min). Physicochemical, microbiological and sensory changes in the beverages stored at 30 ± 2 °C for 50 days

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were determined. The acceptability of the melon/banana beverage was not adversely affected by the processing conditions employed. No microbial growth was observed in beverages treated with sodium benzoate and with sodium benzoate and pasteurization. Plate counts in beverages treated at 121 °C for 15 min were less than 50cfu/ml after the 50 day storage period. The vitamin C, soluble solids, titratable acidity, and pH values of beverages treated with sodium benzoate, and with sodium benzoate and pasteurization showed no significant changes with storage. The combination of sodium benzoate and heat treatment maintained the acceptability of the beverage for 35 days. The beverages treated at 121 °C for 15 min remained acceptable up to 12 days (Akubor & Ogbadu, 2003).

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the cuisine of the Ottoman Palace, most of the water, sherbet and syrup were consumed as a drink. In today's Turkish cuisine, sherbet and syrup are almost never consumed. Sherbet and syrups lost their place to acidic drinks. Considering the harms of sparkling beverages, perhaps the most important issue regarding the change in the eating habits of contemporary Turkish cuisine is the drinks. Sherbets and syrups should be brought back to popularity in order to preserve both cultures and to provide alternatives to the acidic beverages currently preferred by consumers (Hatipoglu & Batman, 2014).

Although there have been several studies on the nature and nutritive characteristics of sübye, a beverage served in the Ottoman Palace, no study has been conducted on its historical, cultural, and gastronomic characteristics. As a result, because sübye is currently consumed only in certain regions in Turkey, it has been forgotten. It should be known that sübye is a drink that is only produced and consumed in Tire and its surrounding areas and is unique to İzmir. It would be useful to conduct studies to determine the nutritional content and shelf life of the drink in order to increase its consumption and quality. A longer shelf life and durable packaging materials are required before sübye can be produced and sold on an industrial scale. This will ensure that an alternative drink that is nutritious is available for consumption by every age group.

It is also possible for the traditional drink of sübye, to be used to promote the culture of İzmir to increase its attractiveness as a destination. For tourists who are looking for new places and tastes, it is thought that İzmir and its surroundings will be of interest. It is important to try to recapture the gastronomic and nutritional values of sübye and bring it back for the next generation. To achieve this, the gastronomy departments of universities can develop formulations for traditional sherbets according to the tastes of modern palates. In addition, the Ministry of Tourism and Culture can

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promote the promotion of the sherbet culture by presenting it as a traditional drink to local and foreign tourists in hotels and restaurants in order to communicate our culture.

REFERENCES

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Akubor, P.I., & Ogbadu, R.L. (2003). Effects of processing methods on the quality and acceptability of melon milk. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 58, 1–6.

Akubor, P.I. (2003). Influence of storage on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties of heat and chemically treated melon-banana beverage. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 58, 1–10

Badifu, G.I.O. (1993). Food potentials of some unconventional oilseeds grown in Nigeria. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 43, 211-22

Batu, A. (2011). Grape, pekmez and human health. Electronic Journal of Food Technologies, 6(2), 25-35.

Bastioglu, Z. A., Tomruk D., Koç, M. & Ertekin, K.F. (2016). Spray dried melon seed milk powder: physical, rheological and sensory properties. J Food Sci Technol, 53(5), 2396–2404. DOI 10.1007/s13197-016-2214-z.

Bilgin, A. (2012). Osmanlılarda şerbet kültürü ve Tatlıhâne-i Âmire’de üretilen şerbetler. Retrieved from http://www.yemekvekultur.com/article_info.php?articles_id=489, on 05.10.2017

Bolsoy, N., & Sevil, Ü. (2006). Sağlık-Hastalık ve Kültür Etkileşimi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Hemşirelik Yüksekokulu Dergisi, Cilt: 9 Sayı: 3

Gurson, O., & Ozcelıkay, G. (2005). Use of cinnamon throughout the history and present. Ankara University Ottoman History Research and Application Center Magazine, 18

Gürsoy, D. (2004). “Sarayda mutfak teşkilatı”, tarihin süzgecinde mutfak kültürümüz, Oğlak Yayıncılık ve Reklamcılık Ltd. Şti. Birinci Baskı, İstanbul. 100-101

Hatipoglu, A., & Batman, O. (2014). Comparison of gastronomic elements of the ottoman palace cuisine with today’s Turkish cuisine. Journal of Travel and Hospitality Management, 11 (2), 62-74.

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Haydaroglu, I. (2003). Osmanlı saray mutfağından notlar. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Dil Bölümü Tarihleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 22(34), 1-10

Intalong, T. (2016). Sübye’nin tarih içindeki yolculuğu. Izmir Dergisi website: http://izmirdergisi.com/tr/izmir-mutfagi/666-subyenin-tarih-icindeki-yolculugu

Karakaya, S., Kavas, A., El, S. E., Gunduc, N. & Akdogan, L. (1995). Nutritive value of a melon seed beverage. Food Chemistry, 52,139-141.

Kaya, D. (2011). Osmanlı mutfağı. Nail Tan Gift, 303-309

Kut, G. (1999). “Türklerde yeme içme geleneği ve kaynakları”, eskimeyen tatlar. Vehbi Koç Vakfı Yayınları, (Yayına Hazırlayan Semahat Arsel), İstanbul. 61.

Lazos, E.S. (1986). Nutritional, fatty acid, and oil characteristics of pumpkin and melon seeds. Journal Of Food Science, 51(5).

Mello, M.L.S., & Narain, N. (2000). Characterization of some nutritional constituents of melon (Cucumis melo hybrid AF-522) seeds. Food Chemistry, 68, 411-414.

Mello, M.L.S., Bora, P. S., & Narain, N. (2001). Fatty and amino acids composition of melon (Cucumis melo Var. saccharinus) seeds. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 14, 69-74. doi:10.1006/jfca.2000.0952.

Oguz, B. (2002). Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri. 1. Anadolu Aydınlanma Vakfı Yayınları. 2. Baskı, İstanbul. 723-777.

Oral, M.Z. (1956). Selçuklu devri yemekleri ve ekmekleri. Türk Etnografya Dergisi, 1.Sayı. 73-76.

Ozdogan, Y., & Isik, N. (2008). Geleneksel türk mutfağında şerbet. (I.Cilt) ICANAS Uluslararası Asya ve Kuzey Afrika Çalışmaları Kongresi. 1059-1078.

Ozlu, Z. (2011). Osmanlı saray şekerleme ve şekerlemecileri ile ilgili notlar. Türk Kültürü ve Hacı Bektaş Veli Araştırması Dergisi,58.

Sabanci, S., Celebi, C., & Icier, F. (2014). Rheological properties of sübye, traditional beverage. Academic Food, 12(1).11-15

Sarioglan, M., & Cevizkaya, G. (2016). Türk mutfak kültürü: şerbetler. Sosyal Bilim Araştırma Dergisi, 237-250.

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Sobowale, S.S., Adebiyi, J.A. & Adebo, O.A. (2015). Design, construction and performance evaluation of a melon seeds sheller. Journal of Food Processing & Technology, 6: 463.

Surucuoglu, M.S., & Ozcelik, A.O. (2005). “Eski Türk besinleri ve yemekleri” Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar. Türk Halk Kültürünü Araştırma ve Tanıtma Vakfı Yayınları Yayın No: 34. Ankara. 36-38.

Surucuoglu, M. S., & Ozcelik, A. O. (2007). Türk mutfak kültürünün tarihsel gelişimi. ICANAS Uluslararası Asya ve Kuzey Afrika Çalışmaları Kongresi.

Savkay, T. (2000). Osmanlı mutfağı, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Tekin, A., & Velioglu, S. (1993). A research on some compositional properties of

melon seed and bitter almond. Gıda, 18 (6), 365-367. Tosun, M.N.B. (1998). Aşçıbaşı. (Yayına Hazırlayan: Priscilla Mary Işın), Yapı Kredi

Yayınları 1. Basım. İstanbul. 202. Zengin, S., Oktay M. M., Al, B., Ari, Y. D., Bogan, M., Yilmaz, S., & Yildirim, C.

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THE IMPACT OF STREET AND FOOD FESTIVALS IN GASTRONOMIC TOURISM THROUGH VISITOR’S EMOTIONS

AND SATISFACTION. A CASE OF ABU DHABI FOOD FESTIVAL

Almaz SANDYBAYEV Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi Men’s College, Faculty of Business,

United Arab Emirates.

[email protected]

Abstract:

Gastronomic tourism is a new trend in the development of world tourism which may serve as a fuel for development of economy, cultural heritage and sustainable tourism growth. The research paper aims to analyze the impacts of street food festivals by exemplifying the role of visitors through emotions and satisfaction factors. The study has been focused on food truck festival in Abu Dhabi (the United Arab Emirates) in March-April 2017 that attracted over 150 vendors - food tents, food trucks and local businesses. 320 random participants have been assessed through a questionnaire during one week to test how location and satisfaction impacts on them. The results implication proved that satisfaction positively impacts on visitor’s behaviors and behavioral intention. Every gastronomic and culinary experience is a memory of the destination, every smell and taste strengthens and restores memories of the place. Consequently, food and location are linked together, forming the basis that is included in the modern development of the economy of impressions and gives the opportunity to see a new version of the use of environment.

Keywords: gastronomic tourism, destination/place, emotion, satisfaction, Abu Dhabi.

INTRODUCTION

Culinary traditions of the countries in the world have been laid down for centuries, as they were influenced by a large number of factors, including the influence of climatic conditions and geographical location, economic well-being of countries and the degree of influence of other cultures. Gradually the ethnos of the country has been formed and as a consequence of this process the formation of gastronomic features. When it comes to get acquainted with any country, the first to come across is its culture. Undoubtedly, the food and rituals of its adoption are the most important elements of the material culture of any nation. This statement is proved at least by the fact that people, being naturally omnivores, eat differently in different national cultures. There is a well-known statement, to know better the culture of the country - taste it. It is with this goal

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in mind that the new trend of tourism is a culinary tourism that has taken a shape recently and emerged into a phenomenon of gastronomic tourism. This phenomenon has been widely discussed (Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis, and Cambourne, 2003; Hjalager and Richards, 2002; Honggen and Smith, 2008; Long, 2004; Wolf, 2002). According to Quan and Wang 2004, gastronomic tourism is an emerging phenomenon that is being developed as a new tourism product, due to the fact that over a third of tourist spending is devoted to food. Wolf (2002) pointed out that gastronomic tourism motivates tourists to enjoy both food and unforgettable dining experience at the same time. In this sense, destination and location play a significant role presenting gastronomic tourism as a key factor in the competitiveness of tourist destinations through motivating tourists and in determining their choice (Henderson, 2009). As a result, tasting local foods has formed an important path to enjoy the local culture (Long,2004), where Cohen and Avieli (2004) argue that local foods might be an attraction or impediment to tourist experience. Within this framework, it becomes important to differentiate the bridge between nature and the motives of human being and gastronomic experiences effecting factors like emotions and satisfaction. Schmitt (1999 and 2003) discussed the role of a holistic experience which resulted from the interaction of sensorial (sense), affective (feel), cognitive (think), behavioral (act) and social (relate) experiences.

Thus, the aim of the paper is to analyze which role gastronomic tourism plays and how it is impacted by understanding the key motivators of the visitor and determining their choice of destination (Henderson, 2009). Another key objective is to identify visitor’s perception namely emotions and satisfaction contributing to the positive or negative image created by a destination strategy. As a result, it might be helpful for the gastronomic and touristic organizations to form destination's positioning strategy (Ibrahim and Gill, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Gastronomic Tourism

Gastronomic culture is a culturally specific system of norms, principles and patterns, embodied in (a) cooking methods, (b) a set of products accepted in a given culture and their combinations, (c) food consumption practices, and (d) overall reflexing over cooking processes and eating. The application of this concept in cultural studies of food allows to give a structured description of food norms and their historical, cultural and social conditioning, as well as to analyze the mechanisms of its distribution and functioning in different cultural and historical conditions. As specified by numerous authors, in order for tourism to develop in an area; depends on the society’s

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acceptance and efficient consume of local traditions and sources (Eadington and Redman, 1991; Gezici, 1998; Williams and Shaw, 1995).

The importance of of culinary tourism was put forward and defined by Long (2004) as a global activity in which people participate in “other” food culture, including tasting, consumption, preparation and display food. Smith and Xiao (2008) agree that gastronomic tourism is a result of tourists experience from appreciation and consumption of local food. They conceptualize the idea that tourists are seeking unique food experience while on vacation. Wolf (2002) emphasized the relation how motivation effects on tourists, when according to Hall et al. (2003: p. 308), food tourism is defined as a type of tourism to attract tourists and make them to visit food producers, participate in the gastronomic festivals and have dining experience. Thus, it is possible to admit that the purpose of gastronomic tourism is to enjoy the specialties of the cuisine of a particular country through unforgettable experience of enjoying the local recipes which for centuries absorbed the traditions and customs of the local people and their culture of cooking.

Food Festival

The gastronomic tourism experience has been assessed as having multiple valuable effects on the territory and its products. As noted by Corigliano (2002), gastronomic tourism searches for the local food resources together with cultural and environmental factors, considering the number of players involved as hotels, travel agencies, restaurants, bars etc.

In this regard, attending food festivals and gastronomic events have become interesting activity (Hall et al., 2003: pp. 102-120). As noted by Gibson and Kong, 2005; McCann, 2002, local cultural food festivals are impacting both on culture and economy. It is suggested, that festivals and food place activities create an enormous opportunity for businesses and generate income as well as revenue of the state (Huang et al., 2010; Dwyer et al., 2005). From another point of view, festivals and social activities effect on society sustainability in regions and small towns (O’Sullivan and Jackson, 2002). As a result, it stimulates creative interventions and planning activities that can affect local development and regeneration processes (Klaic, 2002).

Emotion and Satisfaction

Motivational factors for the gastronomic consumptions have an important influx on tourist’s behaviors and choices. Fields (2002) described the role of four factors attributed to motivation in food consumption. Kim et al. (2009) has pointed out to the fact of using grounded theory and proposed motivational factors including, demography and physiologic. Among those factors are: surrounding atmosphere, prestige and status, sensory and sensual experience, authentic and exciting experience.

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According to the authors Havlena and Holbrook (1986), experiential consumption is the main factor that has an emotional nature. Consequently, the environment and surrounding may affect perceptions and affective responses. Environmental factors perceived by an individual refer to both visible and invisible stimuli, as an example to taste (Ulrich, 1983). Pleasure of food consumption and its emotional condition relates to feeling happiness or joy, stimulating involvement, excitement, stimulation feelings. In addition, in case of gastronomic festival events, it is also entitled to classify emotional experiences respectively relating to products and events, with a purpose to find out potentially effect it may have (Rigatti Luchini and Mason,2010).

An exquisite taste in food and an understanding of the subtleties of culinary art is all gastronomy. Its goal not only to satisfy physiological needs but also to give a feeling of pleasure. Homburg and Giering (2001) discovered that satisfaction is correlated to service evaluation and total experience. According to Jamal 2004, satisfaction has been considered one of the key research fields in marketing and consumer behavior. Consumer satisfaction definitions have either emphasized an evaluation process (e.g., Fornell 1992; Hunt 1977) or a response to an evaluation process (e.g., Halstead, Hartman, and Schmidt 1994; Howard and Sheth 1969; Oliver 1997; Tse and Wilton 1988). Different authors, stress importance on the fact of relation between satisfaction and emotional as a cognitive construction (Babin and Griffin, 1998; Bagozzi, 1991). Oliver, Rust, and Varki (1997) found that positive emotions characterize higher customer satisfaction. Consequently, two main concepts in cognitive feeling, emotion and satisfaction will be tested through this research.

The United Arab Emirates Gastronomic Trend

Gastronomic tourism has proved to be a rather profitable income of the state’s economy and not surprisingly that a number of countries started to develop this trend even not been famous for its gastronomic culture. All countries have equal conditions for the development of culinary tourism and this is a unique distinctive feature of this type of tourism. Specific events and gastronomic festivals which are periodically held around the world are very popular among tourists. For example, September is the time of the Oyster Festival in Ireland and the Oktoberfest in Munich, July, traditionally hosts the festival of Spanish national food San Fermin and Bonton - a tuna festival in Italy, November is famous for Beaujolais Nouveau - a festival of young wine in France.

The United Arab Emirati cousin is considered one of the most delicious and refined traditional cuisines in the world through which the people express their benevolence and generosity. Abu Dhabi as a capital city hosts numerous food events

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and festivals during a year. One of the most famous is Abu Dhabi Food Festival (ADFF) in December. Spread over 19 days, ADFF attracts foodies, families and friends to enjoy not only cuisine from some of the best chefs but also some of the most scrumptious street food available anywhere in the world today. Another event, Gourmet Abu Dhabi features exceptional food experiences in a variety of world-class venues. Master Chef Events from all parts of the world and Street Feasts are aiming to provide culinary experience and well known as fastest-growing food, beverage and hospitality event in the MENA region.

METHODS

The proposed model has been tested through empirical approach on a sample of 320 random attendees visiting 2017 Abu Dhabi Food Festival. Mobile food trucks were the main attraction for the gourmets. The festival reached out to residents and visitors and creates a growing interest by an increasing number of attendees every year. The questionnaires was randomly sampled and consisted 5-point Likert scale. As seen from Table 1, demographic characteristics.

Table 1: Demographic and descriptive characteristics of visitors (N 320)

Demographics Frequency (N) Percent (%) Gender

Male 175 54.69 Female 145 45.31 Total 320 100 Age Category Under 30 96 30.00 Between 30-40 148 46.25 Above 40 76 23.75

Exploratory analysis proposed to focus on 2 key criteria of emotion and satisfaction. Together with the choice of a 5-point Likert scale, this also has the advantage of justifying the use of structural models for continuous variables. Table 2 indicates two indexes of emotional satisfaction and evaluative satisfaction, characterized by high levels of Cronbach’s Alpha and the principal component analysis indicating one only eigenvalue higher than 1, with factor loadings reported in the last column of Table 2.

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Table 2. Descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s Alpha (indicators) and factor loadings (items)

Indicator Mean SD Alpha

Loading Emotional Satisfaction 5.65 1.71 0.82 SFF makes me happy 5.35 1.61 0.82 SFF gives me enjoy 5.75 1.60 0.90SFF provides me enjoyfrom shows 5.22 1.44 0.80SFF gives me a pleasantfeeling 5.45 1.70 0.84

Evaluative Satisfaction 5.35 1.21 0.83

SFF provides me what I was looking for SFF satisfies my expectations

5.17

5.12

1.49

1.51

0.80

0.75 SFF gives me high satisfaction 5.05 1.56 0.78 SFF is a great experience 5.28 1.62 0.81

*(p > .05) *SFF – Street Food Festival

RESULTS

The level of emotional and evaluative satisfaction reported by food tourists in relation to a street food festival is significantly high. Utilizing a 5-point Likert Scale (1 = very dissatisfied,5 = very satisfied), all questions been presented at levels 4 and 5, with an average of 5.34. Thispreliminary signals that the Street Food Festival is a significant event where visitors and guests reported as being satisfied or very satisfied. 92% of all respondents informed to be satisfied and happy with the event. There is a symbolic correlation between the level of satisfaction with the age. The middle age group (30-40 yrs.) expressed more satisfaction comparing to other age groups about SFF. In sum, the idea of street festivals forms a great opportunity and impacts positively on satisfaction of the visitors.

Another important factor is in the face of increasing competition in the sphere of tourism and its marketing, each region is in search of unique products. Local Arab cuisine is already a platform that contains the necessary resources that can be used as a marketing tool to attract customers, promote cities, regions and even entire countries. Abu Dhabi as a capital city of the UAE is an important source of sustainable gastronomic tourism. Investing into this trends has a huge strategic advantage.

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DISCUSSION

The paper aimed to empirically analyze the role of Street Food Festivals through satisfaction and emotion indicators during Abu Dhabi Food Festival in December. The study tried to discover the nature of satisfaction and emotion of the visitor to attend this event. 320 participants were examined through a questionnaire. Based on this observation, behavioral intention was not only a satisfaction reason but it is also connects to psychological andemotional aspect. In this context, the paper focused to evaluate the relations between SFF as a place and visitor’s emotional condition. The results from analysis highlight a direct positive impact that street food festivals and its types have on emotional and satisfaction experience components. In the view of considering place (SFF), it is possible to conclude that emotional and satisfaction aspects regulate the positive rapport between place and intention. Obviously, it could be a significant tool to affect behavioral intentions by creating the atmosphere of fun, joy and happiness which impacts on emotions of the visitor. Thus, creating positive emotional background with a positive experience for the visitors certainly influence on satisfaction and behavioral intentions of festival visitors.

CONCLUSION

The development of gastronomic tourism can be a promising area for any region and country, even without significant tourist resources. Destination and place can be considered as a great element of attracting gastronomic tourists. Food events and Festivals are a source catalyzers for a better performance and tourism development. Thus, the study focused not only on investigating elements of satisfaction from the visitor’s side but also to develop a sociocultural view and the specifics of the representation forms of gastronomic culture. The culture produces deeper knowledge about the mechanisms of functioning of the culture of everyday life to clarify a number of general questions of theory and the history. The analysis of gastronomic culture allows to reach out to more global issues of identity formation, the translation of norms and values, the peculiarities of Arab culture and not only. This suggestion confirms the fact that, gastronomic tourism can become the basis for the development of tourism in many national regions of the United Arab Emirates and serve as great example for other regions.

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ASSESSING THE ADIYAMAN VINTAGE (KERGE) FESTIVITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM

Hülya YEŞİLYURT1, Cem YEŞİLYURT1 , Çiğdem SABBAĞ1, Çinuçen OKAT2

1Adıyaman University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Adıyaman/Turkey

2Dokuz Eylül University, Social Sciences Institute, Tourism Management Department Doctorate Student Izmir/Turkey

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Festivals are among the supportive elements of the development of tourism sector. As in the case of La Tomatina, the tomato festival in Spain, there are several examples of it. Following these successful examples, cities with a high touristic potential organize various touristic activities to attract tourists all-year round. Festivals do not only contribute to tourism of the region but also act as an instrument maintain and convey the region’s unique cultural traits to future generations. The province of Adıyaman has a high level of tourism potential due to natural and cultural characteristics, and in the rural areas of the province it is believed that revival of the small-scale vintage (kerge) festivals can contribute to the region reaching the desired level of tourism. With the festival, it is thought that the locals and visitors from outside of the province will have a wide participation, leading to a socio-economic contribution in local and national level. The decision-makers will be advised to organize a vintage (kerge) festival with this purpose. In order to determine the effects of such a festival on society and tourism, discussions were held with enterprises selling the fermented grape juice products produced after the vintage (kerge). Following these discussions, it has been discovered that vintage (kerge) festival is greatly supported by the locals, and it will be helpful in reviving the fading culture, generate revenue and promote the province.

Keywords: Festival, Vintage (Kerge), Gastronomy Tourism, Adıyaman

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, special activities and festivals on local products became a significant attraction element of tourism sector in national and international level (Çela,

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Knowles-Lankford, Lankford, 2007). And many destination directors in particular, are traditionally organizing carnivals and festivals at regular intervals to promote and sustain the unique cultures of their regions. Such activities are being defined as an important marketing strategy contributing to the development of tourism (Küçük, 2013).

Festivals and carnivals should not be viewed on economic terms only. As well as ensuring unity and solidarity, festivals and carnivals are also effective in promoting the cultural richness of a region (Çelik,2009). Activities such as carnivals and festivals where cultural elements are used, create an element of attraction for the target tourism areas and ensure sustainable tourism development. It has been observed that activities in bigger magnitude prolongs the tourism season by increasing the demand to the region during low season, add a variety to the region’s tourism and as a result contribute to the development of the region’s tourism (Yıldız ve Polat, 2016). In addition to that, it generates additional source of revenue for the destination, increases the appeal of towns, lead to new infrastructure and services, improve the image and ensue that people re-visit the area (Çela, Knowles-Lankford, Lankford, 2007; Karagöz, 2006). In addition, festivals held at the destinations are also contributing to the local community in social and economic terms (Özkan, Curkan ve Sarak,2015).

A type of festival is that involving local food and beverages. Such festivals increase the attention towards gastronomy tourism and therefore are among the most interesting activities in tourism industry (Canizares ve Guzman, 2012). Local food and beverages used within the scope of gastronomy tourism improve and enhance tourism of a region. In addition, gastronomy activities are also providing competitive advantage to destinations (Bucak ve Erdoğan-Aracı, 2013). Turkey consists of seven geographical regions and has a rich tradition of food. Therefore several national and international festivals are held in Turkey (9). Regarding local food and beverages, wine festivals, herb festivals and fruit and vegetable festivals (tomato, melon etc.) are held in the world. And in Turkey, festivals related to local food and beverages such as olive, honey, grape, herb are being organized with comprehensive participation (Boyne, Hall ve Williams, 2003; Okumuş, Okumuş ve McKercher,2007; Çulha ve Kalkan, 2016). Furthermore, due to suitable climate conditions and cultivation opportunities, Turkey is among the leading countries in the world in terms of vineyard and grape production (Bucak ve Aracı, 2013). Regions with the highest amount of grape production are Aegean, Mediterranean and Southeast Anatolian Regions, respectively. Use of grape is mostly for table consumption, wine-making, drying, vinegar, molasses, dried roll-up, marmalade, sweets, fruit juice, mush and other manufactured goods. Looking at grape production per region, we see that in Aegean Region mostly seedless dry-grape is being produced, Mediterranean Region harvests product early, while in Marmara Region, Central Anatolia and Southeast Anatolian Regions grape is produced for table

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consumption, grape juice, wine-making and for drying (Gümrük ve Ticaret Bakanlığı, 2017). Particularly in Aegean and Marmara Regions, the districts of Bozcaada and Urla are traditionally organizing annual vintage festivals with various activities.

In Southeast Anatolian Region, one of the leading grape-producer provinces is Adıyaman (Doğan, Uyak ve İlhan, 2017). It is known that in the past in Adıyaman, locals have celebrated the vintage (kerge) season with a festival named Kerge Festivities. There are reports in literature that during these festivities, locals gathered together to squeeze the grapes and produce various goods from the grapes (Milliyet, 2017). During their interviews, locals have stated that such activities are mostly taking place in the rural areas of Adıyaman’s Besni, Gölbaşı, Kahta districts. In recent years, the province of Adıyaman is faced with the threat of losing many grape varieties unique to the area. The reasons for this threat can be listed as the socio-economic changes in the community, urbanization, migration and security (Doğan, Uyak ve İlhan, 2017). These negative developments led to the fading of the strong unity and solidarity environment that was achieved during the Vintage (Kerge) Festivities. Families living in rural areas started to organize celebrations at a lower level among themselves and sold their products. Even though the production of these products is decreasing day by day, they are still highly demanded by locals and are being marketed nationwide (Milliyet, 2017).

Considering the contributions made by the harvest themed festivals to the destinations, it is believed that organizing a wide-scale Vintage (Kerge) Festival in Adıyaman would benefit the people and tourism of Adıyaman. With this study, it is aimed to determine the possible effects on locals and tourism of the proposal to the local authorities and decision-makers to organize a vintage (Kerge) festival.

METHOD

The purpose of the study is to determine the elements required to ensure re-organization of Vintage (Kerge) Festival which is dating back to many years in Adıyaman and to determine the possible effects of a festival. The study has been shaped by qualitative research method approach. Data have been compiled by semi-structured interview technique, part of qualitative data compiling techniques. Questions posed during the interview have been prepared as a result of literature search (Hall, 2005; Kızılırmak, 2006; Çelik 2009; Kızıloğlu, Kızıoğlu, ve Patan, 2015; Çulha ve Kalkan, 2016) with regards to the main subject. While preparing the questions, opinions of two experts have been taken, after assessing the conformity to the purpose of the study. The study was conducted with enterprises selling local food and beverage. Sample has been determined by judgement sampling. Enterprises selling local food and beverage are located within a touristic bazaar in Adıyaman town centre. As well as honey, cheese,

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butter, chestnut and groundnut found in this bazaar, there are also other grape juice products available, mostly made from grapes grown in Adıyaman town centre and districts. There are 17 shops in this bazaar, however only 13 of them are actually operating. The study has been conducted in 2017 during the month of September and 10 show owners have volunteered to take part. Interviews took around 20-25 minutes in average. Participants were cautious about voice recording, therefore data were taken into notebooks and then transferred into a computer.

FINDINGS

With the purpose of analysing the data compiled in the study, descriptive analysis has been used and in some places, their expressions have been directly given to have an objective reflection of their opinions. A framework has been formed for data analysis, data has been processed in accordance with this thematic framework, and then findings have been identified and the results have been interpreted before analysing in four stages (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011). In this sense, data has been approached under 3 headlines: possible effects of a festival, assessment of the festival in terms of local tourism and proposals for improvement of tourism.

Introductory Information Related to Participants

During the interviews, seven questions were asked to gain demographical data related to the participants. All of the participants were male, married and from Adıyaman. Majority of the participants were high school graduates and over the age of 40. Participants said their shops have been operating for over 10 years, but they havebeen involved in vineyard and products for longer.

Recognition of Vintage (Kerge) Festivities

Participants have been directed questions to see whether they are aware of the vintage (kerge) festivities organized mostly among the community in the districts and rural areas of Adıyaman, and the enterprises selling local food and beverages, and the reasons for not organizing such festivities on a more regular basis. In this sense, 8 of the participants stated that they are aware of the festivities and that these festivities generally take place among the local communities, while 2 of the participants stated they had no knowledge of such festivities. Most of the participants stated the festivities in the past were highly enjoyable, people of all ages took part in them and vintage (kerge) was performed by the cooperation of all people. However, the culture of such cooperative work is fading nowadays, material gain is becoming prominent and therefore vintage (kerge) activities are no longer held in a festive mood and unity and solidarity are rapidly being forgotten. One of the participants has explained this situation as follows:

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Nowadays, when people ask their brothers to help with grape harvest, brothers are expecting a fee for their help.

Participant 6

One of the participants stated that due to modernization and mechanization, locals nowadays prefer to ferment their grape juice at home with machines, rather than in the field.

Table 1. Introductory Information Related to Participants

Age Gender Marital Status

Level Of Education

Job Description

Sector Experience

Place of Birth

Participant 1 45 Male Married Primary School

Tradesmen 13 Adıyaman

Participant 2 48 Male Married High School


Participant 3 41 Male Married Primary School


Participant 4 68 Male Married Primary school








Participant 8 30 Male Married University Tradesmen 7 Adıyaman



Participant 10

45 Male Married High School


Suggestions for Improving the Festival

The most important reason for not being able to organize vintage (kerge) festivities on a larger scale has been described by the participants as the lack of support

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by local authorities. In this sense, participants have been asked questions on what to do to improve the festivities and make them larger in scale. All of the participants stated that the very first requirement is the local authorities to provide the necessary infrastructure and superstructure investments to ensure a festival environment for the activities. They said that for the festival to reach its desired target, local authorities, NGOs, university and community have to work together in harmony. In addition, they have emphasized the need for the promotion and marketing activities to be performed by the relevant institutions. Regarding this issue, one of the participants conveyed his opinions as follows:

If the governor’s office, municipality and tradespeople act together, the fading vintage (kerge) festivities will be revived with even more participation and therefore our culture will be prevented from becoming extinct.

Participant 8

EFFECTS OF THE FESTIVAL ON THE REGION

In the literature, there are several studies suggesting that national and international festivals have economic and socio-cultural effects on the destinations they are being organized (Çulha ve Kalkan, 2016; Can ve Can 2017). With this assumption, the participants have been asked to assess the possible effect on the region if the vintage (kerge) activities were to be made a festival. All of the participants stated that a festival would help in promoting the local products and lead to an increase in sales, hence making an economic contribution to the region.

Locals would bring and boil their products in the festival zone, and on top of this visual joy, they would sell their various products such as molasses, made from grape, in the festival zone and generate economic income.

Participant 4 7 of the participants stated that the festival could possibly effect the community

and region in socio-cultural terms. For this matter, it has been observed that a vintage (kerge) festival would have effects such as increasing the awareness of unity and solidarity among the community and sustaining the vintage (kerge) culture. Participants said the following about this issue.

By organizing a festival, people will work together to produce their goods, just like the old days. This will enhance solidarity and contribute to the sustainability of the culture. Participant 2

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ASSESSING THE VINTAGE (KERGE) FESTIVAL IN TERMS OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM

Festivals are among the activities that have been particularly considered in recent years to attract tourists to the region and particularly to prolong the duration of staying in the region. Local food and beverage festivals do not only contribute to the development of regional tourism, but they are also important instruments to protect and convey the local culture. In this sense, the participants were asked about the possible effects of the festival on the region’s tourism. All of the participants stated that a festival would positively affect the region in terms of gastronomy tourism. In addition, they have also stated that local food and beverages would be promoted and the region would become prominent in terms of gastronomy tourism. This way, the festival would various effects such as increasing the number of tourists visiting the area, prolonging the tourism season, promote local food and enhance the image of the destination. Examples related to this view are given below.

It will be an advantage to organize the festival during the months of September and October. During those months, people will come to visit Nemrut Mount and also participate in the festival. This way we will have more tourists visiting the area.

Participant 3

If a wide-scale festival is organized and sustained, the number of tourists visiting the area will increase and therefore the tourism variety in our city will increase, helping to promote us in a national and international level. Participant 9

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Festivals are among the activities that need to be taken seriously by local authorities and decision-makers, who are trying to increase the tourism potential of their destination. Festivals need to be taken seriously because they help to add variety to tourism activities, increase the number of tourists, have an economic contribution, prolong the tourism season, besides other advantages. The number of festivals is increasing constantly on a national and international basis. Local food and beverage festivals not only create economic and social benefits, but also significantly help to improve national and international gastronomy tourism. It is known that the tendency

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to participate in niche food and beverage festivals is increasing in a global level (Çulha ve Kalkan 2016). Food and beverage festivals are deemed to be effective instruments for conveying local culture to future generations (Çapar ve Yenipınar, 2016). Local food and beverage culture is a result of historic accumulation and in order for it to keep existing, it needs to be sustained, promoted and conveyed from generation to generation. Particularly in Turkey, where agricultural activities date back to 10.000 years ago, people living in rural areas have an important role to play to ensure local food and beverage cultural heritage is conveyed to future generations and thus sustained. Therefore, it is believed that rural festivals would be beneficial in promoting and marketing the thousand year old Anatolian agricultural culture products and also to help growth in rural and regional areas.

According to the results of the interviews with the tradesmen selling the local food products in Adıyaman province, it is thought that making a wide participation to a festival in the region will contribute to the city’ economy and recognition. This finding is in parallel with Çulha’s (2016) study. Another finding in the study is that festivals will contribute socio-cultural contribution to the region. Similar results were obtained in studies conducted on the subject. Similar results were obtained in research conducted on the subject. The study by Sert (2017) also has showed that festivals have a positive impact on the culture of the local population. Gul et al. (2013) have found that festivals boost cultural and social development in the region, revitalized the local economy, and facilitated recognition across the country. Dalgın et al. (2016) have reached a conclusion that festivals have attracted a significant amount of visitors to the region where they organized their festivals at that time, positively affected the image of the region, and increased the awareness of the region. In this study, it is concluded that the regulation of the vineyard festival in Adıyaman will result in the extension of the tourism season of the region, the promotion of the local foods and the image of the destination will be positively affected.

In the study, it was concluded that the organisation of the vintage (Kerge) festival in Adıyaman was the result of the participation not the tradesmen but local people and the local governments. In this context, it is thought that the vintage festival (Kerge) to be made by the suggestions below will contribute to the development of gastronomic tourism in Adıyaman province.

Recommendations

Embraced participation by the local actors in these festivities would ensure reaching all segments of the community and create a festive environment.

Festivals shall not only generate economic gain, but at the same they will ensure protection of the existing culture by creating the social unity and solidarity that will

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sustain the local culture of the region. With this purpose, vintage (kerge) in the festival zone should be performed with traditional tools and equipment, goods should be produced with a visual feast and offered to the visitors.

Rather than competing with neighbouring towns, festivals should be organized during dates which would ensure social networking.

In order to make the festival more attractive, the local grape products should be awarded in different quality categories.

Festival zone should be close to town centre, with large size plains and vineyards, where people can enjoy themselves for the whole day.

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Milliyet,2017. Gölbaşı İlçesi Peygamber Üzümü Yetiştiriciliğinde Türkiye Birincisi. http://www.milliyet.com.tr/golbasi-ilcesi-peygamber-uzumu-yetistiriciliginde-adiyaman-yerelhaber-1561746/

Okumus, B., Okumus, F. ve McKercher, B. (2007). Incorporating Local and International Cuisines in the Marketing of Tourism Destinations: The Cases of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management, 28(1): 253-261.

Sert, A.N. (2017). Festivallerin yerel halk üzerindeki sosyal etkileri: Beypazarı örneği. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 38:187-199.

Yıldız, S.B., Polat, E.(2016). Yerel Halkın Eskişehir’de Düzenlenen Festivallerin Etkilerine Yönelik Algıları. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 4 (2):40-62.

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FOOD FESTIVALS AS A GASTRONOMIC EVENT AND ATTENDEES’ MOTIVATIONS: THE CASE OF

INTERNATIONAL URLA ARTICHOKE FESTIVAL Feray İRIGÜLER1, Osman Nuri ÖZDOĞAN2

1.İzmir University of Economics, School of Applied Management Sciences, Department of Culinary Arts and Management

2.Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Tourism [email protected] , [email protected]

Abstract:

The purpose of this study was to identify the major motivations and demographic profiles of visitors interested in food festivals within the scope of gastronomic tourism. It aims to offer an insight to festival organizers and marketers to increase the organizational efficiency and promotional effectiveness of the event as well as better constructing their messages and targeting the right audience accordingly. The study was conducted during the 3. International Urla Artichoke Festival that took place in Urla, İzmir on April 28-30th, 2017. A questionnaire was designed to investigate the classification of food festival tourists’ pre-visit arrangements, sources of travel information, behavioral intentions and motivations to attend the festival along with their demographic characteristics. Data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) software program version 23. The results indicate that the festival attracted visitors from the local area, İzmir in particular. Escape from routine and enjoy time with family / friends was the main motivator. Social media and WOM (word-of-mouth) were the two major sources of information that visitors heard about the festival. The majority of the attendees were middle-aged, low-income people or students. Visitors planned to attend the event one week or 24 hours prior to the festival and showed presence for only 1 day rather than overstaying for the whole period.

Keywords: local food, food festivals, gastronomy, gastronomic tourism, travel motivation

INTRODUCTION

Local food has a significant role in touristic experience and nowadays a worldwide phenomenon. It doesn’t only appeal to five senses but also offers a learning experience in the context of special interest tourism. It’s both an entertainment and cultural activity (Prentice and Andersen, 2003). While enjoying local food may be a major motivation for visiting a destination for some tourists; for others, local food may come out as a supporting experience. People can experience a different culture as they

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have a taste of the local food. However, only a certain proportion of tourists travel exclusively for food festivals or other food-related activities. For those tourists who prefer attending a food festival instead of travelling for sightseeing or the like; local food becomes a major experience. At this point, attending food festivals is seen as the main motivational reason for a trip where the trip can be regarded as a gastronomic tourism activity (Su, 2015).

The tremendous benefits of culinary festivals and special events are multifaceted; besides its huge economic contribution to the local economy within a limited time frame, they also stand out as part of the landscape which generates a greater touristic activity with different supporting services such as accommodation, transportation, and other complementary services needed away from home. They are also an opportunity to get a deep knowledge of the region thoroughly and consider the destination for re-visiting in the future (Thrane, 2002).

Food festivals are a hedonistic experience in nature and considered to be an effective tool for the promotion of culinary heritage and unique attributes of the destination. With this framework, it would be necessary to describe the travel motivations and demographic aspects of visitors to better develop unique experiences and identify elements perceived as important by participants to visit such an event. This would also help marketers to implement better strategies.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Food Festivals

Food festivals are a collective celebration of an authentic product and are hallmark events that are held on a one-off or regular basis either internationally, nationally or regionally. They are a tool for rural communities to promote local commodities, adding value to already existing products. Regions are known for specific food and drink products so it’s an opportunity for the local community to share what they perceive as valuable and unique to them and / or characteristic of the area (Çela et al., 2007). It involves the interactive participation of the wider audience and also the exchange of collective experiences. One of the primary functions of such festivals is to give the host community and the sponsors an opportunity to assure a prominent position in the tourism market for a concentrated time-space frame (Hall and Mitchell, 2008). Some other remarkable functions include creating and promoting brand values, strengthening community relationships and encouraging new visitors for events visitation as well as emotional connection, increased awareness and loyalty (Mason and Paggiaro, 2012).

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Watching the preparation or tasting of any food on a plate or a drink in a glass during an event tells many things about the region, the local habitants, the geography and traditional lifestyles. The interdependency of the landscape and the society living on it is a result of customs and rituals of thousands of years. Thus, food is a reflection of unique characteristics of culture and authenticity of its roots originated from its local character. It is the commodification of this authenticity shaped by human curiosity that comes up in the form of organized festivals, tastings and feasts (Rotherham, 2008). While food has always been an occasion to bond people in its simplest form at home for survival or with its most splendiferous form as a feast for celebrations such as the birth of a baby or the joy of an abundant harvest; it has also been an intriguing attraction for people to visit a place and make explorations. It’s an escape from the routine for people and trying fresh and local food unlike the fast feeding on frozen or ready-to-eat food at home. The hands-on involvement of native inhabitants and a vibrant setting with a social atmosphere make it even more appealing for visitors to enjoy some time with the immediate family or friends (Falassi, 1987). From the host community’s point of view, food festivals build social cohesion within the community and reinforce ties.

Food Festivals and Food Tourism

Festivals play a significant role in rural communities as they create substantial income generating outlets which in turn increases quality of life for locals and enhances image of the area. The enormous growth of festivals as a tourist attraction both in number, popularity and diversity in recent years yielded a parallel increase in professional festival management within numerous communities. As festivals don’t require the installation of heavy infrastructure and physical development, the potential economic return with the existing resources motivates local inhabitants, authorities and destination management organizations (DMO) even more. The volunteer work, support and enthusiasm are the most needed assets which is not hard to find (Gursoy et al., 2004).

Since culinary tourism can be defined as experiencing food and food related activities, food festivals come up as a form of culinary tourism. Destinations all around the world have adopted some type of product to organize a food festival to assist their economic and tourism development. Hall and Mitchell (2005) make a comprehensive definition of culinary tourism including “visitations to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and special locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production region are the primary motivation factor for travel”. For tourists, it’s a way of experiencing new cultures and flavors. Destinations’ chances to be successful from this entertaining form of tourism depend on their ability to offer an enriching tourist experience and to maximize the

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economic and socio-cultural impacts of tourism (Kalkstein-Silkes et al., 2008; Beltran et al., 2016).

The short-term benefits of such festivals are increased demand for food, hotels, cafés, transportation and other facilitating services and long-term benefits are increased awareness of local producers, increased exportation of festival products, increased employment, improved infrastructural facilities, enhanced destination image, extension of tourism season, improved community engagement, encouragement of local pride and reinforcement of local identity. In this regard, while short-term benefits form a basis for long-term benefits, those are mainly the long-term benefits that enhance sustainability and yield desired outcomes. That’s why more and more tourism marketing professionals organize new food and wine festivals as these festivals are regarded as an integral part of tourism development (Chang and Yuan, 2011; Çela et al., 2007).

Table 1 Best Food Festivals around the World

Name of the Festival Country Duration

The Good Food and Wine Show South Africa 3 days

Epcot International Food and Wine Festival

USA 2-month long

Vegeterian Festival Bangkok 9 days

Great Wisconsin Cheese Festival USA 3 days

Spain Seafood Festival Spain 10 days

Foodies Festival (Multiple festivals across the country)

England 3 days

Taste of Chicago USA 5 days

Ribfest of Toronto Canada 4 days

Bacon Fest Sacramento USA Week-long

Savour Singapore 4 days

Source: http://www.thethings.com/15-best-food-festivals-in-the-world/

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Some of the world famous food festivals around the world that attract thousands of international visitors are summarized in Table 1. It’s seen that most attracting food festivals are largely hosted by the U.S.

Although these food festivals have a theme that differentiate it from one another, festival organizations and programs are enriched with culinary demonstrations, local product vending stands, seminars, talks, kitchen shows with celebrity chefs, competitions, special guest contacts, musical shows, arts & crafts workshops and donation raising activities to offer a wide variety of experiences in a more entertaining atmosphere to attract more visitors.

Description of Urla and Urla Artichoke Festival

Urla is a coastal town located 35 kilometers west of İzmir City as shown on the map below. It embraces the nature and history at the same time surrounded by 12 islands.

Figure 1 Urla Map

Urla is known for its fishery, floriculture, fresh herb varieties, artichokes, olive oil and wine production. The heritage of olive oil making in Urla dates back to the 6th century BC. It has a fertile land in terms of agricultural production as the soil contains iodine. In addition to its pastoral scenery, it also attracts local and international students and researchers with its campus of İzmir Institute of Technology. Urla is a friendly coastal town, hospitable and carefully protected. Its history dates back to BC 3000. As a result of the invasion of Dor and Aka immigrants in this region, the city founded by the Ions come under the domination of Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks and Ottomans respectively. The city’s foundation is dating back to centuries before the Hellenistic Civilization as evidenced by archaeological findings and was called

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Klazomenai in the coast and Vourla in the interior parts during the ancient times (https://theculturetrip.com; http://www.urlasarapcilik.com.tr).

International Urla Artichoke Festival is organized at the end of April with the cooperation of Municipality of Urla and İzmir, Izmir University of Economics and Délice Network of Good Food Cities. The festival is a three-day event held annually and it was organized for the third time in 2017. It’s been awarded as the best festival of the year by Shining Star Awards in 2016. Artichoke planting area increased by 43 percent and 1300 acres of new artichoke production area has been formed in Urla thanks to the festival. 60 thousand people visited the festival in 2016 and 500 thousand in 2017.The producers sold two million artichokes in three days.In addition to the souvenirs exhibited at 1200 stands, only artichokes were sold at 200 stands.Besides these specialty vendors, a wide variety of offerings such as culinary workshops from awarded foreign chefs, seminars, activities for children and nonstop musical entertainment were also presented throughout the day at different points (http://www.urla.bel.tr; http://www.milasonder.com; www.urlaenginarfestivali.com).

Starting from this theoretical framework, this paper aims to provide a detailed profile and the underlying factors of motivations of Urla Artichoke Festival visitors along with their sources of travel information to serve as a tool to better analyze the event and promote the region. By knowing what the participants want, festival regions can offer a totally satisfying tourism experience and increase their attractiveness as well as build repeat visitation.

METHODOLOGY

International Urla Artichoke Festival, a regional food festival, was selected for this research in order to investigate attendees’ motivations. In this study, a short exploratory questionnaire using convenience sampling was applied in order to gather information on the attendees’ motivations for visiting food festivals and inquire its contribution as a gastronomic tool. The survey was applied in Turkish language using hard copy surveys during the event. The survey instrument was derived from previous related articles emerged from the literature review (Yuan et al., 2004; Park et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2010; Mason and Paggiaro, 2012; Sohn and Yuan, 2013) and in correspondence with the research objectives to collect data. It consists of 3 sections in which the first section includes questions about pre-visit planning and intentions of the attendees; second section has the statements about motivations of participating in a food event; and in third, there are statements to determine the socio-demographic characteristics of participants as gender, age, marital status, education level, occupation, income and residential city. Respondents were asked to evaluate the questionnaire using a mixture of technical measures such as 5-point Likert Scale from

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1 “very unimportant to very important”, multiple choice and demographic questions. The survey was administered face to face on April 29th and 30th, 2017 during the event and a total of 235 questionnaires were collected. The results were analyzed by using SPSS Version 23 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). First, the respondents’ demographic profiles and other supportive information were depicted in frequencies and percentages and secondly, means of each motivational item were calculated to identify the importance score.

RESEARCH RESULTS

Demographics of Respondents

The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents at the festival are presented in Table 2. The gender composition of the respondents in this research was 64,5% female and 35,5% male. The majority of them were aged between 45-54 years old (23,9%) and 25-34 years old (22,2%) followed by 24 and under years old (21,8%). The distribution of the participants according to their marital status was 105 single respondents (44,9%) and 129 married people (55,1%). Regarding the educational level visitors surveyed, 51,3% declared to hold a graduate degree and 24,8% holding a high school degree. An analysis of the qualitative data concerning respondents’ self-reported occupations showed that students and retired people constituted the majority of participants followed by people holding a teaching position. Respondents visited the festival from various cities of Turkey but predominantly from İzmir with 67,9%. The 30,3% of respondents’ income level is between 1000-2500 TL and 29,5% between 2501-4000 TL.

VISITOR ORIGINS, ACCOMMODATION, VISITOR COMPANIONS AND OTHER STATEMENTS

A vast majority of visitors (71,4%) were from Izmir. The major information source used to find out about the festival was social media and word of mouth indicating that people were satisfied with the festival from previous years to advise the event. As for the length of stay in the Urla area, 67% of them was present only one day and overstaying visitors preferred to stay at friend’s or family’s place in or around Urla; the rest preferred to stay in nearby locations such as İzmir, Çeşme or Alaçatı. 78,6% reported that they are keen to visit food festivals whenever they have the opportunity and 21,4% tries hard not to miss it. 40,2% visited the festival with their families and friends and the average group size was between one and three. The planning time was distributed evenly between last 24 hours, in the past week and one month ago. As for travel behavior characteristics of the sample, 45,3% of respondents travelled from within a distance of 50 kilometers and 23,9% between 50-100 kilometers. The majority

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(67,5%) of visitors organized their visitation individually on a daily basis while 10,7 % participated the event as part of an organized tour.

Table 2 Demographic Profile of Festival Attendees

Variables n % Variables n % Gender Occupation Female 151 64,5 Student 46 19,7 Male 83 35,5 Retired 33 14,1 Age Teaching Position 26 11,1 24 and under 51 21,8 Freelance 20 8,5 25-34 52 22,2 Banker/Financer 18 7,7 35-44 46 19,7 Engineer 14 6,0 45-54 56 23,9 Housewife 14 6,0 55-64 20 8,5 Health Sector 11 4,7 65 + 9 3,8 Public Sector 9 3,8 Marital Status Others 43 18,4 Single 105 44,9 Married 129 55,1 Place of Residence İzmir 159 67,9 Education İstanbul 42 17,9 High School 58 24,8 Ankara 10 4,3 Under Graduate 22 9,4 Kocaeli 5 2,1 Graduate Degree 120 51,3 Muğla 4 1,7 Post Graduate 34 14,5 Balıkesir 3 1,3 Other 10 4,4 Income Foreign Country 1 0,4 No income 21 9,0 1000 - 2500 71 30,3 2501 - 4000 69 29,5 4001 - 5500 33 14,1 5501 - 7000 25 10,7 7001 + 15 6,4 TOTAL 234 100

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Table 3 Statements Related to Festival Visitation

Statement N % Statement N % From which city are you coming from?

How long will you be present?

İzmir 167 71,4 Only 1 day 157 67,1 İstanbul 38 16,2 The whole time (3

days) 43 18,4

Ankara 7 3,0 2 days 34 14,5 Muğla 4 1,7 Other 18 7,7 How did you learn about the festival?

If you staying overnight, who/where are you staying with/at?

Social Media 86 36,8 Not overstaying 120 51,3 WOM (Spouse, friends etc.)

75 32,1 At friends, family or relatives’ place

71 30,4

Press 26 11,1 Pension, motel, guesthouse

23 9,8

Television, radio 7 3,0 Hotel 20 8,5 Travel agency ads. 5 2,1 Other 35 15,0 Please specify your interest on food festivals

If you staying overnight, the area you’re staying at;

I participate if I had the opportunity

184 78,6 In or around Urla 66 28,2

I try hard not to miss it 50 21,4 Within proximity to Urla (Çeşme, Alaçatı, İzmir etc.)

48 20,5

Not overstaying 120 51,3 Who are you participating with to the festival?

How many people are there in your party?

Spouse/ child(ren) 94 40,2 1-3 persons 107 45,7 Friends 94 40,2 4-6 persons 89 38,0 Relative(s) 35 15,0 6 and up 32 13,7 As a member of a club or a social group

8 3,4 Alone 6 2,6

Alone 3 1,3 When did you make your plan?

How far is your place of residence’s distance

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to the festival destination?

In the past 1 week – 1 month

63 26,9 0-50 km 106 45,3

Last 24 hours 60 25,6 50-100 km 56 23,9 In the past 1 day – 1 week

56 23,9 500 km and up 45 19,2

More than 1 month ago 55 23,5 100-300 km 18 7,7 300-500 km 9 3,8 What is your festival participation type?

Daily / Individual participation

158 67,5

Overnight / Individual participation

51 21,8

Daily / Prtcp. with a tour/ group

15 6,4

Overnight /Partic.with a tour/group

10 4,3

ANALYSIS RESULTS OF SCALE ITEMS Reliability analysis have been applied on the scale items due to measure the

consistency of response and Cronbach Alfa (α) value has been determined as 0.752.

Alfa (α) value for all statements has been found to indicate total reliability of questionnaire and this value must be larger than 0.7; if α value is less than this value, it can be said that questionnaire has the weak total reliability. On the contrary, if α value of questionnaire is greater than 0.8, it can be said that the questionnaire has the high reliability degree.

Table 4 Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Alpha

Cronbach's Alpha Based on

Standardized Items

N of Items

,752 ,761 10 Statements and the scale items in the questionnaire that applied on respondents

have been analyzed and the results have been demonstrated on Table 5 below.

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Table 5 Attendees’ Motivations to Food Festivals

Mean Std. Dev.

N

To get away from the routine and enjoy time with family / friends

4,2821 0,95249 234

To taste local flavors 4,2778 0,97818 234

As it gives an opportunity to explore new tastes

4,1368 1,01834 234

As I have a special interest for food festivals

3,8376 1,26666 234

It doesn’t necessarily have to be a food festival, I enjoy festival atmospheres of all kinds

3,8248 1,15312 234

As I enjoy food festival travels 3,7949 1,20113 234

To be with people like me who are also interested in food and share ideas

3,0684 1,39728 234

To learn about new recipes and cooking techniques

2,8846 1,40490 234

To meet local/foreign celebrity chefs and guests in person

2,7350 1,32259 234

As I heard about the festival by chance while visiting Izmir / Urla

1,8932 1,42980 234

VISITOR MOTIVATIONS

The first research objective was to find out the motivations of the visitors attending this festival. Taken as a whole, the research showed that attendees were motivated by a combined of both the culinary experiences available at the festival and the overall hedonistic atmosphere. The mean importance scores for the self-reported items are presented in Table 5 below. Most of the items had a mean score of 3 or higher, suggesting that they are important motivations to attend a festival. The top three motivations were related to getting away from the routine to enjoy time with family

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and friends, to taste local flavors and to get a chance to explore new tastes. The next four most important reasons were that the visitors had a special interest for food festivals or festivals of any kind, they enjoy food festival travels and they would like to be with people like themselves who are also interested in food to share ideas. The last three motivations with less influence that attracted visitors were to learn about new recipes and cooking techniques, to meet local / foreign celebrity chefs and guests in person, and curiosity as they heard about the festival by chance while visiting Izmir / Urla.

CONCLUSION

This study investigated the underlying visitor motivations for attending an international food festival within the broader context of gastronomic tourism. Attendees’ demographic profiles and travel patterns along with their behavioral intentions were also investigated. The findings of the research provide meaningful implications for event organizers in festival management in terms of application of more powerful marketing actions and allocation of resources.

The results indicated most people were drawn to the event for multiple reasons. First of all, results revealed that attendees visited the festival mainly for escaping from their mundane lives and to taste local flavors. The festival provided a get-together opportunity in a fun and festive atmosphere for both escaping and experimenting. The event created an occasion for attendees to be with like-minded people in order to exchange ideas and learn new recipes. Additional activities also let visitors to fulfill their needs related to leisure in the open air; thus, attracting a wider audience who are not solely interested in food. Since festivals attract huge crowds who might not be homogeneous, organizers might need to adopt a segmented strategy to target the desired audience and not to exceed carrying capacities. Otherwise, the event may cause more harm than benefits for the local community.

Besides being a cultural exchange activity with social benefits, food festivals as a tourism product are also an income-generating source for the local economy and a tool to increase the appeal of the destination. However, attendees’ demographic profile of this research showed that a vast majority of visitors were either students or retired people with an average income level. Moreover, they were mainly attending from İzmir, a city within a distance of 50 kilometers. This is a problematic issue and a conflicting situation for a festival where the objective is to be international. International partners should be increased in number or specific target groups with high profile such as foreign gourmets, travel writers or specialized travel agents should be reached to increase participation from abroad. It should be marketed as a complete

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touristic product with supporting visits and activities to increase attractiveness of the area.

Attendees’ statements about how they heard about the festival indicated that social media and word-of-mouth (WOM) were the most common sources of information. This indicates that marketing efforts should be concentrated on these channels to reach the target market. Positive WOM is also a sign that the festival was successful and satisfying in the previous years. The reason of ‘only 1 day participation’ of visitors was likely due to the fact that the majority traveled only from a distance of 50 kilometers so that they didn’t need to overstay. And those who stayed overnight preferred a location in or around Urla which is a contribution to accommodation facilities and nearby restaurants. Most of the visitors planned their participation in a 1 day to - 1 month time frame prior to the event whereas only a small percentage made their plans more than 1 month prior to the festival showing that they participated the festival as a result of last-minute decisions rather than careful consideration. Sources of information should be used more frequently and efficiently to send program updates in this time frame to inform the desired visitors but more in advance to let people hear about the event. Organized tour participation was also low; the attendees planned their travels individually with their families and friends in one to three people in their parties. Since festivals are an occasion for people to spend some time together, fun family-oriented or group activities should be emphasized and included in the festival program.

There are numerous local festivals held all around Turkey year round but most of them are amateurish small-scale events with limited budgets, local organization bodies and weak visitation. On the other hand, organizing festivals such as International Urla Artichoke Festival with foreign partnerships and guest participants is a direct contribution for the local community and destination awareness, yet number of foreign attendees should be increased. This can be achieved through informing specialized agencies that organize gourmet or festival tours, direct mailings to special interest groups or include stakeholders and influencers in the marketing process.

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS First, the study was executed on a food festival of limited geographical scope.

Therefore, it would be more meaningful to expand the research to other food festivals to be able to generalize to results. Future study could also focus on other attributes not examined here to add a further contribution to culinary tourism organizers. For instance, intentions to re-visit the festival or satisfaction levels can be analyzed with wider populations. Finally, additional research could be done by implementing qualitative methods to get an in-depth understanding of the attendees’ overall experience on issues such as their evaluations on comfort, infrastructural requirements

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and negative emotions. If the event organizers had the human resources available to them, it would also be helpful to administer short on-site interviews at the event. It would also be beneficial to provide an opportunity for visitors to drop surveys off as they leave the festival.

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Gursoy, D., Kim, K., Uysal, M. (2004). Perceived Impacts of Festivals and Special Events by Organizers: An Extension and Validation. Tourism Management, 25, 171-181.

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Kalkstein-Silkes, C., Cai, L. A., Lehto, X. Y. (2008). “Conceptualizing festival-based culinary tourism in rural destinations”, pp. 65-77. Hall, C. M., Sharples, L. (Ed.) in Food and Wine Festivals and Events around the World. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, U.K..

Mason, M. C., Paggiaro, A. (2012). Investigating the Role of Festivalscape in Culinary Tourism: The Case of Food and Wine Events. Tourism Management, 33, 1329-1336.

Park K., Reisinger, Y., Kang H. (2008). Visitors' Motivation for Attending the South Beach Wine and Food Festival, Miami Beach, Florida, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25:2, 161-181.

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Prentice, R., Andersen, V. (2003). Festival as Creative Destination. Annals of Tourism Research, 30:1,7–30.

Rotherham, I. (2008). “From Haggis to High Table: A Selective History of Festival and Feast as Mirrors of British Landscape and Culture”, pp. 47-61. Hall, C. M., Sharples, L. (Ed.) in Food and Wine Festivals and Events around the World. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, U.K.

Smith, S., Costello, C., Muenchen, R. A. (2010) Influence of Push and Pull Motivations on Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions within a Culinary Tourism Event, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 11:1, 17-35. Sohn, E., Yuan, J. (2013). "Who are the culinary tourists? An observation at a

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Su, Y. (2015). Reflections on Local Specialties and Gastronomic Tourism.Chinese Studies, Vol. 4, 15-19.

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motivations: A synergy of wine, travel and special events? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11:1, 41–58.

http://www.milasonder.com/haber/41389/3-uluslararasi-urla-enginar-festivali-yapildi.html (Retrieved on 20.07.2017)

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GASTRONOMY TOURISM AND DESTINATION COMPETITIVENESS

Duran CANKÜL Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi,Faculty of Tourism

[email protected]

Abstract

This conceptual study states the importance of gastronomy tourism in terms of the destination competitiveness. Gastronomy tourism offers tourists the culinary culture of a country, region or county and is accepted to be one of the vital components of tourism experience. In gastronomy tourism, food and beverage is an important touristic asset for tourist that visit destinations and these are the main factors that motivate people to travel to a certain destination. The literature put forth that gastronomic products strengthen the economy of a destination, affect the revisiting intention to a destination, increase the attractiveness, contribute to the authenticity and diversification, improve the brand image, contribute to sustainability, and increase the level of competitiveness of it.

Keywords: tourism, gastronomy, gastronomy tourism, destination competitiveness.

INTRODUCTION

The fragile global economic growth and travel to macro-economic intensities and the flexible natue of the tourism industry turns into rapid growing industry like oil exporting, food producing or automobile industries. The growing purchase power of the middle class in the growing industries affects the development of tourism industry as well (Dahiya and Duggal, 2015: 146; Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 2). On the other hand, as tourist profiles change, the conventional tourist leaves its place to modern consumers (Erbaş, Temizkan and Cankül, 2016; Erbaş, Cankül and Temizkan, 2016). Moreover, destination preference is not limited to natural sources like snowy mountains, breathtaking landscapes, worth picturing valleys, dazzling beaches that were popular in the past, in fact it, it keeps expanding with various niche markets (Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 1). In this context, modern tourism forms and markets developed as a response to these changes give opportunities to tourist for escape from the routine and taste some new flavors (Wto, 2012: 6).

Along with the changes, every single day the number of tourists keep rising in tourism that has become a global recreation activity. And food is something very

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important for tourists in terms of experiencing an effective travel experience (Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 1; Suanpang, 2015: 581) and meet their basic needs during the journeys. Tourist behaviour specifically seeks to find more general experiences in terms of authentic experiences that include the opportunity to take part in the local culture and life. Authentic experience is closely related to “food” and “gastronomy tourism” (Suanpang, 2015: 581).

In the global literature, this tourism type named as gastronomy tourism (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; 2009; Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013; Suanpang, 2015; Tursab, 2015; Yuan Su, 2015; Draskovic, 2016), food tourism (Du rand, Heath ve Alberts, 2003; Tikkanen, 2007; Everett ve Aitchison, 2008; Kim, Kim ve Goh, 2011; Wto, 2012; Shalini ve Duggal, 2015; Dahiya ve Duggal, 2015; Kim ve Iwashita, 2016) or culinary tourism (Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008; Horng and Tsai, 2012; Baltescu, 2016) is closely related to the term of “gastronomy” that means the cultural applications on food and beverage, and various foods that are rare to a region and local cuisine and local food and beverage in tourism is described as a development for gastronomy tourism (Suanpang, 2015: 581-582)

Gastronomy tourism offers tourist a countries’, regions’ or counties’ culinary culture and thus it is accepted to be the vital component of tourism experience (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kim et al., 2011; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 2). In gastronomy tourism, food and beverage is a vital tourism asset for tourists that visit destinations (Frochot, 2003: 78; Kim et al., 2011; Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011: 70-71; Yuan Su, 2015: 17-18) and is one of the basic factors that motivate tourist to travel to a specific destination (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 376; Tikkanen, 2007; Kivela and Crotts, 2009; Kim et al., 2011; Wto, 2012; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3; Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 8; Baltescu, 2016: 107; Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 94). Moreover, gastronomic products of a destination reinforce the economy (Telfer and Wall, 1996; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Boyne, Hall and Williams, 2003; Du rand et al., 2003; Everett and Aitchison, 2008; Wto, 2012; Dahiya and Duggal, 2015), affect the revisit intention (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013; Alderighi, Bianchi and Lorenzini, 2016), increase the attractiveness (Tikkanen, 2007; Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011; Horng and Tsai, 2012; Kim and Iwashita, 2016), contribute to the authenticity of it and diversify it from the others (Du rand et al., 2003; Frochot, 2003; Okumus, Okumus and Mckercher, 2007; Baltescu, 2016), strengthen the brand image (Telfer and Wall, 1996; Du rand et al., 2003; Frochot, 2003; Boyne et al., 2003; Everett and Aitchison, 2008; Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011; Wto, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012; Kim and Iwashita, 2016), improve the destination image

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(Quan and Wang, 2004; Okumus et al., 2007; Horng and Tsai, 2012; Wto, 2012; Kim and Iwashita, 2016), contribute to sustainability (Du rand et al., 2003; Boyne et al., 2003; Everett and Aitchison, 2008; Kim and Iwashita, 2016; Draskovic, 2016) and incease the competitiveness level of the it (Du rand et al., 2003; Boyne et al., 2003; Everett and Aitchison, 2008; Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011; Horng and Tsai, 2012; Draskovic, 2016).

According to the report of World Tourism Organization, gastronomy has a 30% share in tourism receipts and 88,2% of the people that participate in the tourism activity state that food and beverage is crucial fact in choosing a destination (Wto, 2012: 12-14). On the other hand, according to the report of Tursab for gastronomy tourism, in the year of 2014, gastronomy had a share of 19-20% in tourist expenditures in Turkey. Moreover, Turkish tourists that participated in outbound tourism had a percentage of about 28-30 (Tursab, 2015). This report prove that tourists tend to spend significantly their money during travelling along with consuming foods and beverages (Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3; Suanpang, 2015: 581) and thus gastronomic products and gastronomy tourism has gained a key role for economic tourism development (Suanpang, 2015: 581).

GASTRONOMY TOURISM

Gastronomy is generally described as cooking art and fine eating. However, this is just a part of the discipline. Gastronomy, in fact, is the research of the relationships between the culture and the food (Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 354). Gastronomic values are the inseparable components of a nations culture (Draskovic, 2016: 153) and constitute the basic components of a culture (Du rand et al., 2003: 99; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3). It constitutes main components of every culture and has become an indispensable element for knowing a regions culture and life style (Wto, 2012: 10).

Gastronomy is a term for an authentic cuisine, foods and beverages, kitchenware, food and beverage preparing techniques of a country (Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 355). Gastronomy embodies all the conventional values related to the new trends of tourism (Wto, 2012: 10). And it includes the processes of tasting, preparing, experiencing, researching, discovering, understanding and writing of a person who is interested in it (Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 354).

Both the destinations and tourism enterprises are aware of the importance of gastronomy in terms of diversification of tourism and contribution of local, regional and national economic development (Wto, 2012: 5). Therefore, the products of gastronomy are always included in local components regarding the tourism (Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3; Draskovic, 2016: 153). These products are always

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among the most important attraction factors (Kim et al., 2011: 1160). No matter whether the main purpose of tourists’ travel is to taste distinct food types or not, the gastronomy products consumed in destinations give an extra opportunity to tourists to experiment a pleasant and an unforgettable holiday more than expected (Quan and Wang, 2004: 299). Similarly, Yuan Su (2015: 17-8) state that tourists fancy tasting local foods and thus, local foods play a major role on tourists’ experiments.

Gastronomy, on the contrary to any other touristic attractions, can be actualized in any time of the day and weather condition (Kivela and Crotts, 2009: 162). Kivela and Crotts (2006), Pullphothong and Sopha (2013), Alderighi et al., (2016) state that gastronomy has a major role in tourists experiencing the destinations and tourists revisit the same destination for tasting unique foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 354; Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3; Alderighi et al., 2016: 332). Therefore, various tourism suppliers focus on the products related to gastronomy (Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3).

Kivela and Crotts, (2006: 355) state that gastronomy is a multi-disciplinary study and in some way relate the disciplines of chemistry, biology, geology, literature, history, anthropology, music philosophy, psychology and sociology. On the other hand, even though the relationship between gastronomy and tourism is confirmed in some social sciences literature (Kivela and Crotts, 2009: 162) and is in a close relationship with tourism as a discipline, studies in the field of gastronomy tourism are quite rare (Kivela and Crotts, 2006: 355; Kivela and Crotts, 2009: 162; Wto, 2012: 6; Draskovic, 2016: 151). However, due to the increasing popularity of gastronomy tourism, one of the increasing trends is exactly the researches on foods. Gastronomy tourism is a growing area of excitement both for scientific community and users of tourism services (Draskovic, 2016: 151; Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 89).

Gastronomy tourism, also known as food tourism or culinary tourism, plays an important role in changing environment of life (Yuan Su, 2015: 17) and has become one of the most creative and popular types of tourism worldwide (Kim et al., 2011: 1159; Wto, 2012) by developing extraordinarily (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Kim et al., 2011: 1159; Wto, 2012; Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 1).

Gastronomy tourism is defined as a tourism experience that tourists consume, appreciate, like and experience the sources of local cuisine (Smith and Xiao, 2008: 289). Gastronomy tourism is not only a niche product but also it is vital in terms of creation of a unique tourism experience and representing the culture heritage of a destination (Ignatov and Smith, 2006: 236). On the other hand, gastronomy tourism and the activities related to this tourism type are among the primary incentives that motivate tourists to travel to a specific destination (Quan and Wang, 2004). Moreover,

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gastronomy tourism gives tourists both an opportunity to experience authentic foods and assess, understand and develop a better relationship with a destination (Pullphothong and Sopha, 2013: 3).

DESTINATION COMPETITIVENESS

Tourism destination products are consisting of both tangible and intangible goods and services. One major of those products is gastronomic products (Okumus et al., 2007: 253). The intangible gastronomic products that a destination has not only represent the intangible values of a region but also, they symbolize its culture and identity (Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 90; Horng and Tsai, 2012: 40). And they are the indispensable constituents of a unique and unforgettable gastronomic identity and successful touristic places (Fox, 2007: 546).

Gastronomic values in tourism are seen as elements of incentive, descriptive products, and experience or cultural phenomenon. However, gastronomic values depend on the basic needs of tourists and constitute the main motivation of tourism (Tikkanen, 2007: 731). There is an increasing interest of tourists for consuming the local food products of a region which have characteristic features (Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011: 64). Gastronomic products are described as an unescapable experience for tourist that visit a destination (Shalini and Duggal, 2015: 1) and they are accepted to be the major source for marketing image and tourist experience (Quan and Wang, 2004: 299; Horng and Tsai, 2012: 41; Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 89). Gastronomic products are among the major strategic elements for creation of an effective destination brand and image (Horng and Tsai, 2012: 41; Wto, 2012: 12; Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 89) and they have the potential of contribution to the sustainability of a destination and it is critical for a destination’s marketing strategy (Du rand and Heath 2006: 206).

Gastronomy tourism is critical for reinforcing the identity of a region, sustaining cultural heritages, coping with the global food homogeneity and renew the socio-cultural environment of a destination (Everett and Aitchison, 2008: 150). Gastronomy tourism provide an excellent opportunity to foster destinations. The local cuisine of a destination constitutes a key part of a touristic region (Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011: 70-71). A cuisine and foods of a destination improve the uniqueness of a destination’s identity and thus they enable tourists to clearly differentiate a destination from the others (Frochot, 2003: 82). Moreover, gastronomic values of a specific destination reinforce the tourism product, improve the visitors’ experiences and contribute to sustainability of food production and the various processes of the sector (Boyne et al., 2003: 150). Therefore, it is vital to protect and maintain the gastronomic values in terms of both tourists and developing the identity

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of a local region and its people and ensure the sustainability of it (Kim and Iwashita, 2016: 97).

Telfer and Wall (1996: 635-637) state that local and authentic concepts that constitute a link between production and consumption are of great importance for sustainable gastronomic tourism; and the consumption of local and authentic foods contribute to the sustainability of a region both directly and indirectly or they support the local agriculture and production of local food production, improve the destination incentive, support the nation economically and particularly, they are strong effectors for development of branding of a local destination.

Du rand et al., (2003: 97) state that gastronomic products increase the sustainability of tourism, economic development of a destination, contribute to the originality of it and they are able to create a hospitable atmosphere due to their environment-friendly infrastructure. On the other hand, Everett and Aitchison (2008: 164) state that gastronomy tourism contributes to reinforcement of destination’s identity, increase the value of environment, strengthen the culture and local economy, give chance to local and regional development and contribute to environmental, economic and social sustainability.

According to Okumus et al., (2007: 253) local cuisines are one of the main indicators of intangible culture and tourist actually gain an authentic cultural experience. Foods are a few of the components of intangible authentic culture and they are able to play a major role on diversification of the destinations.

Kivela and Crotts (2009: 162) emphasize that gastronomy could be a pushing force on revival of destinations which cope with touristic product life cycle in a critical state.

World Tourism Organization (Wto, 2012: 20) state that since the gastronomic experiences of tourists contribute to prolongation of tourism season and diversification of local economies, gastronomy is accepted to be tourism type and at the time it fosters the local development.

Everett and Aitchison (2008: 164) state that gastronomy tourism is a vital type of tourism since it increases the demand for distinct local products, causes the renovation of local festivals, bring consumers together, inspires the protection and development of culinary and agricultural skills, and revives conventional industries together with the small-scale enterprises and SMEs.

Sparks, Bowen and Klag (2003: 6) state that restaurants are important sources for tourism, and they play major roles for development of tourism. They also state that

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restaurants are one of the major factors in decision making process of tourists for a destination; and they increase the satisfaction levels of tourists.

Gastronomy tourism is a vital factor in enhancing tourism destination competitiveness (Lopez-Guzman and Sanchez-Canizares, 2011: 63). Gastronomy tourism represents a tourism market that keeps developing in various countries and destinations and it creates a unique competitive advantage for enterprises of a particular destination (Horng and Tsai, 2012: 40). Moreover, trends towards destination sustainability in gastronomy tourism, interests for culture and traditions, authenticity of gastronomic experiences, willingness to pay more for foods and beverages and the positive potential of combining the gastronomic tourism to other tourism other tourism forms contribute a lot to destination competitiveness.

CONCLUSION

In global literature, there is not a common consensus on how gastronomy tourism also named as food or culinary tourism should be named. However, in a general sense, mostly it is named as “gastronomy tourism”. Even though, the studies carried on the concept of gastronomy tourism are extremely rare, as gastronomy tourism keeps growing there is an increasing popularity on this tourism type and it has become one of the most active and popular types of tourism.

Gastronomy tourism presents tourist a country’s or region’s culinary culture and it is seen as a vital component of tourism experience. Foods and beverages are significant touristic values for tourist in the concept of gastronomy tourism and they are one of the basic factors that incentivize and motivate tourists to travel to a particular destination and create a revisit intention. The literature suggests that the gastronomic products of a destination reinforce the economy and increase the attractiveness of the destination, contribute to the authenticity of it and diversify it from the others, strengthen its overall image, contribute to the sustainability and increase the competitiveness level of the it. Thus, focusing on and promoting the gastronomic values will create opportunities for the stakeholders such as touristic enterprises that operate in particular destinations and the destinations themselves as a whole.

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DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTS OF GRAPES AND GRAPE PRODUCTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

(GASTRONOMIC) TOURISM IN MANISA Büşra DİKEN1, Mustafa TEPECİ2

1. Balıkesir University, Social Sciences Institute, Balıkesir. 2. Manisa Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Business, Dept.of Tourism

Management, Manisa. [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract The purpose of this study is to explore the contribution of grapes and grape

products to the development of (gastronomy) tourism in Manisa. The face-to-face interview method from the qualitative research is preferred in the study. The data collection took place from September 18 to September 30 of 2017. A total of 14 people were interviewed, including 4 travel agency managers, 5 restaurant and hotel managers, 1 purchasing manager in a grape exporting firm, 2 university professors, and 2 directors from Manisa Provincial Culture and Tourism Office. The interview data were analyzed using descriptive analysis. According to the results of the study, the grapes and grape products of Manisa alone were not enough to attract tourists. Food and beverage enterprises and hotels have stated that they allocated space as much as they can on the menus for grapes and grape products. Another feature raised by the participants is that the awareness of the benefits and contribution of grape and its products to gastronomy tourism will increase if sufficient promotion and publicity are made.

Keywords: Grape, Grape Products, Manisa and Gastronomy, Tourism.

INTRODUCTION Today's modern tourists are looking for genuineness and unique experience in

the destinations they visit. Tourists weigh culinary richness as a main part of the travel experience and consume local food as a crucial ingredient of learning a culture (Kim et al., 2013; Ottenbacher et al., 2016; Perez-Galvez et al., 2017). Thus, gastronomic elements are becoming more and more important in the selections of destinations to visit. For example, vineyard and wine tourism provide tourists with the opportunity to get to know the cultural and historical heritage of the region they visit, while at the same time tourists meet people with similar interests and know the people of the region they visit (Sekulic et al., 2016: 1239).

Sometimes the main purpose of visiting a destination are gastronomic or culinary values (Bjork and Kauppinen, 2016). In fact, the United Nations World Tourism Organization determined the share of gastronomic expenditures as 30% in the world tourism revenues (UNWTO, 2012). Tourists are curious about and want to

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experience the culinary artistry and heritage of the regions in which they have gone. Therefore, the importance of destinations to culinary arts can give them a competitive advantage (Çevik and Saçılık, 2011: 503). For example, Şahin and Ünver (2015) determined that gastronomy has a strong role in promoting and marketing Istanbul.

A study conducted throughout Turkey with foreign tourists revealed that gastronomy tourists spend 27% of their total trip budget for food-and-beverage consumption, while for other tourists this rate remains at 20% (Turizm Günlüğü, 2017). Increased gastronomic expenditures in tourism revenues has led cities to develop and market their own food and drink menus (Perez-Galvez et al., 2017). For example, the grapes and grape products are grown in Turkey take place in the menus and viniculture and wine varieties become increasingly important as the attractiveness of the destinations. In fact, Turkey has a very old and substantial viticulture. Evliya Çelebi (17th Century) mentions the beauty of grapes and wines from the splendor of his vineyards in Anatolia during his travels (Türkben et al., 2012: 48).

Tourists are in the search of different experiences and sensations in the destinations they visit such as culinary tourism, wine tourism, and olive tourism. Gastronomy is founded in the tradition and culture of a certain geographical area and uniqueness of the local food supply. Through local food and dishes, gourmet tourists get the chance to experience local culture, food and `social legacy of the local people` (Perez-Galvez et al., 2017: 604). Thus, gastronomy motivation is the primary attraction for visiting a specific city or destination.

In Turkey, seedless raisins or Sultanas are mostly produced in the Aegean region. Manisa, which is considered as the homeland of grapes, in particular, produces 85% of the country's raisins. Manisa also takes its place among important tourism cities with its climate, geographical location, long history and cultural values (Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2017). The city has an important potential to contribute to vineyard tourism and gastronomic tourism due to a large number of cultivated vineyards throughout the country and the most abundant production in the country.

The literature review indicates that no study was conducted to determine the role of grapes and grape products on the development of (gastronomic) tourism in Manisa. However, it is known that the local agricultural products and gastronomical elements constitute important attractiveness of the destinations and they are effective in the destination selection. Thus, the aim of this study is to explore how grapes and grape products can contribute to the development of (gastronomy) tourism in Manisa.

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A LITERATURE REVIEW

This section first details the roles of grape and grape products in developing

gastronomic tourism activities and then accounts these roles for Manisa's local cuisine in particular.

The Role of Grape and Grape Products in Tourism Activities

Today's tourists find the origins and historical narratives of gastronomic foods

and the legends of these gastronomic elements as inviting (Gheorghe et al., 2014: 12). Therefore, the grape that has been started to be cultivated since prehistoric times is a symbol of beauty, health, fertility, life, and blood in Turkish tradition and mythology. Within the scope of gastronomic tourism in Turkey, the grape is the first thing that comes to mind when it comes to wine tourism and viniculture. Other grapes and products that may be included in gastronomic tourism are raisins, wine, vine leaves, grape-juice, grape molasses and jams, pestil, and vinegar. Tourism activities that develop as wine and vineyard tourism in the world are evaluated more as agro-tourism in Turkey. Activities that can be carried out in the context of vineyard tourism include collecting leaves and grapes by tourists in the vineyards, preparing stuffed vine-leaves, tasting stuffed vine-leaves and grapes, tasting wines made from the grapes of that region, and visiting wine factories and experiencing wine production. Visits of domestic and foreign tourists within the scope of the vineyard and wine tourism increase the recognition of the destination as a place to visit (Türkben et al., 2012: 48).

Grapes are grown throughout Turkey and one-third of these are seedless. Grapes are mostly consumed as fresh in the season (July to October) and raisins are consumed throughout the year. Sultanas are big, yellow-green seedless fresh or dried grape indigenous to the Manisa region of Turkey. Sultanas are harvested in summer months and they are being dried in the sun for 2-3 weeks. Raisins are used in some biscuits and cakes and as chocolate covered snacks, but their domestic consumption is limited.

Wine, which is a sacred drink in the Bible, the Psalms and the Torah, is regarded as the drink of the Gods in the mythology and is very valuable (Şenocak, 2008: 175). The wine generated from grapes with such a long history should develop their potential to play a more decisive role in tourism activities. In Europe, about 600,000 people participate in gastronomic and wine tourism activities each year (UNWTO, 2012: 48). Today, products such as food and wine need to be evaluated as leisure time activities; these activities are seen as an experience to visit a museum or to attend a famous concert. The vineyards are very important when talking about viticulture routes and

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wine tourism. These routes, which enable more wine tourism, are also carried out in our country as tourism activities in Thrace, Tenedos, Denizli, Cappadocia, and Şirince (Wine Routes of Turkey, 2017).

The vine leaves, the main material of the food made from vine leaves filled with rice (Turkish called Sarma), are collected freshly in May and June, while at other times it is wrapped from the leaves that are pickled in brine. Manisa is the homeland of the Sultaniye grape and its leaves are highly preferred for making stuffed vine leaves. Tourists visiting the region can visit the vineyards and collect vine leaves. Collecting vine leaves in vineyards, which can only be carried out at a certain time of a year, can be of interest to tourists (Kara, 2014: 287).

Grape-juice is a drink obtained from the fresh grapes or raisins. This drink consumed as fruit juice is very useful for health. However, the life of this fruit juice is quite short (Batu, 2006: 14). Grape-juice can also be called the pure state of the wine before the fermentation. Grape molasses is one of the most delicious grape products obtained by boiling and passing through various processes as a result of separating the syrup from the sediment (Kaya et al., 2005: 1483). Pestil is obtained by mixing the grape juice with the flour or starch after it is extracted and becoming a slurry and spreading it on various linens and drying. The nutritional value of pestil is quite high, which is mostly produced by small enterprises in Turkey (Batu et al., 2007: 10). Pestil and grape juice production can be transformed into a festival due to the fact that it covers a period of two to three days. Thus, it may be possible to have an alternative tourism market for the region where grape and grape products are produced.

The vinegar of grapes, which is an indispensable item for meals, pickles, and salads, is another nutrient of high nutritional value. The vinegar generated from grapes is a very important food material in fighting bacteria. Today, vinegar of grapes are also in use in the cleaning and losing weight as well as in use of foods. It is a fact known by the experts that the homemade natural vinegar is more beneficial to health than the industrial one, which is quite easy to make. Thus, organic vinegar production can attract everyone's attention.

Grape and Grape Products in Manisa's Local Cuisine Manisa's economy, which has historically been welcomed by many different

civilizations, is based mainly on agriculture. At the same time, it has been observed that viticulture has been done in Manisa for more than 2000 years (Manisa Tarihi, 2017). The fact that the viticulture activities are based on such ancient times and the exporting of table wine and raisin to the whole world is the indication of the worldwide

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acceptance of grapes grown in Manisa province (Manisa Alaşehir Municipality Economy, 2017).

In Manisa, fresh leaves growing in May-June are harvested and sold as fresh or pickled and sold. Leaves gathered in Manisa and its districts are the sought after and popular leaves in all of Turkey. From these collected leaves, deliciously stuffed vine leaves with olive oil and/or with meat and rice are made. It is said that green water extracted from these leaves calms people's nerves and relieves people (Manisa Alaşehir Municipality Economy, 2017). The grape-juice, which is a natural state of grapes before fermentation, has recently begun to be consumed as soft drinks with meals. In all periods of the year, it is not possible to have juice from the fresh grape, so it is possible to obtain juice from the dried grape. If you want to make juice from the dried grape, you can get approximately 800 ml of juice by squeezing 1 kilo of grape. The syrups obtained from world famous Sultanas grapes are also important food product for Manisa (Manisa Bağcılık Araştırma Enstitüsü, 2017).

The vineyards grown in the Kula county of Manisa called Burned Country in antiquity and the wines obtained from here were very famous. Nowadays in Manisa's Kula county, wine production is being performed from the lush vineyards of the most beautiful grapes that have been the mythology bet. Tourists visiting the region between August and October make wine grapes with winemakers and vineyards at the first light of a day, and then turn them into wines in cellars. At the same time, 14 different wine varieties can be tasted in the cellar before wines are put in bottles (Burn Country and Manisa Kula, 2017).

Manisa Viniculture and Research Institute has recently started to produce various grape products by creating pilot production areas. At present, the products which are currently sold are the grape juice, pestil, grape jam, grape molasses, raisin, vine leaves and unripe grape juice (Manisa Bağcılık Araştırma Enstitüsü, 2017). All of these products can be transformed into a tourism activity by allowing tourists to participate in the production and consumption at various stages (Çavuşoğlu, 2012: 51-52).

RESEARCH METHOD

This study is a qualitative research conducted in Manisa with the aim of determining the contribution of grapes and grape products to the development of tourism. The purpose of choosing the qualitative research is that there is no study in the related literature on the use of grapes and grape products on tourism development, and the lack of studies necessitates an in-depth examination of the issue. Further, qualitative research is a research that focuses on a specific subject and deals with research topics in its natural environment (Coskun et al., 2015: 303).

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A purposeful sampling method is preferred in this study. The purpose of selecting the purposeful sampling method is to select the units that serve for a predetermined purpose (Erdoğan, 2012: 210). In this study, a total of 14 people were interviewed, including 4 travel agency managers, 5 managers from restaurants and hotels with tourism operation certificates, 1 purchasing manager of a grape company, 2 university professors, and 2 directors from Manisa Provincial Culture and Tourism Office. For this purposeful sampling method, hotel and restaurant managers are selected because they have the opportunity to meet with a large number and a variety of domestic and foreign tourists. Likewise, travel agencies are preferred because they are the first to closely contact tourists and respond to their wishes and desires. During the interview with the grape plant, it was aimed to determine the demand of the tourism enterprises, retailers, and consumers for grapes. University professors and directors from Manisa Provincial Culture and Tourism Office have provided very useful information on the content of the study.

The form used for the interview was prepared based on the literature review (Çevik and Saçılık, 2011; Gheorghe et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2013) and opinion and recommendations of 2 academicians who were experts in the field. Semi-structured and open-ended questions are used in the interview form. Such questions are included as `What are the grape and grape products presented for gastronomic consumption to the tourists? Are the grapes and grape products in Manisa were preferred by tourists? Which products are the most preferred? Do local gastronomic wealth (grapes and grape products) enough to attract tourists on its own?`

The field survey was conducted face to face with 14 participants in Manisa Center from 18 September 2017 to 30 September 2017. Interviews were held between 30 minutes to 45 minutes in the participant's workplaces. Before the interview, the researchers have made necessary explanations for the purpose and procedures of the study and responded to any questions raised by the participants.

FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

The responses obtained from the interviews were recorded and categorized and then interpreted with the quotations of the participant's opinions through the descriptive analysis method of qualitative research techniques. Making frequent citations from the participants in the method of descriptive analysis is very useful for the reliability and health of the study. The main aim of this analysis is to make pure data available to the readers so that they can be used later (Coşkun et al., 2015: 324). In terms of the concealment of the information of the persons involved in the research and the convenience of the researchers, the participants were named P1, P2, P3 ......... and P14 randomly without specifying the name and institution.

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Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Participants in the interviews are 14 people in total. Seven of the participants were male and 7 were female. As shown in Table 1, 9 of the participants are university graduates, 1 is an associate degree graduate, 3 is high school and 1 is primary school graduate. Table 1 also contains information on the job descriptions and titles of the participants.

Table 1 Demographics and Professions of Participants

The Contribution of Grapes and Grape Products to Gastronomy Tourism in Manisa

Grape and its products grown in Manisa and presented for consumption are fresh grape and raisins, wine, vine leaves, grape-juice, grape molasses and jams, pestil, and vinegar. P1 used the following statements in this issue: 'In our factory, there is

Participant Gender Education level Job Description (Place and Position)

Participant 1 Male High School Grape Plant / Purchasing Manager

Participant 2 Male University Provincial Culture and Tourism Office / Director

Participant 3 Male University Provincial Culture and Tourism Office/Vice Director

Participant 4 Female University Hotel / Front Office Manager

Participant 5 Male Primary School Restaurant / Manager

Participant 6 Female University Travel Agency / Operator

Participant 7 Female High School Travel Agency / Employee

Participant 8 Male University Hotel / Front Office Manager

Participant 9 Female High School Travel Agency / Operator

Participant 10

Female Associate Degree Travel Agency / Employee

Participant 11

Male University University/ Professor (Agricultural Engineer)

Participant 12

Female University Hotel / Front Office Manager

Participant 13

Female University Hotel / Sales Marketing Manager

Participant 14

Male University University / Professor (Tourism Management)

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only dried grape production. Organic raisin production was also carried out in Manisa and that the organic products were exported abroad.’ Restaurants, hotels, and retail firms did not demand much for organic grapes, but if these suppliers offer organic grapes and products Manisa will be more likely to attract health conscious and fond of eating domestic and foreign tourists.

Are the grapes and grape products in Manisa were preferred by domestic and foreign tourists? Which products are the most preferred? Different answers were given to these questions. P1 stated that 'grapes and grape products are not preferred by tourists.' P3 answered this question as follows: 'Most tourists preferred the table grape (fresh) in restaurants as a fruit.'

Twelve out of 14 participants said that the grapes and grape products cannot be the main reason for visiting Manisa; on the other hand, the majority believed that vineyard and wine tourism has the potential to attract visitors to the area for the future. The participant number 12 explained this as follows: 'Manisa is the homeland of grapes and produces worldwide known Sultani grapes; however, this does not make Manisa attract the domestic and foreign tourists to visit because very limited investments and arrangements are made to provide products and services to visitors.'

The participant number 11 states that grapes and grape products are appealing to tourists; 'Stuffed vine leaves with olive oil and/or with meat seem to have a high potential product (meal) for tourists. Currently, the world's highest quality and delicious leaves of the Alaşehir region is being exported vine leaves to Greece. The Greeks are selling them as Greek leaves. Companies such as Orca Agriculture, Tariş, and Yurt Leaves produce products such as vinegar, vine leaves, and grape briquettes on a local basis, but more must be done about promoting branding. Thematic local restaurants can offer grapes and grape products to the consumers by specializing in taste, quality, presentation, and branding with cultural elements, so these products alone can attract tourist to the area.

Participant 8 expressed the following statements about Manisa's grapes and grape products: 'If the grape harvest period and its activities are developed, these activities can be the attraction for Manisa. At the same time Burns Country Kula wines, just like in Şirince (Izmir), can be an attraction for domestic and foreign tourists.’

The majority of the participants believe that the local gastronomic wealth (grapes and grape products) that Manisa has, is not enough to attract tourists on its own but it is a helpful motivation factor contributing to the destination experience to visit the province. Twelve participants have the opinion that grapes and grape products are contributing factors for promoting Manisa. P1 described this situation as follows: 'Grapes and their products can be used as an adjunct element for attraction. The

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institution that is effective in promoting Manisa's grapes and products is Tariş. But Tariş should take further initiatives for promoting grape and grape products in the future.

Participant P3 used the following statements on this subject: ‘For the first time in 2007, ecotourism activities were started to take place in Tekelioğlu village, but this initiative was not sustained.’ Contrary to what has been said, Participant P6 maintained about the potential of grape and grape products for tourism development in Manisa: 'Grapes and grape products alone can attract tourists to the area. We need to prepare state-of-the-art produces and to include cultural and historical elements of ourselves. Further, marketing is a must for the success. The more ads you need, the more recognition you'll get.'

Grapes and Grape Products in the Menus of Food and Beverage Firms

Domestic and foreign tourist profiles coming from outside the province vary

from leisure to business purpose. For example, Participant P5 states that ‘domestic and foreign tourists frequent our restaurant because of the historical texture of our restaurant and the variety of our food offering’. Then P4 'We usually host domestic and foreign tourists who participate in business travel. The guests who come to our restaurants are asking for the grapes and grape products unique to Manisa and want to test them; they prefer to take dried grapes and grape molasses as well as olive oil and Mesir paste.’ P12 and P13 stated that ‘the domestic guests who came to their firms expressed their intention to buy Şıra (grape-juice) in their Ramadan table, while foreign tourists expressed only interest in wine.’

The question regarding on determining which grape and grape products are offered in menus of food and beverage businesses revealed the following items: wine, grape molasses, dried grapes as a fruit after the meals, raisins, grape jams, vinegar, dried fruit compote, and raisins consumed in the breakfast. Participants stated that they provided as many grapes and grape products as possible while forming business menus. Participant 8 explained this situation as follows. 'Of course, we frequently place our grapes and products in our menus. Especially in group meals, we serve grapes as fruit. Or we offer dried fruit compote to our guests for meals. And we have various kinds of wine on our menus. ' Participant P5 states that ' in the morning breakfast guests are offered molasses and raisins.' The participant number 4 informed tourists that ‘they were exhibiting grapes and their products in a separate stand as a souvenir.’

Participant P12 used the following statements: 'Fresh grapes and wine often were offered at dinner. Also, grape and wine are very popular products in our banquet organizations.‘ Participant number 13 answered this question as follows; 'Guests do

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not prefer grapes and their products. Therefore, unfortunately, grapes are not given many places in their menus.’

The participants did not want to talk too much about the table layout, the taste, the preparation and the visualizations of the grapes and grape products. P13 says 'we are more concerned with visuality than with preparation of the items.’ P8 states that 'the wines made from grapes are produced and sown in our special winery in Kula without long-distance transportation. Thus, the characters and aromatic properties of the grapes are preserved. "

Findings for Effective Promotion of Grapes and Grape Products of Manisa

Tourists coming to Manisa are usually for business purposes. Grape and its products in Manisa require a variety of marketing activities to be an attraction for domestic and foreign tourists. Participants with various views on this issue say: 'The promotion of the awareness of Manisa' s grapes should be emphasized more (P7). 'In addition to the product diversity and promotion, more attractive products should be offered. (P9). 'First of all the quality needs to be provided so that consumers perceive value on the products (P3). 'Product diversity should be increased and product promotion activities should be emphasized (P2). 'Airline companies, schools, and military units may be promoted so that grape consumption increase and consumer beware of the benefits of grapes for health (P11).

Many participants declared that the role of grapes and their products in the formation of brand value as a destination in Manisa was not important. While P10, P6, P9, P7, P4, P5, P12, P13 are supporters of this expression, P2 and P3 have said that grape may be a brand value, especially for foreign tourists. P11 'Grape and its products can be presented in places accessible to tourists. For example, hotels may think of units like small markets that sell these products. Tariş should sell branded grapes and grape products in local convenience stores.’

Various activities should be organized in the province of Manisa for its grapes and grape products to increase awareness and consumption. These activities include vintage festivals, grape harvest festivals and wine tasting festivals. Among the participants, P11 suggested the following opinions on this issue; 'Alaşehir is working towards establishing a grape museum. Works on organizing the harvest festival are also held but their content needs to be enriched. These festivals are held in districts such as Alaşehir, Salihli, and Sarıgöl.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study is a qualitative study to determine the contribution of grapes and grape products to the development of (gastronomic) tourism in Manisa. The in-depth interview method enabled this study to capture rich, exploratory information about participants’ knowledge and experience on the impacts of grapes on the development of tourism in Manisa. The interview results indicate that grape and its products to be offered to the tourist consumption are fresh grape and raisins, wine, vine leaves, grape-juice, grape molasses and jams, pestil, and vinegar. It seems that fresh grape and raisins, wine and stuffed vine leaves are the most promising for gastronomic consumption and potential earnings.

Local restaurants and hotels serve fresh grape as fruit after meals, and Sultanas are offered in the breakfast and with cereals. Sultanas and other grape products are also marketable as a takeaway home for later consumptions and as souvenirs. As Bjork and Kauppinen state (2016) local food influences post-trip behavior because they are brought home as souvenirs, thus providing earnings for the local stores. Wine tourism should be supported in the unique vineyards of Manisa where the importance of viticulture and wine tourism have been increasing in recent days. In fact, Burn Country Kula wines and other small entrepreneurial wine production and offerings on-premise restaurants ensure the development of wine tourism. Stuffed vine leaves, Turkish called Sarma, with olive oil and rice or with meat and rice is one of the most known dishes served as an appetizer either cold or hot. It is a traditional homemade food just your mother would make if she was Turkish.

Twelve out of 14 participants stated that grapes and their products alone would not be sufficient attraction for tourist to Manisa. The participants believe that grape and its products are more likely to be exported and they are considered to be food products to be used for domestic consumption. However, as many studies revealed that local food provides further value to the destinations and serves as a major motivation factor for visiting places (Bjork and Kauppinen, 2016; Kim et al., 2013; Ottenbacher et al., 2016; Perez-Galvez et al., 2017). Manisa has the potential to attract tourists with its cultural, historical and local gastronomic values. Thus, the city should emphasize the promotion of grapes and grape products for attracting tourists with its rich history and cultural heritage. When performing these activities, sufficient support for publicity should be provided from public institutions and organizations. Priority should be given to the marketing of different quality and variety of products obtained from grapes and grape products.

Thematic local restaurants are to be opened in Manisa, which develop menus specifically enrich the use of grape and grape products including raisins, grape-juice, grape cakes, grape ice-cream, vinegar, grape leaves and wine together with the cultural

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and historical values of Manisa. By specializing in taste, quality, presentation, and brand, these products can be offered to the tourists and the products obtained from grapes and grapes alone can promote Manisa as a central attraction to visitors.

Many participants declared that the role of grapes and their products in the formation of brand value as a destination in Manisa was not excessive. But, it is another issue raised by the participants that the awareness of the grapes and products will increase as a result of the carrying out of the promotional activities. Also, in holy books, people are suggested to live in places where grapes and figs are grown. Christians are paying attention to the consumption of grapes at Christmas. The importance and demand of different cultures should be taken into consideration and the promotion activities should be emphasized in this direction. Travel agencies should continue to work in Alaşehir to advertise the grape museum so that they should wonder about the tourists who come with them.

The travel agencies should also allow the wine factories to monitor winemaking. As mentioned by participants, each year vintage, bond harvest festivals and wine festivals can be organized at certain times of the year. Travel agencies can arrange day trips to these festivals and attract tourists. In Manisa, small shops selling only grapes and their products can be opened to the city center to increase the introduction of them. Nowadays organic products are very important. Production should be increased by paying attention to this issue. Grape and products can be sold together with organic food certificate in small packages. Tourists should also be introduced to boutique house wines as well as wine produced in the factory.

In this study, interview method which is one of the qualitative research methods was used. The use of different methods, such as observation and surveys, may lead to different findings. The contribution of grapes and grape products to tourism in Manisa can be more clearly evident by taking the opinions of the producers who are the main actors of the grapes and products produced in Manisa. Interviews and surveys conducted with tourists would also provide valuable information on the potential contribution of grapes and grape products to tourism in Manisa.

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pekmezi) üretimi. Gıda Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, (2) 9-26.

Batu, A., Kaya, C., Çatak, J. & Şahin, C. (2007). Pestil üretim tekniği. Teknolojik Araştırmalar: GTED, 2, 71-81.

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Bjork P. & Kauppinen, H. (2016). Local food: a source for destination attraction. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28 (1), 177-194.

Burn Country and Manisa Kula (2017). Yanık Ülke ve Manisa Kula, (2017). http://www.yanikulke.com/yanikulkebaglari (08 October 2017).

Çavuşoğlu, M. (2012). Bozcaada üzüm tarımı turizmi ve elektronik tatil tasarım site uygulaması. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 49-54.

Çevik, S. & Saçılık, M. Y. (2011). Destinasyonun rekabet avantajı elde etmesinde gastronomi turizminin rolü: Erdek Örneği. 12. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 12, 503-515.

Coşkun, R., Altunışık, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S. & Yıldırım, E. (2015). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri. Sakarya: Sakarya Kitabevi.

Erdoğan, İ. (2012). Pozitivist metodoloji ve ötesi. Erk Yayınları, Ankara.

Gheorghe, G., Tudorache, P. & Nistoreanu, P. (2014). Gastronomic tourism, a new trend for contemporary tourism? Cactus Tourism Journal, 9 (1), 12-21.

Kara, Z. (2014). Konyanın Üzümleri. Akademik Sayfalar Dergisi, 14 (18), 274-288.

Kaya, C., Yıldız, M., Hayoğlu, İ. & Kola, O. (2005). Pekmez üretim teknikleri. GAP VI. Tarım Kongresi, 1482-1490

Kim, Y., Eves, A. & Scarles, C. (2013). Empirical verification of a conceptual model of local food consumption at a tourist destination. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 33, 484-489.

Manisa Alaşehir Municipality Economy (2017). http://www.alasehir.bel.tr/ekonomi.html (08 October 2017).

Manisa Bağcılık Araştırma Enstitüsü (2017). Manisa Bağcılık Araştırma’dan Alternatif Üzümlü Ürünler, http://www.yenimanisa.com.tr/manisa-bagcilik-arastirmadan-alternatif-uzumlu-urunler/1694/ (08 October 2017).

Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism (2017). Turizm Aktiviteleri. http://www.manisakulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,152308/turizm-aktiviteleri.html (08 October 2017).

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Ottenbacher, M., Harrington, R.J., Fauser, S. & Loewenhagen, N. (2016). Should culinary tourism and hospitality service attributes be defined as primary tourism drivers? An expectancy-fulfillment grid approach. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 19 (5), 425-440.

Perez-Galvez, J.C., Granda, M.J. & Lopez-Guzman, T. (2017). Local gastronomy, culture and tourism sustainable cities: the behavior of the American tourist. Sustainable Cities and Society, 32, 604-612.

Sekulic, D., Mandaric, M., & Milovanovic, V. (2016). Motivation of travelers for participation in wine tourism in Serbia. Ekonomika Poljoprivrede, 63(4), 1237.

Şahin, G. G. & Ünver, G. (2015). Destinasyon pazarlama aracı olarak gastronomi turizmi: İstanbul’un gastronomi turizmi potansiyeli üzerine bir araştırma. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 3(2), 63-73.

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Türkben, C., Gül, F. & Uzar, Y. (2012). Türkiye’de bağcılığın tarım turizmi (agro-turizm) içinde yeri ve önemi. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomı̇k Araştırmalar Dergı̇si 14 (23), 47-50.

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THE EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON RESTAURANT CUSTOMERS: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

Hakan YILMAZ, Emel YALÇIN, Yaşar Mert DEMiRAL

Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey

[email protected]

Abstract

A lot of research can be done in the structuring when some variables in the music are customized to affect human behavior, though not to people. It is known that marketing researchers who are aware of this situation also use marketing power to create marketing strategies to increase sales and create a good image in the environment where goods and services are exchanged. A lot of research has been done to understand whether this power of music is also valid in the restaurant environment. Research has shown that musical variables are influenced by many behaviors in restaurants, eating and drinking, staying in a restaurant, spending money, and even bite-by-minute bite. In this study, the studies investigating the effect on the customers in the restaurant environment of the music were classified and detailed in terms of type, tempo and sound level. In this descriptive study, the effect is defined by proposing music variables as well as other variables which may have an effect on customer behavior. All the work done was examined and evaluated in the results and suggestions section.

Keywords: music, atmosphere, restaurant, customer, musical genree

INTRODUCTION

The times when "I sell what I produce" approach has long past and customer focused marketing has developed very different and new marketing strategies. One of them is marketing with music. Marketing researchers must have come to realize the importance of this topic hence, we find many of these techniques being widely used. Music playing during queues customer service hotlines or background music on corporate internet sites are just a few examples. The introduction of products accompanied by music in commercials and the fact that these music are memorable are also examples of using music in marketing.

Music has become a fixed part of life. While we can consciously select the music we listen to, at times, sometimes we are exposed to it without even realizing it. The music being exposed to affects us by being perceived by our brain even if not aware of it. The effect of music on marketing is due to this characteristic. In other words, the music that people are exposed to influence their attitudes and behavior

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without them being aware of it. Therefore, marketing researchers awaring of this power of music are trying to direct consumers' purchasing intentions and behaviors by using it in environments where goods and services are marketed. Research shows that they are successful in this matter.

The power of music in marketing goods and services, especially in cyberspace, are used to increase sales and to establish a good image. Milliman's (1982) study of the influence of music in supermarkets on consumers has concluded that music influences in-store movements and sales. Moving from this conclusion, the effect of music on consumer behavior in the restaurant environments has been examined by many researchers who have come to varied conclusions.

The aim of this study is to contribute to the literature by synthesizing studies on the effects of music on the behavior of restaurant customers. This is done through a review of extant research and presenting the summaries in tables.

EFFECT OF GENRE OF MUSIC ON RESTAURANT CUSTOMERS

Music genre is determined by many variables including; instruments used in musical work, the structure of vocals singing and the structure of words. Undoubtedly the way a certain style of music is perceived differently by different listeners. Genres of musıc are further classified among themselves. For example, when dealing with metal music, it is possible to talk about different kinds of metal music like '' heavy metal '', '' oriental metal '', '' and folk metal '' etc. Although, genre preference is purely based on listener’s tastes, it is very likely that the way each listener experiences a certain genre of music differently. When the concept of music is mentioned it may mean “The Unforgiven” by Metallica for an avid metal listener while a jazz aficionado may think “What a Wonderful World” by Louis Armstrong. When considered from a perspective that takes into account different conceptualizations of music by listeners it is only natural that musical genres would conjure up different feelings on different listeners. Various studies exist which have attempted to examine influence of music genres on human behavior. A portion of these studies have focused on effects of music genre on consumption behavior of restaurant customers.

For example, North and Hargreaves (1996 and 1998), examined the effects of music genres on consumer behavior in two separate studies. In North and Hargreaves (1996), the reaction to music in a restaurant environment was measured. In this study, a stand was set up in a university cafeteria where advice on happiness was offered. Five scenarios, where four different types of music were broadcast from a stand-alone speaker, or where there was no music were played out. The music played were four different types of "New Age", a kind of peaceful music, aimed at creating relaxation

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and positive feelings were used in the study. Types of new age music consisted of low-mix, medium-mix and high-mix types and medium-mix organ. Two hundred and eighty-five participants filled out a questionnaire about their level of satisfaction with the atmosphere of the cafeteria, their intent to return, their probability of visiting the advice stand and how they liked the music being played. The results show that whatever the style, music, it has a positive influence on the participants. Another result is ''New-Age” music in middle-mix style has a positive effect on dependent variables compared to other styles or lack of music. A second study by North and Hargreaves in 1998 explored the perceived characteristics of music in a commercial setting and influence on consumers’ purchasing intentions. The experiment, which was conducted over 4 days, consisted of broadcasting three music types (classical music, pop music and light music) and not broadcasting music in the student cafeteria. Participants' responses to the questionnaire showed that different musical styles had different effects on perceived characteristics of the cafeteria, and that classical music was associated with those that tended to pay the most money for food items offered for sale. In addition, some indications of increased sales as a result of classic music, compared to no music or other types of music in cafeterias have been found.

Sullivan's (2002) article, has studied the effects of music on the atmosphere of a restaurant. The time spent at a restaurant was used as the dependent variable. The research tested various scenarios; volume (high-low), tempo (fast-slow), genre (popular and unpopular), and no music. It was observed that customers spend considerably longer time in the restaurant while playing any kind of music than they did when no music was played. Although popular music played at slow tempo had an increasing effect on time spent eating, the influence of genre and tempo was less than volume.

North, Hargreaves and Shilcock (2003) performed another study in an English restaurant over 18 nights to measure music genre on consumer behavior. The study examined the effects of classical and pop music, and not having any music on the amount paid for main course, dessert, coffee and alcoholic beverages along with total per capita consumption. Also the amount of time spent by customers at the restaurant was measured. Analysis showed that classical music has a significantly more influence on spending than pop music or no music at all.

In another study examining the impact of music genre on consumer behavior, Wilson (2003), researched the effect of music on the perceived atmosphere of a restaurant and the intention to purchase. Four genres of music (jazz, popular, light and classical) were played over two consecutive weeks, where there were also times when no music was played. Results showed that different genres of music had different effects on perceived atmosphere and customers’ intent to purchase. Playing classical,

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jazz and popular music influenced the customers to spend more on their main courses. This influence was found to be significantly lower for light music and in the absence of music. When upbeat music was playing people were more aware of the music while rate of awareness dropped when classical and light music played. Also people who did not like the music being played perceived the restaurant to be lower quality. Also a large group of diners sitting at the same table have stated that they perceived the restaurant to be “aggressive”. This study has generally contributed to developing a model to examine the relationship between music and consumer behavior. One of the main limitations of this study was that it failed to make a distinction between live performance and recorded music as a variable, although both types were included in the study.

Jacob (2006), stands out with the interestingly different genres of music taken into consideration. The effects of three different genres of music on customers’ level of consumption at a bar in a French seaside town. The research included 30-minute time frames where top 40 music, cartoon music and drinking songs were played. Results showed that drinking songs increased the time and money spent at the bar by customers.

Magnini and Thelen (2008) contributed to existing research by measuring the influence of music on brand personality, decor and service quality perceptions. This research was designed as a laboratory experiment on undergraduate students in a quality restaurant environment. Findings showed that music influences brand personality and decor perceptions but, it is not significant in influencing perception of service quality. Customers subjected to classical music described the restaurant as '' good quality ''.

In his research (2014), Harrington conducted two separate studies to understand the customers’ perception of harmony between music and menu types, and how it affected their consumption behavior. Research questions were; how comfortable did the music make customers feel, how customers perceived the effects (positive or negative) of the music being played, their preference for music types based on the cuisine type. The roles of these factors were evaluated on their role on time of meal and money spent on meal and drinks. It was found that when music was perceived to be appropriate for meal time and meal experience it increased the amount of money spent. Music during dinner had a positive effect on time spent on meal and dinner spending increased during times top40 music was played. During lunch hours, music had a positive effect on duration of meal and time spent at restaurant, while not having an effect on amount of money spent on meals.

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The research questions were asked to find out how comfortable the music played by the customers, how the customers felt the influence of the music (positive or negative), and the music preferences based on kitchen types. The role of these items has been assessed in terms of food time, food expenditure, and impact on beverage expenditure. If music is perceived to be in line with the dining experience and meal time, it is the result that leads to an increase in expenditures. At dinner, music affected the average length of stay positively, and dinner spending increased during the time the top 40 music genres were playing. At lunch, music positively affected the average eating time and the length of stay at the restaurant, but food expenditure during lunch was not affected by the music. Another result during lunch was a positive effect of music on the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Taking all these results into account, it shows that meal times have a say in food and beverage spending.

Table 1: Studies About Genre of Music

Researchers Method Results

North and

Hargreaves

(1996)

The influence of music on

reactions in a restaurant

environment with music was

investigated.

Whatever the style, music has a positive

effect on customers. In addition, the

responses to the restaurant environment are

directly proportional to the response to music,

that is, the more the music is liked the more

the restaurant is liked.

North and

Hargreaves

(1998)

The perceived characteristics

of the music in a commercial

environment and its effects on

the purchasing intentions of

customers were investigated.

Classical music has been shown to support

the tendency pay the most money for food

items offered for sale.

Sullivan (2002) The effects of music on

atmosphere have been studied

in a restaurant. Sound level,

tempo and genre are

investigated as variables.

Observation was the method

selected for data collection.

Regardless of sub-variables customers were

observed to spend significantly more time in

restaurant when music was playing than

when there was no music.

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North, Shilcock

and Hargreaves

(2003)

Effects of three situations;

classical music, pop music and

lack of music, on customer

expenditures in restaurant were

investigated.

Classical music significantly increased

spending compared to pop music and lack of

music.

Wilson (2003) The effects of music on

perceived atmosphere and

intention to purchase in a

restaurant were investigated.

It was found that people perceived the

restaurant to be “low quality” when people

though the music playing was inappropriate.

Also, customers were observed to spend more

on their main courses when classical, jazz and

popular music was played.

Jacob (2006) Commercial effects of three

different types of music were

tested on bar customers.

Results showed that drinking music increased

customers’ duration of stay in the bar and

their spending.

Magnini and

Thelen (2008)

The study aimed to measure the

influence of music on brand

personality, decor and service

quality perceptions. It was

conducted in an artificial

restaurant environment and a

questionnaire was used for data

collection.

It was found that classical music caused the

restaurant to be perceived as higher quality

than when there was no music.

It has also been found that music has a

positive effect on the brand personality and

decor perceptions but not on the perception of

quality of service.

Harrington et al.

(2014)

The influence of harmony

between music and menu type

has been researched.

If the music is perceived as appropriate for dining experience and the meal time, it has been observed to increase the time and money spent for meal.

MUSICAL TEMPO'S EFFECT ON RESTAURANT CUSTOMERS

Tempo, means time in Italian. In music, it is used to indicate the speed of the piece, which regulates the flow rate of the notes during the piece or the pace of metric strokes (Gün and Köse, 2012). In other words, the tempo of music is defined as the beat (bpm) per minute (Başaran, et.al., 2016). Much research has been done to

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examine the effect of musical tempo on the behavior of people, including some studies on restaurant customers. Studies examining the effects of musical tempo on restaurant customers' purchasing behavior have revealed that musical tempo caused some changes in people's eating and drinking behavior.

For example, Roballey et al., (1985) investigated the effects of music tempo on the number of bites-per-minute and total meal times in a university cafeteria. In the study, which was carried out over 16 days, observation method was used to collect data. The research was conducted in environments that played slow music, fast music and no music. Eleven people, ranging in age from 25 to 60 years of age, unknowingly participated and were observed in the restaurant environment. At the same time, a survey was used to test music awareness. According to the results of the research, there was a significant difference in the number of bites per minute while playing fast music. However, no significant effect on the total meal time has been observed. The survey results didn’t provide any evidence that people are aware of the music. Overall, the study shows that although people are not consciously aware of the music they hear the music and the fast tempo of the music they are subjected to effected their eating behavior. While this study found a relationship between music tempo and number of bites per minute, it didn’t provide any findings on effects of tempo on total time for meal.

Another study examining the influence of musical tempo on eating behavior is a 16-day study by Milliman (1986) in Dallas, which aimed to examine the influence of music tempo on restaurant customers. The survey measured the amount of time spent by restaurant employees to prepare and serve meals, the time it takes for customers to finish their meals, the number of people leaving the restaurant without having a meal, the amount of money spent on meals and drinks. The research used only instrumental music where the only variable was tempo, so that variables regarding music (popularity, gender of vocalist etc.) could not affect the results. The research found that customers tend to spend more time at the restaurant when slow tempo music is played. Musical tempo was found to have no effect on the quantity of food consumed, whereas slow tempo music was found to increase the quantity of drinks consumed. The number of people entering the restaurant and leaving without sitting down and receiving service was found to be unrelated to fast or slow music being played at the time.

Caldwell and Hibbert made important contributions to the literature on influence of musical tempo on restaurant customers with their two studies in 1999 and 2002. Caldwell and Hibbert (1999), examined the effect of music tempos on consumer behavior in an Italian restaurant. In the study which employed observation and questionnaires for data collection, effects of music tempo on time spent for meal,

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perceived time and money spent were researched. Results showed; customers spent more time and money on meals when slow music is played. In Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) the researchers added an extra dimension to their 1999 research by adding music genre as a variable influencing consumer behavior in restaurants. The study measured the effects of these two variables on; time spent in restaurant, the perception of time spent, amount of money spent, the experience by customer and intention to revisit the restaurant. Results show that genre, rather than tempo determines the amount of time spent while there is no significant difference in perception of time spent. Also the major determinant of money spent was found to be time spent in the restaurant. Overall, while there were observable effects of genre of music there was no conclusive evidence of tempo having any effects.

Sullivan (2002) studied the effect of music on restaurant atmosphere. Amounts of time and money spent at the restaurant were the dependent variables of the research. The research tested four variables regarding music; volume (high-low), tempo (fast-slow), genre (popular-not popular) and lack of music. It was observed that customers spent considerably more time in the restaurant when any type of music was playing as compared to lack of music. While genre (popular, and tempo (slow) influenced time spent the effects were less than that of volume. When considered in light of other studies cited, these findings suggest us of multiple variables simultaneously influences results obtained.

Ting (2015) investigated the effects of tempo and lack of music on time spent on breakfast, lunch and dinner in a restaurant near a university. Results showed that slow tempo music increased time spent on meals regardless of meal type. Lack of music caused the least amount of time to be spent by customers.

Table 2: Studies about Musical Tempo

Researchers Method Results

Roballey, et.al. (1985) Investigated the effects of

music tempo on the number

of bites-per-minute and total

meal time using observation

in a university cafeteria.

There was a significant increase

in the number of bites per minute

while playing fast music.

However, no significant effect

was observed on total meal time.

Milliman (1986) The purpose of the study was

to examine the influence of

music tempo on restaurant

Customers stayed longer during

slow-tempo music. Quantity of

food consumed did not change

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customers. Observation

method was used.

while amount of drinks

consumed increased

Caldwell and Hibbert (1999) Effect of music tempo on

customer behavior in a

restaurant was examined.

Observation and

questionnaire were used to

collect data.

Customers stayed longer and

consumed more food and drink

when slow music played.

Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) Effects of music tempo and

music genre on customer

behavior in a restaurant were

examined.

It was found that genre, rather

than tempo affected time spent at

the restaurant while there was no

significant effect on perceived

time spent. The greatest

influence on money spent was

found to be time spent at

restaurant.

Sullivan (2002) The effects of music on time

and money spent by

customers in a music

restaurant is examined.

Volume, tempo, genre and

lack of music have been

tested.

Only volume affected the

duration and expenditure of the

meal. Low volume condition

increases expenditure.

Ting (2015) The effects of music tempo

and no-music conditions on

customers’ duration of stay at

restaurants examined.

It was found that slow music

increases the time spent at

restaurant, while lack of music

causes minimum time to be

spent.

EFFECTS OF MUSIC SOUND LEVEL ON RESTAURANT CUSTOMERS

The term “volume” when used in context of sound has become almost universal and is used in many languages including Turkish. The volume level plays a large role

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in perception of sounds. It is known that people determine the sound level according to their hearing thresholds i.e., a sound heard by different people is perceived at different volume levels by different listeners. Studies show that sound volume in restaurants have impact on costumers' consumption behaviors.

The influence of sound volume on consumer behavior in a restaurant has been examined by Sullivan (2002). Duration of meal and money spent formed the dependent variables under four different situations characterized by; volume (high-low), tempo (fast-slow), genre (popular and unpopular), lack of music. The research found that customers spent more time in the restaurant during low volume than high volume conditions. There was, however, no finding that the amount of time spent had any effects on amount of money spent.

Another study that examined volume level is Rohrmann (2003). According to Rohrmann (2003), people encounter three different types of sounds in restaurants; sounds originating from other customers, noise from outside, and sound of music being broadcast in the restaurant. The study took into consideration; volume of sounds in the restaurant, whether customers desired the presence of music, if desired, the genre and volume of music, the perceptions and evaluations of customers regarding music encountered at a restaurant, and whether the sounds present were related to their purpose of visiting the restaurant. Data was collected through in-depth interviews. Results showed that customers have certain preferences and overall satisfaction of restaurant visit is effected by music encountered at the restaurant. Although the volume levels measured at many restaurants tend to be high it is concluded that customers find these volume levels acceptable. According to these results restaurant culture has undergone changes, high volume environments are preferred, or at the least tolerated and customers make no effort to find environments with lover volume levels. Research findings show that most customers want music to be present in restaurants, while most customers’ choice of music genre were; pop, rock and jazz. Most of the customers want the music volume in the restaurant to be higher than other sounds, but in general not very high. Many customers were found to be satisfied with medium volume level in the restaurant. The most important finding of the study as uncovered from the interviews is that the content of music is more important than its volume. Customer satisfaction was measured as a result of this research, while no conclusions about observable changes to customer behavior could be made.

Gueguen et al. (2004) conducted studies about the relationship between sound levels and alcohol consumption in two bars in rural and urban locales. Observation was used for data collection and a total of 120 people (60 men, 60 women) were randomly selected. The effects of different volume levels of same selected music have been examined. As a result of the research, it was found that the amount of alcohol consumed

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increased as the sound level increased. Male customers consumed more alcohol than women and more alcohol is consumed in the rural area than in the urban area.

A study by Wansink and Ittersum (2012), examined whether changing the atmosphere in a fast food restaurant would alter the amount of consumption. Results have shown that softening the light and music leads people to eat less, to perceive the food as more enjoyable and to spend more time. Contrary to the hypothesis that people who eat longer eat more, it has been observed that a more comfortable environment increases satisfaction but reduces consumption. The research was based on the hypothesis that people would eat longer meals and would consume more in a comfortable environment characterized with dim lighting and light compare to the normal atmosphere. However, it emerged that the hypothesis is not true. Participants who ate in a part of a fast food restaurant where dim light and soft music was provided ate less than the customers in the other part of the restaurant. It has been observed that the participants who ordered similar amounts ate more slowly and had leftovers in their plates. Loud music and bright lights accelerated customers’ food consumption while soft music and light, slowed consumption. People ate less in this arranged environment, even when they stayed longer than the normal fast food area. Findings showed that the food on the plates were losing their attractiveness because the participants spent a lot of time eating and that the participants stopped eating. This proved that the respondents were more reactive to internal effects than external ones.

Table 3: Studies About Sound Levels of Music

Researchers Method Results Sullivan (2002) The effects of music on the

atmosphere have been

examined in a restaurant.

Customers stayed longer at the

restaurant with soft music than

loud music.

Rohrmann (2003) Research has been

conducted in a restaurant

environment with interview

techniques to see if

customers are satisfied with

the music's presence, volume

and type.

It was concluded that

participants in the study did not

want the music in the restaurants

to be too high, although they

wanted the volume of the music

to be higher than the other

voices.

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Gueguen et al. (2004)

This study about the

relationship between the

volume of music and alcohol

consumption used

observation technique in two

bars in rural and urban areas.

As the volume increased, the

amount of alcohol consumed

was found to increase. Male

customers consumed more

alcohol than women and more

alcohol is consumed in the rural

area than in the urban area.

Wansink and Ittersum (2012)

It was investigated how

changing the atmosphere of a

fast food restaurant will

change the amount

customers consumed.

Loud music and bright lights

accelerated customers’ food

consumption and soft music and

lights slowed consumption. It

was observed that softening the

light and music causes people to

less eat food, perceive food as

more enjoyable and spend more

time in restaurants.

OTHER VARIABLES OF MUSIC

Harmony (Harmonic minor - Harmonic major)

Another musical variable, harmony, has been included in research on food and beverage enterprises. However, while harmonies are not the main variable in these studies, no significant effects of harmonies on consumer behaviors have been found in these studies. When melodic minor notes come together, more melancholic voices emerge. When the notes covered by the harmonic key come together, more dynamic, entertaining sounds emerge. The fact that the emergent music affects listeners is inescapable. Future research that takes harmony into considerations, as has been done by extant research concerning genre, tempo and volume will likely result in new understandings of restaurant customers’’ behavior.

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Live music vs. Recorded Music

Studies about the effects of the music played in the restaurants on the customers were performed in the establishments broadcasting live music and band music. However, the effects of these variables were not included in these studies, and these variables were mentioned only to describe the qualities of the music playing in the environment.

Today, it is known that people go to food and beverage businesses to listen to live performance artists. It is therefore necessary to be aware of the possibility that the presence of live music in businesses may be an attractive feature and that live music may have effects on the perceptions and behaviors of customers in these places. New studies of this variable will lead to the possibility of opening new gateways in the marketing field by producing different results.

Instrumental Music vs. Vocalized Performance by Solo and Group Performers

Another variation of music is the performer. Musical performances are presented by musicians who show different demographic and quality characteristics. A song can be composed solly of instruments without being vocalized. Such musical works are called instrumental musical works. Musical works can also be performed by solo vocalist. The general feature of this type of music is that the singing vocal is the front panel and the accompanying instrumentalist musicians remain on the back panel. If music is peformed by a group, the feature of vocals being the foreground as previously mentioned may not apply. The general characteristic of music groups is that all the musicians forming in the group are in equal condition. As a result, not only the vocal but the whole group emerges from the foreground. All of these effects on consumer behavior may be a new research topic. However, the influence of vocal gender on the behavior can also be evaluated. There is a study that has variables of music band performance and solo vocal performance (Fiegel et al., 2014). But these variables are not the main purpose of the study.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTION

When studies investigating the effects of music on consumer behavior in restaurants are taken into consideration, it can be concluded that whatever the quality, music has a positive effect on the customers compared to lack of music. In addition, the responses to the restaurant environment are directly proportional to the response given to the music, that is to say, the more the music is liked and the restaurant is liked. From there, the influence of music on marketing has once again been proven. Therefore, the use of this positive effect in all marketing contexts will benefit businesses.

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In studies reviewed, the effect of music on customers was investigated not only in terms of presence of music but also in terms of music volume, genre and tempo. When we look at the results of the studies related to the musical genre, it is seen that classical music tends to increase the time spent eating, customer satisfaction and amount of money spent. It may be advisable for restaurants to choose classical music in order to increase profitability, which is the main goal of customer satisfaction and restaurant marketing strategies. In addition, the results of the studies show that the congruence between music and restaurant causes the restaurant to be perceived as better quality and increases sales. Therefore, when choosing music for restaurants, it is necessary to choose music genre in accordance with their restaurant qualities. So, playing classic music that is known to increase the amount of time it takes to eat at a fast food restaurant will cause customers to stay longer in the restaurant and lose the speed factor that is the main goal of fast food restaurants. On the other hand, choosing classical music that drives the customers to spend more instead of pop music in a luxury restaurant where quality and expensive wines are sold will likely be more successfull.

When we look at the studies where musical tempo is examined in restaurants, it is seen that slow-tempo music increases the length of stay in restaurants. The length of stay in the restaurants is found to be an important determinant of expenditures made. Taking this into consideration, it can be said that the choice of slow-tempo music can have positive results in terms of restaurants revenue. In Roballey's study (1985), it was found that music tempos increased the number of bites-per-minute, that is, the speed of eating. It may be said that it would not be appropriate to prefer fast-tempo music from the point of view of the health of people eating, based on this finding.

When we look at the work of Gueguen (2004), we see that higher the volume, higher the sales of drinks. That is, the preference of high volume in bar-type businesses where drinks are sold as the main product will ensure that the choice of restaurant and music is compatible. Looking at the other works done, it is generally concluded that the low-volume music increases the length of stay at the restaurant. In other words, it should be taken into consideration that the loud-volume music will increase the likelihood of an early departure from the restaurant.

Music genre, volume, and temposu have been explored in many studies and all of them have proven their effects on different variables. From here it seems necessary to carry out investigations by taking into consideration variables such as minor or major status of music harmony, whether it is live or band broadcast, whether it is instrumental, solo vocal performance, or whether it includes group performance. Since these variables are not taken into consideration during the studies done, a generalization can not be made exactly. At the same time, most studies did not take into account participants' awareness of music. Even if taken into account, a meaningful result has

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not been achieved. The fact that the awareness of music is known or unknown makes it unclear whether the effect of music on marketing is perceived as conscious or unconscious. It seems that the work done in this regard is lacking. Taking these variables into consideration in future studies on the subject will provide important contributions to the literature.

REFERENCES

Başaran, D., Cemgil, A. T., & Anarım, E. (2016, May). Model based multiple musical sequence alignment using tempo extraction as preprocessing. In Signal Processing and Communication Application Conference (SIU), 2016 (24), 1525-1528.

Caldwell, C., & Hibbert, S. A., (1999) Play that one again: the effect of music tempo on consumer behaviour in a restaurant. European Advances in Consumer Research, 4, 58-62.

Caldwell, C., & Hibbert, S. A., (2002). The influence of music tempo and musical preference on restaurant patrons' behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 19(11), 895-917.

Fiegel, A., Meullenet, J. F., Harrington, R. J., Humble, R., & Seo, H. S. (2014). Background music genre can modulate flavor pleasantness and overall impression of food stimuli. Appetite, 76, 144-152.

Gueguen, N., Le Guellec, H. and Jacob, C. (2004) ‘Sound level of background music and alcohol consumption: An empirical evaluation’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 99, 34-38.

Gün, E., Köse, H. (2012). Cognitive Level Analysis On Musical Terms And Playing Techniques In Piano Education. Fine Arts, 7 (3), 246-257.

Harrington, R. (2014). Music Preferences in Casual Restaurants: The relationship Between Experience Quality with Music Characteristics, Type and Liking.

Jacob, C. (2006). Styles of background music and consumption in a bar: An empirical evaluation. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25(4), 716-720.

Magnini, V. P., & Thelen, S. T. (2008). The influence of music on perceptions of brand personality, décor, and service quality: the case of classical music in a fine-dining restaurant. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 16(3), 286-300.

Milliman, R. E. (1982). Using background music to affect the behaviour of supermarket shoppers. Journal of Marketing 46, 86–91.

Milliman, R. E. (1986). The influence of background music on the behaviour of restaurant patron. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 286–289.

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North, A. and Hargreaves, D.J. (1996), ``The effects of music on responses to a dining area'', Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 16, 55-64.

North, A., Hargreaves, D.J. and Heath, S.J. (1998), ``Musical tempo and time perception in a gymnmasium'', Psychology of Music, Vol. 26, 78-88.

North, A. C., Shilcock, A., Hargreaves, D. J. (2003). The effect of musical style on restaurant customers' spending. Environment and behavior, 35(5), 712-718.

Roballey, T. C., McGreevy, C., Rongo, R. R., Schwantes, M. L., Steger, P. J., Wininger, M. A., & Gardner, E. B. (1985). The effect of music on eating behavior. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 23(3), 221-222.

Rohrmann, B. (2003). Soundscapes in restaurants. In World Forum Acoustic Ecology: Proceedings of the International Symposium of Acoustic Ecology. Melbourne.

Sullivan, M. (2002),"The impact of pitch, volume and tempo on the atmospheric effects of music", International Journalof Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 30 (6), 323-330.

Ting, Y. (2015). The Research on the Impact of Background Music on Appetite of Customers in Restaurant. The Open Cybernetics & Systemics Journal, 9, 2994-2998.

Wansink, B., & Van Ittersum, K. (2012). Fast food restaurant lighting and music can reduce calorie intake and increase satisfaction. Psychological Reports, 111(1), 228-232.

Wilson, S. (2003). The effect of music on perceived atmosphere and purchase intentions in a restaurant. Psychology of music, 31(1), 93-112.

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A GENERAL EVALUATION ON HITTITE AND PHRYGIAN CUISINE CULTURE

Gonca KILIÇ1, Nilüfer YÜCEDAĞ2, Engin AYTEKİN3

1. Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Departmant of Tourism

Management, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. 2. Afyon Kocatepe University, Institute of Social Sciences, Departmant of

Tourism Management, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey 3. Afyon Kocatepe University, School of Foreign Languages, Afyonkarahisar,

Turkey


Abstract

This study aimed to provide some general information concerning the culinary cultures of Hittite and Phrygian Civilizations. For that reason, a literature review was carried out. In this scope, secondary sources were made use of. As a result of that, it was noticed that the Hittite cuisine contained especially meat dishes, various soup, pastries and especially baking bread took a special place in it. It was displayed that it was a type of kitchen where simple cooking techniques were used. On the other hand, the culinary culture of the Phrygians, another civilization that left significant traces in the history, has been examined. It was found out that food culture also occurs at funerals and it was determined that the most important food that stands out was the last supper of King Midas.

Keywords: Culinary culture, Hittites, Phrygians

INTRODUCTION

Taking nourishmenthas always been the main concern of mankind because we have to feed constantly until death, and finding, cultivating and trading nutritional products have become a more important catalyst in human history compared to other factors (Albala, 2013:1). This state has caused people to execute some rules about eating and drinking since the early ages and these rules have been combined with traditions, customs, religious beliefs, morals and ceremonies appropriate to their own structures and value judgments over time in accordance with the societies' own structures and values. As a result of that, it ascertained the societies' own nutrition and culinary culture (Halıcı, 1999 quoted in Sürücüoğlu and Özçelik 2008:1290).

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As a concept, culinary culture expresses food and beverages that provide foods and their preparation, cooking, storage and consumption processes. Also, it describes a holistic and unique culture made of the beliefs and practices that are developed in this framework along with the place and the equipment and eating and drinking tradition (www.turkoloji.cu.edu.tr). As well as all other cultures, culinary culture has evolved and influenced by social events such as migrations, and brought significant changes and diversity in the lives of communities throughout the ages. In this respect, the geographical and climatic diversity that Turkey has and its being a host to several cultures have also significantly diversified the culinary culture of Turkish society (Aksoy and Sezgi, 2015: 80). These civilizations that have brought diversity to Turkish culinary culture are as follows: Hittites (BC 2000-1200), Persians (BC 2000- AD 651), Phrygians (BC 1200-BC 7th century), The Urartians (900-600 BC), the Lydians (700-547 BC), the Romans (1st century BC - 476 AD) and the Byzantines (395-1453 AD). Each civilization has left great traces on Turkish culinary culture.

The purpose of this research is to investigate the eating and drinking and culinary cultures of the Hittite and Phrygian Civilization. In this frame, the literature about the subject was explored and the Hittite and Phrygian culinary cultures were examined and information about their meals has been presented. In addition to that, the aim of this research is to provide general information about Hittite and Phrygian culinary cultures. For this reason, in the study literature reviews were performed. In order to achieve this aim, secondary sources were made use of and the literature of the study has been compiled. On the other hand, the study also has some limitations. The basic limitation of this study is that although it was easier to access to the studies and resources about the Hittite culinary culture, the studies and the literature on the Phrygian culinary culture were more limited.

HITTITE CULINARY CULTURE

Hittite civilization is one of the earliest civilizations and was founded in Anatolia. The first society that was established in Anatolia in these times was the Hittites. They came to Anatolia through the Caucasus and settled around Kızılırmak and its surrounding area in 2000 BC. The Hittites who became a great empire in 1450 BC turned Boğazköy (Hattuşaş) into their capital city (www.eokul-meb.com).

When the culinary culture of the Hittites was examined, it was identified that there were kitchens and cafes in palaces and temples in Boğazköy, the capital city. In the houses of the Hittites, there were cookers and ovens so as to meet their cooking and baking needs. It was also determined that there were diversified ceramic pots in the houses of the Hittites (Akın et al., 2015: 40). Additionally, it was learnt The Hittites would take a seat around the table not only to eat and fill, but to enjoy while they were

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having. The embroidered tablecloths and stylish gold cups with at the tables of the nobles gave away the aesthetic sensation of the Hittite period (Müze Dergisi, 2017:56).

As far the texts of cuneiform scripts in the Hittites period say, primarily sheep and beef meat were eaten at that time. The other animals whose meats were consumed by the Hittites were deer, wild sheep and goat, rabbit, goose, duck species and fish. It was indicated that the Hittites consumed the pig both as a sacrifice animal and as a source food as well (Sandıkçıoğlu, 2007: 7).

Among the terms related to foods, words such as to cook, to fry, to boil, to boil, to grill, to turn on fire, to over-cook, to melt, to stuff with meat, to dry, to grind are frequently encountered in the Hittites (Ünal, 2007 quoted in Şahingöz et. al. 2015:391). Moreover, frying meat on the fire was important in the Hittites period. It was predicated that the majority of the meat dishes in the Hittite cuisine was cooked as a grill. In fact, some of the consumed meats would be fried too much that the meats could even be burned. Because it was believed that the Gods that got the smell of the fried meat would come down to the earth that is up to the people according to the belief spreading to Anatolia through the Hurrians. Therefore, among the meat dishes frying meat on the fire, that is to say grilling, held an important place in the Hittite cuisine. The animal's internal organs and meat, maybe because of their flavors or the smoke coming from them, would be cooked on the fire especially with sheep fat. It was also learnt that honey mixed with olive oil as sauce would be poured on the meal in order to enhance the flavor of the fried meat. In addition, it was specified that they made cheese, cottage cheese and butter from the milk of the animals they fed (Sandıkçıoğlu, 2007: 7; Ünal, 2007 quoted in Şahingöz et. al, 2015). Therefore, the daily diet was predominantly based on bread and muffin types, milk, cheese, mash or paste as well as meat and vegetables (Macqueen, 2001: 106).

Additionally, Hittites cultivated many kinds of agricultural products. It was remarked that the most important agricultural product was the cereals and they cultivated 4 kinds of wheat, 2 or 3 kinds of barley. It was argued that they had a wide range of legumes (peas, beans, chickpeas, beans, lentils), vegetables, root and bulbous plants (carrots, onions, garlic, leeks), cucumbers, watercress, parsley and olives (especially in the region of Cilicia) which are Mediterranean products found everywhere in the region. Moreover, it was marked that plants like cumin and coriander have been planted. In addition, it was pointed out that figs, apples, apricots, pears, grapes, pomegranates and possibly plums and tamarisk were grown in fruit gardens (Macqueen, 2001:106; Bryece (2003) quoted by Turgut, 2013:13).

As it is understood from these grown and consumed products, the Hittite cuisine is a cuisine in which especially bread production held an important place and simple cooking techniques were used, containing meat dishes, various sausages, pastries (Şahingöz et al., 2015: 392).

However, it is now a widely known fact that there are many kinds of breads in the Hittite cuisine. Therefore, the number of bread varieties of the Hittites can be expressed in hundreds. It was asserted that the bread was consumed by pouring black

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cumin and cumin on top of the bread in order to sweeten it, which has a very important place in the diet of the Hittites (Sandıkçıoğlu,2007: 2-5).

Food and Beverage in the Hittites

According to Albayrak et al. (2008), some recipes made by Hittites are as follows (Bursalı, 2015):

Happena, Happina (in Hittite=Open Fire):

Ingredients: 250 gr chopped sheep meat, 250 gr randomly chopped lamb’s shank, 1 sheep neck, 100 gr chopped sheep fat, 20 gr salt Ingredients for sauce:

500 gr honey, 1 liter olive oil

Direction 1: The meat pieces are lined up on a shish and grilled. The meat pieces are removed from the shish and placed on the bread. A homogenous sauce is obtained by mixing olive oil and honey. The sauce is poured over the grilled meats and is then ready to be consumed. Direction 2: The meat pieces are cooked in the soil pot by adding salt on them. Olive oil and honey are mixed and then this mixture is poured over the meat pieces. Esri (in Hittite=Figure, Painting, Sculpture, Figure, and Representation):

Ingredients: 1 kilogram of sheep meat, chopped or crushed with stone, 1 yearling sheep inner

cover (A weight of about 2 kg), 2 pieces of pomegranate juice and grains, 250 gr dry bread crumbs, 2 eggs, 200 gr sheep tallow, 25 gr salt, 400 gr butter or olive oil

Directions: A hole is made in middle of the inner cover of the yearling sheep. The meat pieces are crushed with stone or cut via a knife called as zirh. The tallow of sheep is cut into pieces by the zirh knife or crushed. The meat that was cut into pieces by the zirh knife is kneaded with the grains of the two pieces of pomegranate, dry bread crumbs, tallow of sheep, eggs and salt. The internal part of cover is stuffed with this mixture. Then the open ends sewn and closed. It is cooked for 3 hours on average. The meal is lubricated via olive oil from time to time while turning.

Kistanziya (in Hittite = Feeling Hungry):

Ingredients: 400 gr sheep meat (fatty), 1 liter of red wine produced from special domestic grape (The use of indigenous wine from the regions where the Hittites lived - from Anatolia - is important in terms of the originality of the dishes)

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Directions: The meat pieces are seasoned in the wine for 1-2 hours. The meat pieces are cooked by lining and grilling on the shish and then consumed. Zalpa:

Ingredients: 300 g sheep liver, 300 g sheep heart, 300 g sheep meat (medium fat),1 piece of leg-of-mutton (yearling sheep, with a weight of 3.5 kg on average), 600 g pomegranate grains, 50 g salt

Directions: Liver and heart are salted. They are cooked separately via grill method. The leg-of-mutton is thoroughly cut and perforated in the center with the help a knife or a shish. The came out meat pieces and the medium-fat sheep meat are grilled or fried in open fire. The cooked liver and heart are chopped into cubes or made into slices. The extracted pomegranate grains, the liver, heart, and the small meat pieces are filled into the leg-of-mutton. The filled part is sewn with the kitchen thread. It is hung on to a thick branch piece and the leg-of-mutton is turned over the fire or it may be cooked in an oven as well.

In addition to all, the desserts like “malak” whose traces can be found in Hittite period and “hasıda” whose history dates back to old ages are some of the dishes of Çorum cuisine, which were able to reach to the present day (www.corumkulturturizm.gov.tr). Malak is a type of dessert and belongs to the Hittites and has nearly 4000 years of history but it is nearly sinking into oblivion. The people from Çorum province who today live on the lands of the Hittites call it as Malak dessert and those living in the west of Western Anatolia call it as Mamalika, and they all continue making this dessert today (Akkor, 2014).

Today, it is possible to indicate based on the recipes in the tablets of the Hittite culture that there are also some dishes cooked according to the possibilities of that era without the use of technological tools and equipment. In the light of findings of the excavations carried out by Ankara University, some of the bread types were baked and the Hittite dishes such as "beruwa" with apricot paste, cucumber and chickpeas, "happena" and "kariya” with 4 thousand years history were cooked by Chef Ömür Akkor (www.tayproject.org; www.hurriyet.com.tr).

When the beverage culture of the Hittites is examined, it is seen that they called wine as wiyan. From an etymological point of view, it is believed that the words such as wine, wein, vin, vinum, which are the equivalent of the word “wiyan” in the Indo-European languages come from this root. Although the emergence date of the wine is older, it is accepted that the beginning of the wine culture is in the period of the Hittites. Wine culture has developed considerably during the Old Kingdom. In the yearbook of palace and in the text named as Telipinu, it mentions about the LÚGAL.GEŠTIN (head

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of wines – housekeeper) who has a very prestigious place among the officials in the city. The solid gold wine decanter and wine claret glass in the Anatolian Civilizations Museum show that there existed a culture of wine in the Hittites under the influence of religious beliefs and presentation ceremonies. In the rituals, in addition to the wine, it tells about the beer (in Hittite-šeššar, ideographic writing KAŠ). For the period, it is necessary that beer should not only be regarded as a heart-warming alcoholic drink. As it was in ancient Egypt, beer was also a source of nutrition in the Hittites. Besides beer and wine, some of the drinks were mentioned such as Marnuwan and tawal drinks, which are not known exactly yet (Sandıkçıoğlu, 2007: 10,12). The jugs with oval or spherical belly, with handles on their shoulders and in funnel structures were used so as to store liquids. These containers were especially used for beer consumption. The drawings showing these and similar containers along with straws used for drinking support this opinion. The Hittite people prepared the fermented beer from the milk in the terra-cotta cups. After the beer is fermented, the reeds that functioned as a kind of filter (hollow plant stems) were used while drinking since the container included straws as well as some garbage remains (Genç, 2005: 58).

Some of the ceramic container forms used in the Hittite period were pots, cups and tankards, vases, saucepans, pitchers, ewers, flask shaped containers, teapots, bottles, cubes, animal shaped containers (rython), beaklike pitchers, cups in statue shapes, figurines and embossed vases. During this period it is possible to see almost all animal forms on ceramic containers this period. The bull figure which was the holy animal of the Hittites and the Chief Gods, the Storm God, took the first place on the list and was of the most processed and depicted animal figures. Furthermore, some other important processed and depicted animal figures are like antelope, lion, eagle, deer, pig, are in the list (Eker, 2009:44).

Great importance was attached to the festivals in Hittite civilization. It is understood from the fact that King II. The Mursilis left the military expedition to take part in the Purulliyas festival and considered it necessary to return to Hattusha. The biggest festival in the Hittite calendar was the Purulliyas. It is probable that Purulli was a Hattian word and it means that “of the world” in Hittite language (Gurney, 2001: 130).

Another festival is the Andahsum festival. This festival probably gets the name from the Andahsum, which is a plant that blooms in the spring and whose fruits can be eaten (Gurney, 2001: 131). There are some discussions that Anthusum or Andahsum plants are called as "saffron", "bulbous plant" or "lentil". It is claimed that Andahsum is likened to a plant called as “körümen”, which is a bulbous plant and is used in wedding meals and added to the breads baked in spring season in Sivas province (Erkut, 1998: 190). The description of the festival is mentioned in a complete verse found in

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big tablets and in a slightly different copy. The most important part of the festival is constituted of the offerings and libation which were presented in various parts of the temple by the kingdom in the name of gods and goddesses. These offerings were presented with a wide variety of foods including Andahsum plant (Gurney, 2001: 131).

PHRYGIAN CULINARY CULTURE

Another civilization that has left important traces in the history is the Phrygians. The Phrygians existed in a wide area between the middle and west of Anatolia called as Phrygia. The main area constituting the core of the Phrygian country is a small plateau between Sakarya (Sangarios) River and Upper Sources of Menderes (Maiandros) River. According to the argument by Ekrem Akurgal, which was accepted in the world of archaeology without any exception and brought him a great fame, the first world state of Anatolia is the Hittite Kingdom. Around 1200 BC, after a brutal assault and as a result of the destruction by the maritime people, the lands between the Sakarya-Kızılırmak spring were all abandoned where once this mighty civilization of ancient Anatolia had developed. These lands allowed no civilizations to settle down for 400 years (Birecikli, 2010:218). The remains situated on the Hittite layer in Gordion and dated back to the Early Iron Age (1200-950 BC) show that the first Phrygian immigrants came to Yassihöyük (Gordion) near Polatlı about in the 11th century BC. It also display that the Phrygians originally lived in a simple village order (Eroğlu, 2014:49). The strategic location of the Phrygian State located at the crossroads was a factor in the political organization of the country. Along with the development of trade relations, Midas, son of Gordios, the first king of the Phrygian State in the 8th century, became a powerful king after his father. In the first quarter of the 7th century BC, the Phrygians were subjected to the Cimmerian invasions and lost their power. Next, in 546 they completely lost their sovereignty due to the Persian invasions and they entered under the Lydian Kingdom’s rule (Çağlar, 2002:2).

Today, Phrygia is the name of the place in ancient period situated among Ankara, Afyonkarahisar, Eskişehir, Kütahya, and Konya, and in the north of Isparta and Burdur provinces. The most active area is the Mountainous Phrygia is known as the region where Afyonkarahisar, Eskişehir and Kütahya are intersected (Frig Vadisi Kültür ve Turizm Atlası, 2017).

Early Phrygian pots and jugs were generally comprised of thick dough and mostly conical, round belly bowls along with wide mouth pots. The handmade pots and jugs were very rich in variety. It is predicted that these pots and jugs were probably made by households in open-air ovens (Eroğlu, 2014:50).

The pots known as Pithos that were used in the Phrygian period were of help to the people to keep wheat, olive oil, wine, honey and so on. Besides, many kitchen tools

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such as cutlery and knives used in this period are exhibited in Afyonkarahisar Archaeology Museum.

The early Phrygian containers usually had a cover color shifting from light brown to dark gray. The surface was rarely polished. The container form was usually single. The saucepans with two-three-handles, pots with a wide mouth and wide belly never appeared in the shape of egg. These containers stand often on one foot. It seems that some of these cups had a smaller mouth but a longer neck. The Early Phrygian style was found Konya, Kahramanmaraş and Malatya except for Alişar and Boğazköy (Çaypınar, 1991: 58).

On the other hand, one of the most important features of advanced Phrygian style was that only small sized containers emerged. The container shapes were much richer than the older style. According to this, there were wide-mouthed and high-handled ewers, ewers with high handles in beak shape, long-mouthed ewer with high handles as well as deep plates with no handles. Such products were unearthed in Gordion, Alisar, Konya, Boğazköy, Maşat and Ankara, Malatya and Elbistan respectively. However, main centers are mainly Gordion and Konya (Çaypınar, 1991: 59).

Phrygians have also shown great presence in mining. Although the cauldrons whose handles are shaped like bull heads and found in Gordion display Urartian effect, they also reveal significant differences to prove the independent development of local bronze processing art (Güney,2000: 52). It was observed that the bowls and bronze boilers produced by Phrygians spread from Assur to Greece during those ages. The Phrygians bronze bowls with reel handles was able to reach Ion cities of Western Anatolia and the fluffy bowls used in the liquid offerings to the Mother Goddess in Anatolia managed to reach to Greece. Yet, there were cloverleaf mouthed beak ewers and other potteries adorned with simple ornaments in the late Phrygians style (Çağlar, 2002: 3).

In addition, three-legged boilers, cloverleaf shaped churns, ladles, phials, fibulas are the proofs that the Phrygians mastered in the metalworking art. Monolithic, black or gray slipped; glossed ceramics were inspired by the shapes and decorations of metal vessels. The ceramics decorated with multicolored, geometric motifs or with figurines like lions and deer drew attention with their form richness. Also, the high handled vessels with spout at each side are unique to the Phrygians (Güney, 2000: 52).

Food and Beverage in the Phrygians Food preference may find answers to the questions that old stories revealed

about the population movements of Phrygians and later Galatians to Anatolia.

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Especially small red wheat (known as Siyez) was the first cultivated in Anatolia and spread to neighboring regions. On the other hand, its popularity decreased over time and at the end of the Bronze Age, small red wheat became more important in the South Eastern Europe than in Anatolia. In the late Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements in Turkey, the expansion and production of wheat in the 1st millennium BC was limited to the mountainous regions to the west of the Euphrates. It may be correct to think that the Phrygians brought this taste to Anatolia from their countries in South East Europe. From the emergence of the Phrygians in the Early Iron Age to the Middle Phrygian Period (YHSS 7-5), it is noted that there was a powerful continuity in the cultural relations of the established people. As a result, the changes in food preferences reflect on the internal developments, not on the immigration of newcomers (Miller, 2011).

Some information has been gained to shed light on the Phrygian eating and drinking culture by the excavation by Penn Museum in 1957 in Gordion. In the grave room of the King Midas who is the son to Gordion, 157 bronze vessels were found, including large vessels, pitchers, drinking vessels used during the last farewell evening. For example, in King Midas's grave, 2700 years old original components were found and a drink called as Midas Touch, based on an ancient Turkish recipe, was discovered. This drink won the Bronze medal in the "Best Honey Beer" category at the Great American Brew Fest in Colorado. It is noted that its flavor is between wine and beer or mead, which is an alcoholic drink and made from honey, and consumed in old ages (https://penn.museum/sites).

It is recognized that there was also a culture of food cooking at the funerals in Phrygia like in Anatolia. A stew was cooked at the funeral which is believed to belong to King Midas's father, Gordion. According to the result of chemical analysis, the recipe contained onions, carrots, celery, cumin and thyme, black pepper and several components which are not available originally. Other information reached after the analysis displayed that the meat was firstly grilled on the fire before it was cut into pieces, and the recipe included honey, wine and olive oil, which were all used to marinate the meat. The presence of anisic acid proved that there were aniseed or common fennels in the meal (www.ancientrecipes.org).

The most famous dish that stands out in Phrygian civilization is the meal called as the Last Supper of King Midas Stew. On the menu, there were Polatlı village cheese in olive oil with common fennel, green lentil balls with sour grape, wild duck meatballs with walnuts and bean sauce, Midas stuffing with cumin and walnuts wrapped in village pancake, tumulus pastry with goose meat and Anatolian green vegetables, lamb ridge in the oven marinated with honey and grape juice, Phrygian rice with dried plum sauce and grape molasses, Yumak dessert prepared with chickpeas and the sauce made from the mountain fruits collected from the skirts of Phrygian valley (www.aliinandim.blogspot.com.tr).,

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The Funerary Feast of King Midas Stew Recipe The Funerary Feast of King Midas Stew is a recipe recreated from ingredients

that were chemically determined to be present in the pots of the Funerary Feast of King Midas of Phrygia about 740 BCE, found at the Midas Mound (Great Tumulus) in Gordion, located in Yassihöyük, Turkey. The chemical analysis was performed by Dr. Patrick McGovern of University of Pennsylvania. This recipe was developed by Ayse Salzmann of the Gordion Project and Pam Horowitz of the Museum Catering Company, with the help of Dr. Naomi Miller, a paleobotanist and member of the Gordion team and Dr. Patrick McGovern. The recipe was posted on a slip of paper inside the Penn Museum in Philadelphia, PA during The Golden Age of King Midas temporary exhibit, which is where I have picked it up in November 2016. I have modified some of the measurements and added many extra instructions, because the original recipe was really vague (www.ancientrecipes.org):

Ingredients:

1 1/2 lb Lamb Stew meat, 1 1/2 cups Green Lentils Rinsed, 4 cups Water, 1 Onion Large, chopped, 1 Carrot Chopped, 2 stalks Celery Chopped, 1 teaspoon Cumin, 1 tablespoon Thyme, 2 tablespoons Honey, 1 tablespoon Salt, 1 tablespoon Black Pepper Coarse Ground, 3/4 cup Red Wine, 4 tablespoons Olive Oil.

Directions: 1. Chop up the onion, carrot and celery. 2. Cut the Lamb stew meat into 1.5 inch cubes. 3. Season the lamb meat with salt and pepper. 4. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C). 5. Saute the meat in 2 tablespoons of olive oil, inside a large Dutch oven over

medium-high heat, until the meat becomes brown. When the meat is done remove it from the pan into a glass bowl. Keep the lid off the Dutch oven while stirring and flipping the meat.

6. In the same Dutch oven, sauté chopped onion, carrot and celery in 2 tablespoons of olive oil for about 5 minutes. Keep the lid off the Dutch oven while constantly stirring the vegetables.

7. After the vegetables were sautéed for 5 minutes, add to them cumin and thyme and 1/2 a cup of Red Wine to deglaze the Dutch oven. Keep the lid off and constantly keep stirring the mixture in the Dutch oven for another 5 minutes.

8. Return the stew meat back into the Dutch oven with all of its juices. 9. Add 2 cups of water to the pot. Bring the water to boil and keep it gently boiling

for 30 minutes. Stir the pot every 5 minutes. After 30 minutes check if the meat is tender. If it is not tender keep boiling until tender. This step can be done with

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the lid on or off. If you keep the lid on the water will boil faster. You will need to remove the lid to stir it. After stirring, close the lid back.

10. At this point the meat should be eatable. Taste the stew and add salt and pepper to taste.

11. Add green lentils and remaining 2 cups of water to the pot. Stir the pot and bring to a boil again. Then simmer everything for 30 minutes. Make sure the pot is covered with the lid during this whole step, especially during simmering.

12. Taste the stew and add salt and pepper to taste again. 13. Add 1/4 cup of red wine. 14. Add 2 tablespoons of honey and stir everything again. 15. Make sure the Dutch oven is covered with the lid. Remove the Dutch oven from

the fire and place it inside the baking oven, which by this point should be preheated to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C). Bake everything inside the Dutch oven, inside the baking oven for 40 minutes. The lid must stay on the whole time the Dutch oven is inside the baking oven. Do not overcook the stew by keeping it longer in the oven than 40 minutes, otherwise it will dry out.

16. After 40 minutes check if the meat is completely cooked through and done. The meat should be extremely soft and tender, and easily fall apart from being poked by the fork. If the meat is done, remove the Dutch oven from the baking oven and serve. This meal is still performed in various festivals both in Turkey and abroad so

as to keep it alive today.

When Hittite and Phrygian culinary cultures are taken into consideration in similar and different directions, it was indicated that the vessels used in the Phrygians' kitchens are small sized vessels and the styles of vessels are much richer compared to the old style. It was reported that in the Hittite period, in addition to beer and wine, there were some other drinks such as marnuwan and tawal which are not yet known. It was remarked that wine was a common drink in Phrygians as well, and the drink called as "Midas Touch" was also said to taste like wine and beer or mead. It was expressed that there was a famous dessert called as yumak dessert made from chickpea in the Phrygian culinary culture while there was a “malak” dessert that can be traced back to the Hittites. Furthermore, it was written on a tablet belonging to the Hittites that “halantiye slurry” was a dish made of watery milk that found a place at the tables of the royals. However, it was reported that King Midas's last supper came to the fore as for the Phrygian period. What is more, it was specified that bread production in Hittites held a great place and as a result of that it was reported that the number of breads belonging to Hittites could be expressed in hundreds.

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CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS This study intended to provide some general information concerning the

culinary cultures of Hittite and Phrygian Civilizations. So, a literature review was carried out. According to the results of the research, it was determined that the studies on the Phrygian cuisine were less and more limited compared to the studies performed on the Hittite cuisine. In the light of the research it was noticed that meat dishes take an important place in Hittite cuisine and especially cattle and sheep were mostly preferred. In addition to that, in the Hittite cuisine, much importance was given to pastries and bread making and it was found out that the Hittite cuisine was rich in pastry making. Additionally, it was detected that meat was also used in the Phrygian cuisine and was marinated with various spices. It was also concluded that today a lot of efforts are made to sustain the dishes from the Hittite and Phrygian cuisine. It was even figured out that some of the meals are prepared through the conditions that suit the conditions of that day.

Since the recognition of the food as one of the leading motivational factors in event tourism, some destinations have already identified the potential of gastronomic tourism and begun to make the tourists familiar with the local products, encouraging them to consume local products (Kim et al., 2010, quoted in Azman, 2012:46-47). Thus, in addition to the historical and cultural brands of destinations, gaining a brand in the field of gastronomy culture may add to the destinations in many aspects. Different festivals and events can be arranged both for presenting and promoting the past-time culinary culture, its food and beverage and utensils used in these periods, which may also attract especially the foreign visitors’ notice. All these activities may contribute and give strength to the promotion of the destination.

According to the results of a research carried out on special events and festivals, it was revealed that participants attended the food festival due to a large number of motivational factors. Among these mentioned factors “seeing and experiencing new and different things” became the leading motivating factor (Azman, 2012: 99). For this reason, it has become important to offer different culinary cultures to the tourists. The dishes cooked and presented in the antique ages have been started to be prepared and presented successfully in meetings and organizations today.One example of this was carried out 2754 years later through an event named as “The Funerary Feast of King Midas Stew Recipe”, at Gala Night of 23rd World Business Congress hosted by Atılım University and Ankara Chamber of Commerce and held in Ankara, Polatlı Yassıhöyük Gordion beside King Midas (http://fom.atilim.edu.tr). This event can be regularly organized and an attraction for the destination may be created.

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"Gastronomy Tourism Movement" can be launched with Gastronomy Associations, Local Governments and Local People to revitalize local foods and to maintain its presence in the destinations. Therefore, the dishes of civilizations that bore historical significance in the past may be cooked in the cities in those areas, especially in hotels so that they may be sustained in destinations.

Furthermore, the food and drinks from the antique age can be animated by preparing the monographs of prehistoric sites. Next, an organization of exhibition can be arranged for the utensils used in the kitchens then, which survived from ancient times to today. Recipes for foods and beverages that belonged to ancient times may be turned into books and brochures and then can be published. Promotion/demonstration days and the guided tours for groups can be arranged and presentation may be carried out to the visitors.

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES IN THE AREA OF GASTRONOMY TO THE PROMOTION OF

REGIONAL GASTRONOMIC TOURISM: IZMIR INTERNATIONAL GASTRONOMIC TOURISM CONGRESS

Gözde TÜRKÖZ BAKIRCI1, Turgay BUCAK1, K.Nazan TURHAN2

1Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Dokuz Eylul University, 35460 Seferihisar, Izmir, Turkey

2 İzmir University of Economics, Department of Food Engineering, 35330, Balcova, Izmir, Turkey

e-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

The number of scientific conferences organized in the field of gastronomy, nationally and internationally, is increasing day by day. The congresses, seminars, symposiums and such organized scientific events with gastronomy content are also being studied under congress tourism which is a branch of tourism thus they have importance in terms of gastronomic tourism. The scientific meetings organized in the field of gastronomy are aimed to promote the history, the culture and the produce that is unique to the area of those local cuisines. In addition, scientific conferences contribute to the development of the region in which they are held, as well as to the promotion of the level of expertise and the development of the academic careers.

In this study, the contribution of the scientific conferences in the field of gastronomy to the promotion of regional gastronomic tourism has been researched and the International Gastronomic Tourism Congress Izmir has been examined as sample. In this context, interviews with representatives of institutions and establishments related to gastronomic tourism were tried to reveal the concrete effects by asking them semi-structured questions.

Keywords: Gastronomy, Tourism, Izmir, International Congress, Local Cuisine.

INTRODUCTION

GASTRONOMIC TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES

The fact that the people started to show more interest in wining & dining phenomena has caused a new tourism movement called “gastronomic tourism” (Gokdeniz, Erdem, Dinc & Uguz, 2015: 15). The roots of gastronomic tourism lie in

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agriculture, culture and tourism itself. These three components allow marketing and positioning of gastronomic tourism as a regional attraction and experience (Comert & Durlu, 2014: 63).

With the products of local kitchen, gastronomic tourism paves the road for the cultures to get to know each other better. Besides, it helps develop a surplus of touristic resources, more active and more enjoyable services, satisfactory experience for the visitors, helps increase the population, production, welfare, product trade and sustainability for the locale, the region or the country (Goker, 2011: 45). The benefits of gastronomic tourism to regional destinations with the events taking place are immeasurably high and valuable. The effects of traditional types of tourism to the image and sustainability of the destinations are facts which must be seriously dwelled upon. Apart from gaining new destinations for tourism, activating the attractions of the existing touristic areas in this context, carries value to the point where it deepens the perception of the tourists for that destination (Bucak & Araci, 2013).

There are three fundamental characteristics of the cuisines made fame in the world: Recognition, authenticity and variety. Recognition; meaning the recipes of one cuisine being known and aplied by other cultures. Authenticity; meaning the food prepared in a kitchen is completely unique to that culture. And variety meaning to demonstrate a wealth of recipes and richness of the food produced in that kitchen (Ozgen, 2015: 8).

Turkey, for it’s touristic attractions and a history of having a long-established and rich kitchen, is a major country which could be choosen as a touristic destination and gastronomic tourism (Aslan, 2010: 44). Therefore, more emphasis should be implied to gastronomic tourism in Turkey. Even though there are efforts made to promote the Turkish Cuisine, they are not sufficient. For this reason, the characteristics of the Turkish cuisine should be explained well; benefits, qualities and distinctions over other cuisines should be set forth (Gulen, 2017).

Considering the challenges and the disadvantages of the situation which the Turkish Tourism is facing, it is imperative that the events are executed seriously and with scientific sincereness. When perceived in this sense; 2nd International Gastronomic Tourism Congress which was organized in 2016 aimed a global contribution to the region by inviting valuable international guests in an effort to fill the significant gap. It is necessary to evaluate the approaches that are far from discipline with the concerns to be unique more carefully in the studies carried out on these issues, in order to have compatible equipment with the nations, regions and cultures thought out to be competed with (Mil, 2017).

Various scientific conferences in Turkey and around the world are held, nationally and internationally, in the field of gastronomy. Among the congresses,

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seminars, symposiums and festivals organized in this context are; Estrella Damm Gastronomy Congress, ViNa Gourmet Ville Represents the Vietnam Embassy in International Gastronomy Congress, WORLDCHEFS Congress & EXPO, National Gastronomy Tourism Congress, Izmir International Gastronomy Tourism Congress, GastroEntertainment, Turkish National Cook Training Camp could be listed.

IZMIR’S GASTRONOMIC WORTH

Izmir, which is one of the members of World Gourmet Cities Network (DELICE), is housing a wealth of culture and 3500 years of magnificent history (Izmir Il Kultur ve Turizm Bakanlıgı, 2017). Izmir’s kitchen is a healthy cuisine which is formed by light foods. Aside from the traditions of Ottoman cuisine in Izmir; Jewish, Albanian and Greek flavors are also observed. On the other hand Italian and French (Levantine) effects are divine in Izmir’s cuisine. Set aside the delicious fish out of the Aegean Sea, the virtues of Izmir cuisine are herbs and olive oil dishes. In addition to various kinds and delicious flavors of herbs in Izmir cuisine, some vegetables like seaweed, spinach, artichokes, leeks, eggplants are frequented more than other cuisines in the region. In Izmir cuisine, which is typical Aegean-Mediterranean kitchen, vegetable and fish products are consumed more than other foods (Zagrali & Akbaba, 2015).

Among the regional flavors of Izmir; Boyoz, Kumru, Lokma, İzmir Köfte, Şevketi Bostan, İzmir Tulumu, Kuşkonmaz Kavurması, Enginar Dolması, Keşkek and Tarhana stand out. In addition, Bosnian and Albanian kitchens have significant effects on the formation of Izmir cuisine. The Thessalonians have spread the trotter soup culture in Izmir. Among Albanian dishes from Pristina; elbasan fava, albanian style liver, pristine tavası and kirdek kebabı are today's signature dishes of Izmir cuisine (Kilic, 2010).

Spices also have a special place in food culture of Izmir. Naturally grown, gathered and dried; thyme is essential spice of meat meals; it is also often used with olive oil and lemon for breakfast. In addition to thyme mint, especially with tzatziki or directly mix in with yoghurt and garlic as a side dish, is often used in appetizers and salads, soups, stuffing accompanied with olive oil. (Visit Izmir, 2017)

IZMIR INTERNATIONAL GASTRONOMIC TOURISM CONGRESS

International Gastronomic Tourism Congress is organized in Izmir every December concurrently with Travel Turkey since 2015. The aim of the congress is to connect the leaders in the field of gastronomy with experts on tourism as well as the educators; discussing the relation between life culture and gastronomy; and how this relation effects the improvement of tourism in the area (TURSAB, 2017).

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The first congress held in 2015, December 10th thru 12th and the second one organized in 2016 was from December 8th thru 10th. The third congress is planned to occur in 2017, December 7th thru 9th. The main organizers of the congress are Izmir Fair Services Cultural and Art Affairs Trade Inc. (İZFAŞ) as well as The Turkish Travel Agents Association (TÜRSAB); And the academic information is carried out with the cooperation of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Departments at Izmir University of Economics and Dokuz Eylül University (Izmir International Gastronomy Tourism Congress, 2017). In addition, a competition will be held in the scope of the congress with the support of Izmir Chefs Association and the participants; boutique confectionery, independent individuals, professional teams, best team of universities, high school teams are the categories in the competition. As a part of the programme, academic workshops will be presented in the panels held where gastronomy experts and stakeholders brought together. Promotion will be done, in the booths set up within the margins of the Congress; tastings (workshops) of local flavors in Turkish cuisine and culinary culture will be presented.

Travel agencies, organizations and institutions interested in gastronomic tourism; kitchen materials and industrial equipment companies; academicians, teaching assistants and student groups in the departments and areas of tourism, culinary arts or gastronomic tourism; the owners, chefs and staff members of restaurants and restaurant chains; magazine and blog writers and editors in the area of gastronomic tourism, constitute the participant profile of the congress (Kurnaz, 2016).

Along with the 1st National Gastronomy Tourism Congress held in Balıkesir in 2016 and 2nd International Gastronomy Tourism Congress held in Izmir in 2017; "Gastronomic" themes have become increasingly prominent in many national and international congresses, meetings, seminars and symposiums as a new field of study and research, for both academicians and researchers (Mil, 2017).

RESEARCH

In this study, Izmir International Gastronomy Tourism Congress was examined as a sample to investigate the importance of scientific conferences within the field of gastronomy in the region. The answer to the research question: "What ways Izmir International Gastronomic Tourism Congress have effects on the promotion of Izmir gastronomic tourism?" is being searched for.

In this study, based on a holistic point of view between disciplines, a qualitative research method that adopts an interpretative approach to the research issue was used and qualitative data collection tools were used as interview techniques. Voice recorders were used during the interviews and notes were taken. In the research section, eight participants were interviewed face to face with the use of interview forms consisting of 10 semi-structured questions. Additional questions were asked outside the interview

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form in situations where seen necessary to give depth and richness to the work. The voice recordings and notes were transcribed and content analysis was applied to the obtained data. The average duration of interviews with participants was 30-45 minutes.

The eight participants attending in the study were coded K1 to K8. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders and organizers of congress, participants information was not given for not obtaining the approval of some participants.

RESULTS

Findings from the answers given to 10 questions directed to the participants are as follows.

What the participants think about the scientific conferences organized particularly in Izmir, primarily in the field of Gastronomy was asked. General view for the main aim of the conference is in the direction of developing Izmir as a city; which is responsive to the developing needs of tourism. It is stated that in the field of Gastronomy, in Izmir it is needed; to draw a roadmap and to make the content of scientific meetings filled to capacity guiding the way to the correct steps and go forward in the right direction. In addition, it is reported that increasing the number of quality events is important in terms of regional gastronomic tourism. In this subject K8; indicated their support in every study conducted. The theoretical and practical applications do not always precisely overlap, thus it is conveyed that the studies must be conducted with the right people at the right place to increase their success.

In regards to the question: Would you give information about the activities that you contribute as an institution in conferences in the field of gastronomy in Izmir? K1; stated that they were among the organizations that carried out the congress, financially, contributing as work and sponsorship. K2; conveyed International Gastronomy Tourism Congress has come to the forefront as the most comprehensive one of their projects. They are organizing the Olivetech and Ecology fairs under the title Gurme İzmir, they decided to improve their content and include different food groups. In these fairs, "Oil Bar" offers presentation of special oil flavors by correct tasting methods, "Degustator Training" trains the professional participants, at “food feast” kitchen culture and flavors presented by private chefs, with the "Ecological Market" area they service of organic consumer and organize seminars with known academicians. K3 indicated that they support many activities such as Urla Enginar festival, Gastronomy Congress in parallel with Travel Turkey, Nohutalan Kavun Festival, Çeşme ot festivali and support promotion of the Turkish cuisine in accordance with the membership to DELICE – Gourmet Cities Network. K4; conveyed that they take part in scientific conventions and that they organize lunches under the supervision of the chef with the students. K5, K6 and K7 mentioned that they are among the organizing institutions of the congress and contributed in coordination with other

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organizers. K7 stated that they supported the food contests and events organized to protect the local flavors of İzmir as a cultural heritage and to be passed on to future generations. K8; conveyed that by organizing competitions, workshops and discussions along with the forgotten recipes, they exposé regional and local dishes.

The participants answered the question; Would you give information regarding the scientific proceedings that took place during the 1st and 2nd International Gastronomic Tourism Congress by saying that the experts and well-known people gathered together, panels and academic workshops were done, cooking competitions and workshops were organized in the scope of the congress. They conveyed that every year; participation has been increased by diversification of events.

Regarding the question; "Do you think that the scientific aspects of Izmir International Gastronomic Tourism Congress contribute to the promotion of Turkish cuisine and local products (Aegean, İzmir etc)?" all participants think it does contribute. However, they indicated that the content need to be improved and need to work on dissemination.

The questions; What kind of support is provided by the sponsors the Izmir International Gastronomic Tourism Congress? Is it sufficient in your opinion? were answered by stating that the sponsors at the Izmir International Gastronomic Tourism Congress contributed to the destinations, conference supplies (bags, pens, notepads, etc.), special treats, the supply of related materials and special flavors. Participants stated that the support of the sponsors is not sufficient, grow of support is important for the future of the congress and for the international promotion of the congress, and that the support should be expanded.

Regarding the question; Could you evaluate the contributions of institutions and organizations that are hosting the conference? The participants stated that the academic reports of congress are managed by Dokuz Eylul University and Izmir University of Economics. At the conference which became alive with the cooperation of İZFAŞ and TÜRSAB, it is stated that all persons, institutions and organizations involved in the congressional organizing committee worked with dedication.

In regards to the question; How and which way can scientific participation of institutions and organizations operating in the field of gastronomy be increased? the participants stated that the congress is improving every year in the positive direction. K2 reported that a very different acceleration can be achieved with the support of Turkey's most comprehensive food and beverage centers, such as different culinary communities and the Culinary Arts Academy. At the same time, it is planned to develop joint projects with successful initiatives such as SlowFood movement and KitchenFriends Association, and Cittaslow and Earthmarket locally, and to increase the Best practice sections in order to attract interested consumers in the

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field of gastronomy.Not only for the students from the relevant fields, but also the participation of the various elements of the gastronomy and tourism sector to the congress are very valuable and it has been developed every year and created opportunities for interaction. K7; that the relevant departments of the universities should develop more projects and inter-institutional co-ordination in the medium and long term for the improvement of the land and protection of gastronomic cultures. K8; that all sponsors should give full support, and that they must unite forces in order to reach far away from personal interests.

About the question; Do you think that the international presentation of the Congress is done and you see enough interest? the participants stated that the promotion is not done sufficiently on national and international level.They pointed out that a better use of social media would be effective with a professional event planner.Information was given about the fact that international promotion was weaker than national promotion, in general.The speakers at the panels and workshops during the conference have informed that increasing the participation by inviting specialists who are well-known and famous will raise recognition of the congress on the international scale.In this context, K2 has stated that the congress has not reached the target group yet because of the short history of the gastronomic departments in the universities.Organized for the third time this year, a prestigious entry was made by scientific committee and invited speakers with comprehensive knowledge in international arena.Moreover, the rapid investment in universities is expected to accelerate the congress in the future. K7; it is important that the congress program for international participants be announced one year in advance and that they do not conflict with events in other countries and cities. K8 believes that it would be beneficial to gather all the subjects related to the gastronomy field and gather them under the congress without considering any gain.

Regarding the question; What are your views and comments on increasing scientific content of the Congress? participants indicated that the number of scientific studies and academic participation were not at the desired level. K1; stated that organizing too many conferences in the recent times as the congress has reduced the participation of academiciansand that they are thinking about changing the dates of the convention.K2; stated that they aimed to make congressional content more productive with international speakers rather than increasing scientific content and to give it a social identity beside the academic identity of the congress. K3; thinks that as well as developing scientific content it will be beneficial to update with practical and up-to-date information in order to attract non-professional audience and media’s attention. K7's recommendation is that universities can be gathered under a single roof in the name of science and that a joint study is carried out in order to create gastronomic national politics at a micro-scale provincial level.

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To the question; What is the contribution of the International Gastronomic Tourism Congress to the promotion of İzmir / regional gastronomic tourism? all participants indicated that the conference had positive contributions. It was stated that the participation to the congress should be increased nationally and internationally, in this context, it is reported that providing full support of non-governmental organizations and private and public institutions have great importance.It is reported that Izmir and its surroundings have a lot of gastronomic value and that the promotion of local products and region is provided.

CONCLUSION

Aegean and Izmir especially possesses a kitchen culture that is accumulatively passed from generation to generation through the history. Effects of Ottoman, Greek, Jewish, Italian and French cuisines are seen in traditional Izmir cuisine. Izmir comes to the foreground with its gastronomic variety in gastronomic tourism -a branch of tourism which gained a lot of interest worldwide in recent years (İzmir Kültür ve Turizm Dergisi, 2017).

The city of Izmir, where the International Gastronomy Tourism Congress is organized, is one of the 22 members of the World Gourmet Cities Network (DELICE) and is the only city in Turkey to be part of this network. This answers the question; why the congress is gathering in Izmir. Considering the food and beverage culture of Izmir and its surroundings accompanied with entertainment business, it is an important option to balance and support the declining tourism market with the benefits that can be brought up by gastronomic tourism in particular (Mil, 2017).

Izmir International Gastronomic Tourism Congress, which has an important place among the scientific conferences organized in the area of gastronomy in Turkey, also contributes to the process of being an international gastronomic destination in the region. Turkey has a rich variety of gastronomic tourism and food culture. However, it is not possible to take advantage of this rich variety on the international level. For this reason, it is important that the stakeholders to come together to make a sustainable strategic plan and put it into action for the scientific conferences. The number of quality and merit conferences on international scale should be increased in order to bring out the values of the Turkish cuisine, worldwide acceptance and promotion.

The suggested subjects for the end of the study are as follows:

• The participation of Turkish food companies, which produce and sell local products in scientific organizations, should be increased and a strategy should be determined by discussing with relevant institutions

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• The number of scientific conferences promoting gastronomic tourism should be increased by developing common projects with tourism enterprises operating in the region.

• In the events organized within the Congress, emphasis should be given to supporting the promotion of local products.

• The support and contribution of the institutions contributing to the conferences should be increased and the participation of local governments, non-governmental organizations and institutions and institutions related to the gastronomy in and around Izmir should be encouraged.

• Participation should be increased by applying an effective advertising and promotional strategy regarding the conferences via social media.

• The academic studies carried out within the congress should be encouraged and supported by the related institutions and organizations.

REFERENCES

Aslan, H. (2010). Gastronomi Turizminin Turizm Eğitimi Programlarındaki Yeri ve Önemi – Bir Uygulama, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Çocuk Gelişimi ve Ev Yönetimi Anabilim Dalı Beslenme Eğitimi Bilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Konya.

Bucak, T., & Araci, U., E. (2013). Türkiye’de Gastronomi Turizmi Üzerine Genel Bir Değerlendirme, Balikesir University The Journal of Social Sciences Institute, Volume: 1, Number: 2, 203-216.

Comert, M. &Durlu Ozkaya, F. (2014). Gastronomi Turizminde Türk Mutfağının Önemi, Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 2(2), 62-66.

Deveci, B., Turkmen, S. & Avcikurt, C. (2013). Kırsal Turizm ile Gastronomi Turizmi İlişkisi: Bigadiç Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 3(2), 29-34.

Gokdeniz, A., Erdem, B., Dinc, Y. & Uguz, S., C. (2015). Gastronomi Turizmi: Ayvalık’ta Yerli Turistler Üzerinde Görgül Bir Araştırma, Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies, 3(1), 14-29.

Goker, G. (2011). Destinasyon Çekicilik Unsuru Olarak Gastronomi Turizmi (Balıkesir Örneği), Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir.

Gulen, M. (2017). Gastronomi Turizm Potansiyeli ve Geliştirilmesi Kapsamında Afyonkarahisar İlinin Değerlendirilmesi. Güncel Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1 (1), 31-42.

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Izmir Il Kultur ve Turizm Bakanlıgı Web Site. Retrieved from http://www.izmirkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,77342/genel-bilgiler.html on 07.10.2017.

Izmir International Gastronomy Tourism Congress Web Site. Retrieved from http://www.izmirgastrotourismcongress.com/tr/kongre/amac-ve-kapsam_25.html on 07.10.2017

Kercher, M., Okumus, F. & Okumus, B. (2008). “Food Tourism As A Viable Market Segmet: It’s All How You Cook The Numbers”. Journal Of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Volume: 25, Number: 2, 137-146.

Kılıc, N. (2010). Türk Mutfağının Ege-Akdeniz Karakterinin Kültürel Ve Turistik Açıdan İncelenmesi: Ayvalık Örneği (Uzmanlık Tezi), T.C. Kültür Ve Turizm Bakanlığı Güzel Sanatlar Genel Müdürlüğü.

Kurnaz, A. 2016. Uluslararası Gastronomi Turizmi Kongresi, Konferans Notları, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt:27, Sayı:1, s:143

Mil, B. 2017. II. Uluslararası Gastronomi Kongresi İzmir’in Ardından, Etkinlik Notları, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt:28, Sayı:1, s:206

Ozgen, I. (2015). Uluslararası Gastronomiye Genel Bakış (1-32). Mehmet Sarıışık (Ed), İçinde Uluslararası Gastronomi (Temel Özellikler – Örnek Menüler ve Reçeteler), Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.

TURSAB Web Site, Retrieved from https://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/tursabdan-haberler/genel-duyurular/uluslararasi-gastronomi turizmi-kongresi-10-12-aralik-2015-fuarizmir_13614.html, on 07.10.2017

Visit Izmir Web Site, Retrieved from http://www.visitizmir.org/tr/sayfa/ne-yapmali/gastronomi on 07.10.2017

Zagrali, E. & Akbaba, A. 2015. Turistlerin Destinasyon Seçiminde Yöresel Yemeklerin Rolü: İzmir Yarımadası’nı Ziyaret Eden Turistlerin Görüşleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Journal of Yasar University, 10/40, 6633-6644.

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EXAMINATION OF CORRELATION BETWEEN WORKAHOLISM DEGREES AND SATISFACTION WITH LIFE

OF 4 AND 5 STAR HOTELS’ CUISINE DEPARTMENT STAFF IN ESKİŞEHİR PROVINCE

Oğuz DİKER, Hacı Mehmet YILDIRIM Çanakkale 18 Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey


Abstract

Problems that hotel business employees experience on the work-life balance directly affect their positive performance and ability to work within the scope of their organizational goals. One of the most basic factors that have an impact on work-life balance is the workers' degrees of workaholism. Workaholism has an impact on many personal and organizational issues, especially life satisfaction. Although there is no direct correlation between the degrees of workaholism and satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff of 4 and 5 star hotels in Eskişehir province, there is still an indirect correlation. In other words, the satisfaction with life and the degrees of workaholism among the said employees differs in line with the personal variables such as age, education level, working position, professional experience and number of children.

Keywords: Workaholism, Satisfaction with Life, Hotel Business, Food and Beverage Department, Cuisine Department Staff

INTRODUCTION

The most important part of the organizational goals of hotel business, which are important parts of the tourism industry, is to ensure the sustainability of the organization's life within fast-paced environments. One of the most effective ways of maintaining organizational life for hotel businesses, just as it is with all businesses, is the effective inclusion of the human factor, the most important resource for businesses, into the production process. Including employees into the production process requires uniting around the organizational goals. It is clear that uniting around organizational goals will contribute to businesses by ensuring positive employee performances. The main conditions for ensuring positive performance include the achieving of work-life balance. When the literature is examined, the work life balance means that the working conditions of the employees and their work lives do not overflow into the social life;

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in other words, they do not affect the employee's life. Work-life balance research emphasizes that people who exhibit an excessive desire for work and its requisites, a ceaseless desire to work, and thinking about work and working even outside working hours cannot strike their work-life balance, thus overflowing the negativities in their work lives into the social life. This reduces the employees' satisfaction with life and thus has an impact on the positive performance of employees in the working environment. Behaviors that care about work and work requisites so much as to let it overflow into life are explained by the concept of workaholism in the literature. Although in some cases this overflow is positive, workaholic behaviors becoming excessive affects many elements in social and organizational sense. Presenting the current situation by determining the impact of workaholism on the satisfaction with life through the studies to be carried out within this context, and organizational issues such as the positive performance of employees, uniting around goals and participation in production processes are crucial for hotel businesses. This is especially important in the cuisine department of the food and beverage, which is one of the areas where the workload is the highest in hotel businesses. In the light of all this information, the study aims to determine the correlation between the workaholism degrees and satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff in hotel businesses. For this purpose, the employees of 4 and 5 star hotels in Eskişehir, where the workload is high in all seasons, were examined, and the results obtained were evaluated in the light of the literature.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Workaholism, which is defined as the tendency to spend time in the work environment at the expense of the family or social environment, the state of thinking about work even outside the workplace, engaging in work or striving to work even without any necessity or compensation (Scott et al. , 1997: 289) was coined by Oates (1971), derived from the term "alcoholism". In this respect, workaholism is described as a behavior that has negative personal and social impacts and an extreme obsession for work (McMillan and O'Driscoll, 2004: 510). Over time, many studies have been carried out and descriptions have been made to explain workaholism (table 1).

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Table 1. Various Definitions about Labor Oates (1971) Workaholism is the uncontrollable and compelling

need for work that arises from the employees' addiction to work.

Fassel (1990) Workaholism is a highly dangerous disease that turns employees into work addicts.

Porter (1996) Workaholism is the employees' commitment to work in a manner that arises not from the requisites of work or organization but from their own internal motivations, and that arouse apathy towards other areas of life.

Scott et al. (1997) Working on organizational requisites or economic needs by devoting one's life to work-related activities and contemplating on work-related thoughts even when not working.

Bonebright et al. (2000) Burke (2000)

Kanai et al. (1996)

Workaholism is the entirety of the notions of extreme satisfaction of work, excessive desire to go to work and devotion to work.

Cantarow (1979) Workaholism is the approach displayed by people who satisfy overworking and who are committed to work with a strong desire.

Kiechel (1989) Machlowitz (1980)

Workaholism is the behavior displayed by those who regard work as fun.

Reference: Nga. Et al. 2007: transcribed from 111-136.

When the definitions made about workaholism are examined, although they are considered in the literature as behaviors which lead to negative consequences, there are also studies that express the concept as the whole of positive behaviors. Malcowitz (1980) found that 100 workaholics, whom he identified in his research through interview techniques, were quite creative and satisfied with their works (Burke, 2000a: 1). In a similar work, Peiperl and Jones (2001) reached the conclusion that workaholic employees are happy with their intensive work and achievements. All tendencies, positive or negative, which result in intensive need for work and shows an emotional and behavioral development, are explained by the concept of workaholism In the literature, the said emotional and behavioral tendencies are explained through different approaches. The first of these is the classification that defines workaholism through behaviors such as "compulsive-dependent", "perfectionist" and "achievement-oriented" (Burke, 1999, Buelens and Poelmans, 2004). Compulsive-dependent workaholic employees are in a mood that is aware of their overworking but cannot

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control their workaholic behavior even if they experience direct social problems. Employees involved in this group display unhappy and obsessive behavior when they cannot conduct work-related activities and cannot think about the business. Perfectionist workaholics have a desire to manage every object, affair, and event in their environment in the context of the requisites of their work. This desire makes them feel obliged to develop and implement rules and procedures. This group is specifically comprises of workaholic soldiers, police officers and executives. Achievement-oriented workaholics exhibit a loyalty to work and working conditions due to the pressure of their high carrier expectations. They are in an intensive effort to work towards their goals and to achieve their aims (Buelens and Poelmans, 2004: 442).

Table 2. Alternative Perspectives on Workaholism

Studies that Positively Express Workaholism

Studies that Negatively Express Workaholism

Different Manifestation Forms of Workaholism

Workaholism is the indication of passion towards work (Cantarow, 1979)

Workaholism is an irregular commitment to intensive work (Cherrington, 1980)

Work-related, compulsive (Naughton, 1987)

Workaholism is the desire for working intensively for long periods (Machlowitz, 1980)

Workaholism is an addiction (Killinger, 1991, Oates, 1971, Porter, 1996, Robinson, 1989, 1997, Schaef and Fassel, 1988)

Workaholism, commitment to success, devotion to work, enjoying work (Spence and Robbins, 1992)

Compulsive-dependent, perfectionist, achievement-oriented (Scott et al. 1997).

Reference: Snir and Harpaz, 2004: 524.

Another classification of emotional and behavioral tendencies that give rise to workaholism has been expressed with the terms, "commitment to success," "devotion to work," and "enjoying work" (Spence and Robbins, 1992:163). Since workaholics displaying the behavior of commitment to success are as target-oriented as the achievement-oriented workaholics, they are more likely to work and succeed. These workaholics find themselves engaged in work, even when nonobligatory, by internalizing working. What distinguishes them from the achievement-oriented workers is that this situation is a source of happiness for them. Since work-related workaholic behavior may also manifest as the devotion to one's occupation, they may also be referred to as occupation-related workaholics. This behavior is exhibited by people who love creativity and productivity. Workaholics, who are devoted to work,

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are enthusiastic about working and every element related to it (office, uniform, pennant etc.), and are happy to work. Workaholics who enjoy working are also called enthusiastic workers because due to their eagerness to work. Such people lose their sense of time while working and think that "doing one's work is the most fun thing to do."

Regardless of within which emotional and behavioral framework workaholism develops, it manifests in people in different fashions. Harpaz and Snir (2003) found that workaholism is positively correlated with the economic concerns of employees. According to this, employees who feel obliged to earn money exhibit workaholic behavior more intensely. In addition, the existence of a career goal and focusing on this are also correlated with the manifestation of workaholism. On the other hand, it was concluded in the relevant study that the workaholic behaviors differs in accordance with the organizational factors such as job concerns, position and sector of employment as well as the sex of employees. Spence and Robbins (1992) emphasize that workaholism varies according to gender. A similar result was found by Burke (2000b). According to the research, gender and marital status are determinants of workaholism. He argues that those who are single and female are more susceptible to workaholism compared to those who are married or male as they are more committed to and enjoy going to work. Another aspect that leads to the manifestation of workaholism is the degree of employees’ satisfaction with life. Those who have low satisfaction in their marriage, social relations and life tend to fill these emotional gaps and solve their problems by working.

It is possible to categorize the consequences of workaholic behavior as individual and organizational. The organizational consequences of workaholic behavior usually manifests as positive. Spence and Robbnis (1992) describe workaholism as devotion to work, enthusiasm and enjoying work. From this point of view, workaholism has a short-term effect on performance and work devotion. As workaholism calls for more intensive work by employees, it can lead to many additional benefits to the organization, such as creating more projects (Taris et al. 2005: 40). But when the personal effects of workaholism are taken into consideration, this positive impact will clearly be short-lived.

Among the foremost individual effects of workaholism are its different psychological outcomes. The most basic psychological outcome that accompanies workaholism is stress. Stress comes along with physical problems (McMillan and O'Driscoll, 2004: 510). Andreassen et al. (2007) emphasized that workaholism brings with it exhaustion. Bonebright et al. (2000) underlines that workaholism gives rise to socialization issues, most significant of which is the inability to develop social relations. Chamberlin and Zhang (2009) have found that workaholism has a physical

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health-affecting characteristic. Another one of the most significant outcomes of workaholism is the satisfaction with life. Zika and Chamberlain (1992) emphasize that workaholism reduces employees' satisfaction with life. Aziz et al. (2010) stated that workaholism is a factor that directly impacts the life balance of employees and that satisfaction with life decreases when this balance is disturbed. Satisfaction with life comprehension is crucial due to its direct and indirect impact on many social, organizational and personal factors.

Satisfaction with life is the progression of events, affairs and relations within the period between the individual's existence and physical extinction in a high-quality manner, or in other words, within personal expectations. Satisfaction with life is a personal process. It is examined under two fundamental theories; behavioral and cognitive. The behavioral theory defines the satisfaction with life as the individual's judgment towards the degree of dominance of negative emotions and positive emotions arising from the expectations of one's life. The cognitive theory, on the other hand, defines the satisfaction with life as the individual's judgment towards the conformance of living conditions with the standards established by the individual (Diener, 1985: 72).

Just as satisfaction with life is directly affected by environment, the satisfaction with life degrees of individuals can also affect the environment. Part of the satisfaction with life consists of subjective well-being, which is also defined as "feeling good". For this reason, it is stated that the level of satisfaction with life plays a role in the emergence of psychiatric problems (Ünal et al., 2001: 114). Just as subjective well-being can be due to environmental effects, the psychiatric problems that may develop along with it also have the potential to affect society and the environment. Satisfaction with life is directly affected by the quality of the work life, and the unhappiness, disappointment, reluctance, fatigue, etc. that comes with it can disrupt the individual's physical and mental health by adversely affecting his environment, family and relations with relatives (Akgündüz, 2013: 183). Behavioral approaches argue that since the majority of jobs cannot meet individuals' some or all of the various sets of needs, they create dissatisfaction in the employees. According to this, objective work conditions directly affect the employee, and the employee reacts to this effect, resulting in reduced happiness (Dikmen, 1995: 118).

In one of the researches on workaholism and satisfaction with life, Bonebright et al. (2000) reached the conclusion that enthusiastic workaholics have a high level of satisfaction with life, while unenthusiastic workaholics have a low level of satisfaction with life due to work-family conflicts they are faced with. In another study, Gürel and Altunoglu (2016) found a positive correlation between the two notions as a result of the research, contrary to the assumption that the pressure and stress the individual experiences caused by overworking give rise to various health problems and affects

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satisfaction with life in various ways. In a similar study, Dilek and Yilmaz (2016) reached the conclusion that the higher is the work-addicted type of workaholics' level of work enjoyment, the higher is their level of satisfaction with life. In a study on workaholism and work-life, life-work balance, Pekdemir and Koçoğlu (2014) found that the said concepts are in direct correlation.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

The population of this study, which attempts to determine the correlation between the degree of workaholism and satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff in the 4 and 5 star hotels in Eskişehir, comprises of a total of 87 cuisine department staff employed in 6 hotels. In the study, which was designed to reach the entire population, 72 questionnaires were obtained and 85% return rate was achieved.

The following scales were utilized in the research as data collection tools: Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) developed by Diener et al. (1985), which passed the validity and reliability tests, to measure employees' satisfaction with life; the Dutch Work Addiction Scale (DUWAS) scale, which was developed by Taris and Bakker (2006) to measure employees' workaholism, and adapted to Turkish by Doğan and Tel (2011). The hypotheses used in the research are constructed as follows.

H1: There is a difference between employees' ages and their satisfaction with life and workaholism.

H2: There is a difference between employees' educational status and their satisfaction with life and workaholism.

H3: There is a difference between the number of children employees' have and their satisfaction with life and workaholism.

H4: There is a difference between employees' working positions and their satisfaction with life and workaholism.

H5: There is a difference between employees' term of employment and their satisfaction with life and workaholism.

H3: There is a significant positive correlation between employees' satisfaction with life and their workaholism.

Descriptive statistics were used for personal information in the analysis of the data. In order to test the hypotheses of the research; Kruskall Wallis test was applied from among the non-parametric tests since the normal distribution and homogeneity conditions in the variables of gender, marital status, age, education level, working position, occupational experience and number of children were not fulfilled and each

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of the subgroups formed according to group variable was below 15. The Spearman test was used to determine the correlation between satisfaction with life and workaholism.

In this study, where the correlation between the workaholism degrees and satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff in hospitality businesses is aimed to be determined, according to the findings obtained by analyzing the data obtained from the questionnaire forms; the descriptive characteristics of the subjects participating in the study are as shown in Table 3.

Table 3.Descriptive Statistics of Employees

Gender n % Number of Children n %

Male 45 62.5 0 61 84.7 Female 27 37.5 1 8 11.1 Total 72 100 2 - - Marital Status : n % 3 - - Single 54 75 4 and above 3 4.2 Married 18 25 Total 72 100 Total 72 100 Job Position n % Age n % Ex. Chef /Sous Chef 11 15.3 Under 20 15 20.8 Chef 20 27.8 20 -29 34 47.2 Demi Chef 17 23.6 30 -39 18 25.0 Intern 14 19.4 40 -49 2 2.8 Auxiliary Staff 10 13.9 50 and above 3 4.2 Total 72 100

Total 72 100 Occupational Experience n %

Educational Status : n % Less than 1 year 37 51.4 Elementary Education 11 15.3 1-5 years 26 36.1 Secondary Education 23 31.9 6-10 years 4 5.6 Associate's Degree 14 19.4 10 and above 5 6.9 Bachelor's Degree 17 23.6 Total 72 100 Bachelor's Degree 7 9.8

Total 72 100

According to Table 3; 62.5% of the participants were male while 37.5% were females. It is seen that the participants are at the age range of 20 to 29 at the maximum. When the participants' level of education is examined, it is understood that 31.9% of them have received education at the secondary level. It is seen that 84.7% of the participants do not have children, that proportionally they have had less than 1 year of experience at most, and that they work in chef position. While employees' satisfaction with life and workaholism are analyzed, the dimension of satisfaction with life is handled single dimensionally as is done by Diener et al. (1985); and the dimension of workaholism is handled in two sub-dimensions as overworking and compulsive (compulsive-dependent) working as done by Doğan and Tel (2011).

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Table 4. Expressions of Employee Life Satisfaction Statements (n=72) X S.S.

Satisfaction with Life

1. Everything in my life is going the way I want. 2.63 1.03

2. My living conditions are great. 2.35 1.27

3. I am quite satisfied with my life. 2.88 1.13

4. I have had everything in my life that I have ever wanted to date. 2.50 1.32

5. If I were reborn, I would not want anything in my life to change 2.57 1.45

Total Mean 2.58

Answer Categories: 1 I completely disagree.............................5 I completely agree.

The mean and standard deviation values for statements on satisfaction with life are shown in table 4. There are 5 statements regarding employees' satisfaction with life. When the mean of the statements is examined, it is seen that the satisfaction of the employees about their life is positive ( X = 2.88). The statement with the lowest mean for satisfaction with life is "My living conditions are great" ( X = 2.35).

In Table 5, there were 8 statements in the overworking dimension regarding employees' workaholism, and 6 expressions in the compulsive working dimension. When 1 mean of the statements regarding overworking is examined, it is seen that the statement with the highest mean is "I spend more time on working than on spending time with my friends and hobbies." ( X = 3.58). The statement regarding compulsive working with the highest mean is "Even if I want to get away from work for a while, I often find myself thinking about it." ( X = 3.60).

The difference between satisfaction with life and workaholism according to participants' age was tested through Kruskal Wallis test; and statistically significant difference was found between age and satisfaction with life (X2= 14,151; P,007<0,05) and only compulsive working from among the dimensions of workaholism (X2= 13,540; P,009 <0,05). The difference in overworking is not statistically significant (P,062>0,05). According to this it is observed that; those in the 20-29 age groups have higher satisfaction with life than other age groups; and those under 20 have a higher tendency for compulsive working. In this case, the H1 hypothesis is partially accepted.

The difference between the participants' satisfaction with life and workaholism in accordance to their educational status was tested through Kruskal Wallis test; statistically significant difference was found between educational status and satisfaction with life (X2= 14.267; P,006<0.05) and overworking (X2= 16.227; P,003<0.05) and compulsive working (X2= 10.330; P,035<0.05) from among the

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dimensions of workaholism. According to this, it was observed that; the satisfaction with life of those who hold an associate's degree is higher than the other groups; and high school graduates show tendency towards compulsive working. In this case, the H2 hypothesis is partially accepted.

Table 5. Employees' Statements Regarding Workaholism Degrees

Workaholism Statements (n=72) X S.S.

Overworking

1. I come of as a person who seems to be in a rush and compete against time. 3.13 1.23

2. Even when my colleagues leaves work, I find myself continue working. 3.31 1.13

3. I take on more work than I can get through. 3.36 1.36

4. When I am working, I make things difficult for myself because of the time limitations I impose for completing a job at a certain period.

3.13 1.37

5. I have difficulty relaxing psychologically when I am not working. 3.13 1.40

6. I feel guilty when I am not working. 3.25 1.24

7. I spend more time on working than on spending time with my friends and hobbies.

3.58 1.08

8. When I'm talking on the phone, I find myself doing two or three tasks at the same time such as both taking notes and eating.

3.21 1.45

1. It is important for me to work hard even if I do not like the work I do. 2.76 1.22

Compulsive Working

2. I usually feel like I have to work hard. 3.28 1.29

3. Although the work I do is not enjoyable, I feel obliged to work hard. 2.99 1.17

4. I feel like I have to work hard and do so, regardless of the fact that I want to do it or not.

3.22 1.04

5. I feel guilty when I take time off from work. 2.85 1.34

6. Even if I want to get away from work for a while, I often find myself thinking about it.

3.60 1.16

Total Mean 3.13

Answer Categories: 1 I completely disagree.............................5 I completely agree.

The difference between participants' satisfaction with life and workaholism in accordance to the number of children they have was tested by Kruskal Wallis test; statistically significant difference was found between solely the number of children and the overworking dimension from among the dimensions of workaholism (X2= 6,629; P,036<0,05). According to this, it is seen that; those who do not have children show a tendency towards overworking compared to those who do not. In this case, the H3 hypothesis is partially accepted.

The difference between participants' satisfaction with life and workaholism in accordance to their working positions was tested by Kruskal Wallis test; statistically significant difference was found between working position and satisfaction with life

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(X2= 14,776; P,005<0,05) and solely the overworking dimension from among the dimensions of workaholism (X2= 13,359; P,009 <0,10). The difference regarding compulsive working was not statistically significant (P,062>0,05). According to this, it is observed that; the satisfaction with life of those in the chef group is higher than those working in other positions; and those who work in the position of intern/bellboy have the lowest satisfaction with life as well as a tendency towards overworking. In this case, the H4 hypothesis is partially accepted.

The difference between participants' satisfaction with life and workaholism in accordance to their term of employment was tested by Kruskal Wallis test; statistically significant difference was found between term of employment and overworking (X2= 13.659; P,003 <0.05) and compulsive working (X2= 14.253; P,003 <0.05) from among the dimensions of workaholism (X2= 13.540; P,009 <0.05). The difference regarding satisfaction with life was not statistically significant (P,241>0.05). According to this, it is seen that; those who have 6 to 10 years of experience have a high tendency towards overworking while those who have less than 1 year of experience have a high tendency towards compulsive working. In this case, the H5 hypothesis is partially accepted.

The Kolmogorov-Smirnow (K-S) Z test was initially used to determine the correlation technique to be applied in order to determine the correlation between satisfaction with life and workaholism. As a result of the obtained analyses; it was determined that satisfaction with life (KS Z = 160, p = 0.000, p <0.05), overworking (KS Z = 116; p = 0.000; p <0.05), and compulsive working (KS Z = 157; p = 0.000, p <0.05) variables were not distributed normally. For this reason, nonparametric Spearman's correlation calculation technique was used to determine the correlation between satisfaction for life and workaholism.

Table 6. The Correlation between Satisfaction with Life and Workaholism

Variables Satisfaction with Life

Overworking Compulsive Working

Satisfaction with Life 1

Overworking -.104 1

Compulsive Working -0.66 .587* 1

*p < 0,01

The correlation calculation displaying the correlation between satisfaction with life and workaholism is shown in table 6. According to table 6 displaying the correlation between satisfaction with life and workaholism; no statistically significant correlation was found between satisfaction with life and workaholism (p> 0,05). In this

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case, the H6 hypothesis was rejected. However, there was a statistically significant and positive correlation between the sub-dimensions of workaholism (r =. 587; p <0.01).

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Workaholism is defined as a concept attributed with different meanings depending on whether it is studied at organizational or individual level. When considered in organizational context, workaholism is interpreted as positive for arousing devotion to work, enthusiastic working and commitment to success that lead to positive performance; when considered in individual context, it is interpreted as negative for giving rise to different biological and psychological symptoms due to overworking. The general tendency in the literature, however, is to conduct researches on the negative consequences of workaholism in the individual context. The foremost negative consequence of workaholism on employees is its impact on the satisfaction with life. The satisfaction with life described in the context of quality of life directly affects many individual and social components.

No direct correlation was found between the related concepts in the said study, which investigates the correlation between the workaholism degrees and satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff of 4 and 5 star hospitality businesses in Eskişehir. However, examining the other data obtained within the scope of the research reveals an indirect correlation. The employees' high satisfaction with life can be offered as the main indicator of this indirect correlation. When the means of the questions about satisfaction with life directed towards the employees are examined, the statement with the highest mean is seen to be "I am quite satisfied with my life." Employees' having high satisfaction with life indicates that the problems they experience in the organizational context do not affect their general lives. An examination of the means of the questions regarding the employees' degrees of workaholism reveals that the statements with the highest mean are "Even if I want to get away from work for a while, I often find myself thinking about it. This is an indication of the fact that the employees are workaholics. Given the high level of satisfaction with life, it can be argued that a situation similar to the behaviors of devotion to work and enjoying work introduced by Spence and Robbins (1992). As mentioned earlier, it is assumed that the works of the workaholics who display the said behavior are driven by their inner motivation, and in this context, has a positive effect on their lives. For this reason, it can be argued that the 4 and 5 star hotel employees in Eskişehir are workaholics who are devoted to and enjoy working.

Whether the workaholism degrees and satisfaction with life of cuisine department staff in the hospitality businesses differ according to their gender, marital status, age, education level, working position, professional experience and the number

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of children they have were determined. According to the analyses; significant differences were encountered for variables except gender and marital status variables. It can be argued that cuisine department staff who are 20 and below find themselves in a more challenging working environment due to their limited occupational knowledge. The cuisine department staff who do not have any children display more workaholic behavior compared to those who have children. This situation arises from the fact that the time to be spared for family and children can be allocated to work instead. According to the findings of the research, it is seen that; the satisfaction with life is higher among the participants who hold an associate's degree, while the degree of workaholism is higher among the high school graduates. This is caused by the fact that the high school graduates experience greater job insecurity, work more, and have greater carrier goals due to their lower levels of education. This situation is in compliance with the conditions specified by Harpaz and Snir (2003). The satisfaction with life of the cuisine department staff was found to be higher, especially of those who work in the middle level manager chef positions. The fact that the said employees are satisfied with job security, level of income and working conditions confirms this situation. On the other hand, the high tendency towards overworking among especially those working at intern/bellboy level can be explained by the prevailing sense of job insecurity due to the lack of occupational knowledge, experience and practice. This also applies to the cuisine department staff 's terms of employment. It was determined that the cuisine department staff who are at the dawn of their careers had a higher degree of workaholism while cuisine department staff who have advanced in their carriers have a higher satisfaction with life.

Identifying the underlying reasons for the workaholism of the cuisine department staff who are workaholics and determining the cause and effect relations through studies to be carried out in the future will be effective in defining the notion of workaholism. Furthermore, future studies can also help compare the results of the researches conducted in different population or sample groups.

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‘CITTASLOW’ AND ‘SLOW FOOD’ IN THE EYES OF FOOD AND BEVERAGE BUSINESS MANAGERS: GÖKÇEADA

SAMPLE

Onur ÖZDEN1, Serdar SÜNNETÇIOĞLU2, Ferah ÖZKÖK2

1.Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Institute of Social Sciences Tourism Management Department

2. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Tourism Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts

[email protected]

Abstract

Slow Food and Cittaslow movement, taking its motivation from Slow Food, propose an increasing development over local values about city and food industry. This study aims to determine the evaluations on Cittaslow and Slow Food movements of food and beverages businesses and determine the changes that occurs in Gökçeada along with these movements. Within the research, the interviews were made through semi-structured questionnaire with the business managers, the findings were deepened with descriptive analysis, applying content analysis test on the data acquired. As a result, current situation was analysed in the light of their Cittaslow and Slow Food perceptions of the business managers, their perspectives on locality and their observations towards the changes Cittaslow caused.

Keywords: Locality, Cittaslow, Slow Food, Gökçeada, Food-Beverages Management

INTRODUCTION Slow Food and Cittaslow movements seem to show a common development

about the approach and its philosophy in spite of the fact that they carry on their activities in different areas with regard to their scopes. In the process of Cittaslow membership, providing an advantageous situtation with the existence of conviva under the title of partnerships reveals a corporate approach in this situtaion (Cittaslowturkiye.org, 2017a). The widespread support both movements took from the world shows the modernity building over local values to be corresponded.

When previous studies were examined, it could be seen that overseas studies were conducted especially in Italy (Miele 2008) and in the country especially in Seferihisar (Mutdoğan, 2010; Göçkan, 2012; Toplu, 2012; Çakıcı et al. 2013).

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However, it was observed that the studies about Gökçeada were insufficient in number. In this study, the perception of Cittaslow and Slow Food was examined in terms of food and beverage businesses in order to compensate this insufficiency in literature.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

SLOW FOOD Slow food movement came out in 1986 as a reaction to fast-food restaurant, Mc

Donald’s in Roma Piazza Spagna in Italy and it was announced on November 3,1987 in Gambero Rosso via publishing the manifesto which was written by Folco Portinari and enrolled the foundation of the movement (Petrini and Padovani, 2011; Ünal and Zavalsız, 2016). Manifesto announcing the foundation of Slow Food movement officially was signed as translated into 8 different languages in Paris Opera Comique building on November 9, 1989 by the delegates from Argentina, Austria, Denmark, Brasil, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Spain, Swedeni Switzerland, the USA and Venezuela (Petrini ve Padovani, 2011; Petrini, 2001). Slow Food movement can be accepted as an extension of ARCI Gola that was founded later while carrying on its activities in Associazione Ricreativa Culturale Italiana(ARCI) by Petrini and his colleagues (Gezeroğlu, 2013).

In the official Slow Food Manifesto, the following articles take place (slowfood.com, 2017a):

• Born and nurtured under the sign of Industrialization, this century first invented the machine and then modelled its lifestyle after it. Speed became our shackles. We fell prey to the same virus: 'the fast life' that fractures our customs and assails us even in our own homes, forcing us to ingest “fast- food”. • Homo sapiens must regain wisdom and liberate itself from the 'velocity' that is propelling it on the road to extinction. Let us defend ourselves against the universal madness of 'the fast life' with tranquil material pleasure. • Against those - or, rather, the vast majority - who confuse efficiency with frenzy, we propose the vaccine of an adequate portion of sensual gourmandise pleasures, to be taken with slow and prolonged enjoyment. • Appropriately, we will start in the kitchen, with Slow Food. To escape the tediousness of "fast-food", let us rediscover the rich varieties and aromas of local cuisines. • In the name of productivity, the 'fast life' has changed our lifestyle and now threatens our environment and our land (and city) scapes. Slow Food is the alternative, the avant-garde’s riposte.

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• Real culture is here to be found. First of all, we can begin by cultivating taste, rather than impoverishing it, by stimulating progress, by encouraging international exchange programs, by endorsing worthwhile projects, by advocating historical food culture and by defending old-fashioned food traditions. • Slow Food assures us of a better quality lifestyle. With a snail purposely chosen as its patron and symbol, it is an idea and a way of life that needs much sure but steady support. • On the basis of the manifesto, it can be said that Slow Food is against the effects of fastness leading to get away from the local culture, be monotonous, remove satisfaction and continuity. Slow Food manifesto has 3 premises for quality as good, clean and fair. These premises are (slowfood.com, 2017b): • Good: A food"s flavor and aroma, recognizable to educated, welltrained senses, is the fruit of the competence of the producer and of choice of raw materials and production methods, which should in no way alter its naturalness. • Clean: The environment has to be respected and sustainable practices of farming, animal husbandry, processing, marketing and consumption should be taken into serious consideration. Every stage in the agro-industrial production chain, consumption included, should protect ecosystems and biodiversity, safeguarding the health of the consumer and the producer. • Fair: Social justice should be pursued through the creation of conditions of labor respectful of man and his rights and capable of generating adequate rewards; through the pursuit of balanced global economies; through the practice of sympathy and solidarity; through respect for cultural diversities and traditions.

Slow Food movement carries on its activities in three different levels as

international, national and local. The center operating at an international level is in Piedmont town in Bra where the central movement first came out. This center plans and supports the development of network and projects across the world. The Corporation is coordinated by International Council and directed by Executive Commitee. Executive Commitee is the top managing authority. There are corporations that carries on activities at national level. These corporations have not only the responsibility of following the political instructions given by Slow Food International but also have the autonomy to decide, they also support convivias and coordinate local organizations. At local level, the groups called convivia take place and coordinate the activities. By 2017, five convivias has carried on their activities in fourteen different cities like Batman, Çanakkale, Ankara, Antalya, Balıkesir, Rize, Gaziantep, Kırklareli,

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Kastamonu in Turkey. Across the world, there are over 1.500 convivias (slowfood.com, 2017c). Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity , Terra Madre Foundation, University of Gastronomic Sciences are foundations to help Slow Food operate actively (slowfood.com, 2017c).

CITTASLOW

Cittaslow came out with the suggestion of Greve in Chianti’s former mayor, Paolo Satumini in 1999 as a result of carrying the idea of increasing the quality of life by cities’ using their own values and creating different development models into national dimension an being adopted by Bra, Orvieto, Positano mayors and Carlo Petrini.

The philosophy of Cittaslow movement is based upon the idea of recombining the city organisations which are insufficient on their own, designed for fast moving and consuming, insecure and unsustainable with Slow Food conception (Cittaslowturkiye.org, 2017b). At the same time, Cittaslow conception has an important role in cities’ gaining their own identities, branding and being advantageous in local development Akman et al, 2013). Yurtseven et al. (2010) state that Cittaslow organisation support local cultures economically and help them to be protected. Furthermore, Pink (2008) emphasizes that this conception offers an alternative way against daily sensory experiences and global capitalist consumption. Within this perspective, local bussiness’ being supported with Cittaslow conception reveals that the conceptions like fair trade, local trade and farmer market have been taken to forefront.

Slow Food movement has been stated as being an ideological platform for a by-product which is civic and constitutes the local codes of practices related to inhabitability and quality of life (Mayer ve Knox, 2006). Cittaslow consists of Coordination Commitee, Science Commitee and Secretariat on an international and national scale. In the case that there are 3 Cittaslows, national networks can be set up. The national networks can manage their own membership process and carry out projects with their members. 208 cities in 30 countries around the World and 13 cities in Turkey are accepted as Cittaslow (Cittaslowturkiye.org, 2017b). For membership, firstly the population of candidate city is to be under 50.000 and the city is expected to get 50 points from scoring test which has 70 criteria under 7 macro areas. These criteria are subdivided into 7 macro areas (Cittaslowturkiye.org, 2017a):

• Environmental Policy • Infrastructure Policy

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• Quality of Urban Life Policy • Agricultural, Touristic and Artisan Policies • Policies for Hospitality, Awareness and Training • Social Cohesion • Partnerships

METHODOLOGY In this study, the data was collected from 6 bussiness managers and 1 executive

manager in September, 2017 in Gökçeada which is the world’s first and only quiet island with the Cittaslow title taken in June, 2011. The interviews were made through semi-structured questionnaire and while the business managers whom was going to be interviewed were chosen, people having an experience of living in the island or being aware of the so-called processes from the beginning were tried to be reached. The interviews were made with the managers of hotels and restaurants and the data collection was terminated when the data reached at the saturation point. As Yıldırım and Şimşek (2011) stated, when the process and concepts start to be closer (saturation point) in qualitative researches made through interviews, it is thought that the collected data is sufficient. The interviews lasted between 10-40 minutes. In the data analysis, content analysis and descriptive analysis were used. The reliability of the research were tried to be increased by building common codes with different researchers.

The descriptive analysis was applied on the data collected from the interviews and direct quotations were used frequently in order to reveal the opinion and mentality of the participants.

RESULTS It was observed that most of the managers had bachelor’s degree and only one

of them had degree in tourism department among these managers. 6 of the interviewees were the owners of their business and only 1 interviewee was professional manager. Furthermore, it was notable that this professional manager was the only one who had degree in tourism. A great majority of the participants were male. In view of the residence time in the island, the time ranging between 5 to 41 years was thought to be sufficient to answer the research questions.

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Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Part

icip

ant

Cod

e

Age

Gen

der

Edu

catio

nal

Stat

us

Tour

ism

E

duca

tion

Bus

ines

s Ty

pe

C

omm

ence

men

t Dat

e

Bus

ines

s Si

ze

(per

son)

N

umbe

r of

St

aff

R

esid

ence

Ti

me

P - 1 37 Male High School

No Restaurant/ Motel

2001 60 / 150

5 - 15 35 Years

P - 2 79 Male University No Restaurant

1996 150 11 41 Years

P - 3 32 Male College No Restaurant

2012 150 12 32 Years

P - 4 38 Male University Yes Hotel / Restauran

t

2009 60 / 60 4 - 13 19 Years

P - 5 48 Female University No Cafe 2012 24 1 - 4 5 Years P - 6 59 Male University No Restauran

t 2017 80 13 12

Years P - 7 50 Male High

School No Pastry

Shop 1983 100 20 - 45 40

Years

Insularıty And Locality Concepts Participants were asked about the importance of insularity and locality concepts

and as a result of the content analysis conducted, the themes like ‘adopting the region, recognizing the values of the region, respecting the environment, sustaining communal work and life-style’ came out (Table. 2).

P – 1 coded participant stated that insularity and locality were different concepts and locality could be gained as a result of time that was not long but insularity concept meant living in the island for a long time and seeing it in different aspects and said;

''Insularity and locality are different. You cannot be an islander by being local in the island. You need to understand and adapt to something. It seems good for 1 or 2 years but when you live for 30-40 years, it becomes different. It is more different”

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P – 2 coded participant mentioned that island culture was different from land culture; locality required to be a tradition being devoted, adapted to natural conditions and cooperated. P – 2,

“ What we call as ‘island culture’ is a different culture and land people do not understand this much. You should be devoted, adapted to the natural conditions. Then helping each other is important, too. This is the most important thing in an island culture because you are in an isolated place. I think you have to help each other in an island culture”.

P – 3 coded participant stated that anybody could be an islander in a short while and also wished people who could protect the island and its local values to come to the island. P – 3,

“People might be an islander staying for 2 years as long as they adopt it and understand it. As long as they adopt here. Sensible people should come here, not like people having the idea of building contractors; but people who are aware of its nature and beauty and respect its environment”.

P – 4 coded participant said that insularity could be gained without locality and mentioned that being local was related to the sense of belonging. P – 4,

“The way that I live insularity is not locality, I am not from here. The Greek people were old owners of this place, the one that came later does not have the sense of belonging. That young people try to live and work outside and escape from here shows it clearly. Since they do not belong here, they are not locals”.

P – 6 coded participant explained that insularity was a value that could be gained as a result of a long residence time and locality could occur as a result of adopting the values of the region and respecting them. P – 6,

“In order to be an islander, I must have a century-long experience but locality is not the same. Locality means; wherever you live, just live anywhere in the world. You would respect locality if you respected the geography and you could put its values for a sustainable life as a parameter. It is about this adaption…”

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Table 2. Evaluations of Insularity and Locality Concepts

Theme Frequency Adopting the Region //// Recognizing the Values of the Region //// Respecting the Environment /// Sustaining Communal Work / Life-Style /

The Perception of Slow Food and Cittaslow Philosophy

Questions oriented to determine what it meant with Cittaslow, Slow Food and

‘good, clean, and fair’ motto of Slow Food were asked to the managers. As a result of the content analysis made on the basis of the answers, in the questions measuring the perception of Cittaslow and Slow Food concepts, necessary for a healthy life, the movement that should be widespread, traditional food, reliable and pushing profit into the background themes; in the questions about ‘good, clean and fair’ motto, local production and cooperation, usage of healthy product, waste management, accessible price and traditional life themes showed up (Table. 3 and 4).

Participants mostly were seen to relate Cittaslow and Slow Food with healthy life. P – 6 coded participant, “The best food is eatable and useful for human health, actually the one that is not harmful for human health” and “This is a diet which is not harmful for health: Is there actulally a need to define this? A diet should be like this”; P – 7 coded participant, “Nowadays, people want clean products, everybody wants like we want”; P – 5 coded participant, “Slow Food really provides reliable and healthy living, both for eating and living how could I say… I see it as a formation that could make people’s lives more qualified.” expressed their perceptions with these words.

Table 3. Meanings of ‘Cittaslow’ and ‘Slow Food’ Concepts for Participants

Theme Frequency Necessary for healthy life ///// A movement that should be widespread /// Traditional food // Reliable / Pushing profit into background /

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Participants expressed their thoughts about ‘good, clean and fair’ motto with the following words: P – 4 coded participant said,

“It is easy for us to reach at good, clean and fair as we are local and live in an agricultural land. We support Slow Food movement wittingly or unwittingly, by working with the local producers”. “The size of the market or economic rent does not allow that. The biggest enemy is economic rent”

P – 5 coded participant said, “I am trying to give service carefully in my shop

like I do in my house as I think people outside deserve this care as much.”; P – 6 coded participant said, “The capitalist system does not allow that, they have important things to do… The food they eat at the burger shops in the shopping malls and at the entrance of the malls… The island is like this already. It is full of food. It is fast food, the other is normal. What you call as Slow Food is the food that people eat normaly for 5000 years”, “Fairly, you are a producer, you produced it for 10 liras I cannot sell it for 30 liras I can actually sell it for 11 liras”

Table 4. Meanings of ‘Good, Clean and Fair’ Words for Participants

Tema Sıklık Local Production and Cooperation //// Usage of Healthy Product /// Waste Management / Accessible Price / Traditional Life /

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT MOTIVATIONS, LOCAL PRODUCT USAGE AND CHANGES

Four of the business managers expressed their motivations of being the owner

of the business as filling the gap of food and beverage businesses. The related question was not asked to the professional manager, the other two business managers expressed their motivations with their interest in food and beverage business. P – 6 coded participant also mentioned about social benefit and said,

…you can meet new people constantly, if you succeed and love it, people start to come to you. You are getting socialized… It was an easy way, I had been an engineer for 25 years I had met 50 people and then I did this job and met 2500 people”.

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About local product usage, business managers stated that they cared about the

product usage coming from the island but they have some problems with the diversity and amount of the products. Participants expressed their feelings about local product usage; P – 4 coded participant said, “In Gökçeada, people look at things commercially… Formerly they cultivated for the needs but now they cultivate for how to gain more money. That’s why the diversity is inadequate.” and P – 1 coded participant said, “the capacity here is apparent, sometimes you need to stock things like shrimp, calamary, you can stock some of them” P – 6 coded participant said,

“In the past, some of my friends from the village promised me and cultivated for me and I was picking them from the field, I liked this trade but now it is over, too. I think it does not mean anything anymore, they understand that this is not a good way in trade. I mean you cannot be anything by selling 300 or 500 garden rockets”

According to the information taken from the business managers, the local

product usage changes between 20% and 90% related to the type and size of the food and beverage business.

As a consequence of the declaration of the island as ‘Cittaslow’ and the activities took place about Slow Food, when business managers were asked to evaluate especially about the developing differences in terms of the approach to the local products, customer communication and business management perception, there was no change, logo usage, raising awareness, gaining value of the local products and demand growth of the products themes showed up in accordance with the answers; ‘no change’ was more frequent (Table. 5).

P – 3 coded participant said that guests were looking for a local product and he wanted to return to local food; P – 4 coded participant said that he was fond of using local product and Slow Food was a point of curiosity for those unfamiliar with it. P – 5 coded participant indicated that local producers were trying to increase their motivations and said “The guests are not aware that the island has Cittaslow or Slow Food, they just see it as an isolated island and come”.

P – 7 participant expressed himself with the following words,

“It was useful to understand what we got, we knew that it was precious but we did not know that much. Now when we examine it, what we have is precious and we own it, we are trying to adapt it and raise the rate of adapting it and it works.” and “Of course, it does. As Gökçeada is a natural island, ‘slowness’ fits here. This is

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not a spoiled place much, that’s why people coming here think so. They are coming to us and when they relate ‘slow’ logo with Gökçeada, it helps us.”

According to the information acquired from the interviews, a significant number of business managers mentioned about chain markets, structuring and fast food business and stated that the existence of them was against the philosophy of Cittaslow.

Table 5 . Changes After the Island Became Cittaslow for Participants

Theme Frequency There was no change ///// Logo usage // Raise of the awareness // Gaining value of the local products // Demand growth of the products /

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

It is seen that the meanings which business managers assigned to locality and

insularity concepts seem to be related to many different points. When these related points were evaluated, it was observed that locality is a value that can be gained by adopting the region, understanding the values of the region and respecting its environment; insularity was a concept that comes out as a result of a long-lasting process with the companion of locality concept. When Slow Food and Cittaslow’s approach about the increase of local values on area development is considered, the approach of the business managers of Gökçeada seems compatible with the philosophy of so-called movements. Similarly, with reference to the importance that Cittaslow and Slow Food give to locality and continuity of local culture, as Özözen Kahraman (2013) stated, the population fluctuation that happened between the years 1927 and 2000 as a result of internal and external immigrations takes an important place in the future projections of the evaluations of the business managers.

When the educational status and fields of the business managers, the size of the business, staff number and that they are family-run businesses are considered, it attracts attention. Even though most of them have bachelor degrees, they do not have education in tourism department, hence it shows the importance of the information programs that local authorities will organize.

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When business management motivations are evaluated together with the educational status and field, the satisfaction of the data acquired as a result of the interviews is higher for the people who have an interest and social contribution in food and beverage sector and have a tourism education. Furthermore, according to Loades (2005) Cittaslow philosophy aims to strengthen the communication between local producer and consumer, also encourage natural and environmentally friendly production. Accordingly, the aim to acquire social benefit that people mentioned in this study is seen as the right move in terms of the aim of the movement.

Bucak and Turan (2016) examined the effect of Slow Food on tourism of Gökçeada in terms of the number of accomodation places, food and beverage business, income and employment, tourism diversity, transportation, advertising, infrastructure and superstructure, the number of domestic and foreign tourists, the development of the tourism of the town and they observed an increase in the number of food and beverage business and accomodation business between the years of 2006 – 2015. This increase could not be associated with Slow Food, besides it was stated that local people did not have enough knowledge about Slow Food. The results are consistent with the lack of the number of the business managers or managers that had the education in the field of our study mentioned and the need of catch-up work by the local authority is supported.

In the matter of local product usage, it was observed that the business managers agreed upon the lack of product diversity and inadequate production. The initiatives and incentives to increase the production of local products in the island has been observed to be useful in view of the perspectives of the business managers towards the local products.

In the content analysis conducted as a result of the answers to the questions making sense of the changes Cittaslow and Slow Food caused, even though there was no change theme stood out, the general positive result of the expressions of so-called initiatives were associated with the suitability of the island to the philosophy. That the themes coming out as a result of the content analysis conducted resembles with the core values related to Cittaslow and Slow Food strengthens this association. On the purpose of helping the effort to return to local foods succesfully, verbal history studies that local convivias will conduct seem to make a change in a positive way. While it was mostly stated that there was no change specific to Gökçeada, in the study that Miele (2008) researched about how Cittaslow movement in Italy brought changes, it was emphasized that there were changes like an increase in the number of sustainable applications like energy and waste management of the restaurants serving regional foods and like providing taste educations in the schools.

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The increase in the value of local products with awareness and demand growth shows that the corporate branding initiative especially for the local products apart from Cittaslow brand will be corresponded. That one of the participants indicated “Slow Food Friendly Business” certificate to be attention grabbing for those people who do not have any knowledge marks that Slow Food and Cittaslow are good components for destination branding. Nilsson et al. (2011) interviewed with the local people in 3 Cittaslow in Italy and observed that Cittaslows did not make destination marketing unlike other destinations. Gökçeada sample shows resemblance in terms of not using any other components except from Cittaslow membership in order to increase the attraction of destination. Bucak and Turan (2016) determined that Slow Food and Cittaslow could not create a brand equity for Gökçeada but it would happen in the long run. This result shows resemblance with the results of Nilsson et al (2011) and this study.

In the study that Sünnetçioğlu et al. (2014) examined the Cittaslow, Seferihisar in terms of sustainable local development, an enterprise called “seferipazar.com” that belongs to the cooperative which local women established and regional products was sold was mentioned. This enterprise which encourages natural product trade seems to be important with regard to showing local people to meet on a common ground about Slow Food and Cittaslow to be implemented with a cooperative venture. That similar initiatives come true on an individual basis in Gökçeada shows that Cittaslow philosophy was adopted. This conclusion seems to support the theme ‘there was no change’ located in Table. 5.

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