making reasonable arguments claims and evidence. making reasonable arguments remember that in an...

Making Reasonable Making Reasonable ArgumentsArguments

Claims and EvidenceClaims and Evidence

Making Reasonable Making Reasonable ArgumentsArguments

Remember that in an argument Remember that in an argument essay your purpose is to persuadeessay your purpose is to persuade

In order to convince readers that In order to convince readers that your position is correct, you need your position is correct, you need to offer valid reasonsto offer valid reasons

Do this by:Do this by: Making reasonable claimsMaking reasonable claims Giving evidenceGiving evidence

Making Reasonable ClaimsMaking Reasonable Claims

Three kinds of claim:Three kinds of claim: Claim of factClaim of fact Claim of valueClaim of value Claim of policyClaim of policy


Claims of fact:Claims of fact: Asserts that something is, was, or will Asserts that something is, was, or will

bebe Include arguments about cause and Include arguments about cause and

effect, correlation, probability, and effect, correlation, probability, and states of affairsstates of affairs


Examples of claims of fact:Examples of claims of fact: Chocolate is the most popular flavour Chocolate is the most popular flavour

of ice cream for women.of ice cream for women. Pornography has the potential of Pornography has the potential of

leading to violence.leading to violence. Capital punishment reduces crime.Capital punishment reduces crime. Capital punishment does not reduce Capital punishment does not reduce

crime.crime.


Claims of fact:Claims of fact: To support a claim of this kind you To support a claim of this kind you

must provide further information must provide further information (evidence)(evidence)


Claims of value:Claims of value: Concern what is right or wrong, good Concern what is right or wrong, good

or bad, better or worse than or bad, better or worse than something elsesomething else


Examples of claims of value:Examples of claims of value: Country music deserves to be taken Country music deserves to be taken

seriously.seriously. Capital punishment is barbaric.Capital punishment is barbaric. Euthanasia is moral.Euthanasia is moral.


Claims of value:Claims of value: Avoid mere expressions of tasteAvoid mere expressions of taste

I.e. Vanilla is better than chocolate.I.e. Vanilla is better than chocolate. (How can one dispute this rationally?)(How can one dispute this rationally?) But notice the difference between above But notice the difference between above

statement and “Most Canadians prefer statement and “Most Canadians prefer vanilla to chocolate,” which is a claim of vanilla to chocolate,” which is a claim of fact.fact.


Claims of value:Claims of value: Must go beyond expressions of tasteMust go beyond expressions of taste May be claims of morality or claims of May be claims of morality or claims of

artistic valueartistic value Are usually supported by appeals to Are usually supported by appeals to standardsstandards


Examples of claims of value with Examples of claims of value with appeal to standards:appeal to standards: Sex-education programs in schools are Sex-education programs in schools are

inappropriate because aspects of moral inappropriate because aspects of moral education should properly be given only education should properly be given only by parents.by parents.

Sex-education programs in schools are Sex-education programs in schools are appropriate because society has a duty to appropriate because society has a duty to provide what most parents obviously are provide what most parents obviously are reluctant to provide.reluctant to provide.


In arguing a claim of value:In arguing a claim of value: Be clear on the standards that you Be clear on the standards that you

believe support the claimbelieve support the claim Explain Explain whywhy you hold these standards you hold these standards Explain Explain howhow adherence to these adherence to these

standards will be of benefitstandards will be of benefit


Claims of policy:Claims of policy: Assert that a policy, law, or custom Assert that a policy, law, or custom

should be initiated, altered, or should be initiated, altered, or droppeddropped

Usually characterized by words such Usually characterized by words such as “should,” “must,” and “ought”as “should,” “must,” and “ought”


Examples of claims of policy:Examples of claims of policy: Children should be allowed to vote, if Children should be allowed to vote, if

they wish to.they wish to. A course in minority cultures ought to A course in minority cultures ought to

be required.be required. The federal tax on gasoline must be The federal tax on gasoline must be

directed toward infrastructure.directed toward infrastructure.


In defending a claim of policy:In defending a claim of policy: May begin by pointing out that there is a May begin by pointing out that there is a

problem that is usually overlookedproblem that is usually overlooked I.e. that suffrage for children is a matter of I.e. that suffrage for children is a matter of

children’s rightschildren’s rights Provide further information (evidence)Provide further information (evidence)

I.e. that women didn’t have the vote in Canada I.e. that women didn’t have the vote in Canada until 1918 because they were considered until 1918 because they were considered mentally unfit for the responsibility, an mentally unfit for the responsibility, an argument which we know to be absurdargument which we know to be absurd


In defending a claim of policy:In defending a claim of policy: Consider values as well as factsConsider values as well as facts

I.e. in arguing for a specific use of I.e. in arguing for a specific use of gasoline tax, provide factual information gasoline tax, provide factual information about how much money currently goes about how much money currently goes toward infrastructure, but also argue that toward infrastructure, but also argue that the allocation that you are proposing is the allocation that you are proposing is fairerfairer than any other alternative than any other alternative

Giving EvidenceGiving Evidence

Three kinds of evidence:Three kinds of evidence: ExamplesExamples TestimonyTestimony StatisticsStatistics

ExamplesExamples

Three categories of examples:Three categories of examples: Real examplesReal examples Invented instancesInvented instances AnalogiesAnalogies

ExamplesExamples

Real examples:Real examples: Instances that have occurredInstances that have occurred

I.e. Gun control will work. Look, for I.e. Gun control will work. Look, for example, at the rate of gun-related crime example, at the rate of gun-related crime in the United States.in the United States.

ExamplesExamples

Real examples:Real examples: Are advantageous because they are Are advantageous because they are

realreal Have the disadvantage of being easily Have the disadvantage of being easily

disputeddisputed I.e. Gun violence in the U.S. is irrelevant I.e. Gun violence in the U.S. is irrelevant

because we are in Canada, and our because we are in Canada, and our relationship to guns is different.relationship to guns is different.

ExamplesExamples

Invented instances:Invented instances: Are. . .invented; an instance that we Are. . .invented; an instance that we

can reasonably imagine could happencan reasonably imagine could happen I.e. Capital punishment is bad because an I.e. Capital punishment is bad because an

innocent person could be executed.innocent person could be executed.

ExamplesExamples

Invented instances:Invented instances: Are advantageous because they can Are advantageous because they can

present an issue clearly, free from present an issue clearly, free from distracting particularities and distracting particularities and irrelevancies that are bound up with irrelevancies that are bound up with real examplesreal examples

Have the disadvantage of being Have the disadvantage of being invented; may seem remote from the invented; may seem remote from the real issue being arguedreal issue being argued

ExamplesExamples

Analogies:Analogies: Comparisons pointing out several Comparisons pointing out several

resemblances between two rather resemblances between two rather different thingsdifferent things

I.e. A government is like a ship, and in I.e. A government is like a ship, and in times of stress – if the ship is to weather times of stress – if the ship is to weather the storm – the authority of the captain the storm – the authority of the captain should not be questionedshould not be questioned

ExamplesExamples

Analogies:Analogies: Are not proofAre not proof Are extended comparisons between Are extended comparisons between

two thingstwo things Can be useful in exposition by Can be useful in exposition by

explaining the unfamiliar by means of explaining the unfamiliar by means of the familiarthe familiar

ExamplesExamples

Analogies:Analogies: Can be useful to clarify what Can be useful to clarify what

otherwise might be obscureotherwise might be obscure But the usefulness of analogies can But the usefulness of analogies can

only go so faronly go so far I.e. At the end of the day, a government I.e. At the end of the day, a government

is not a ship, and the prime minister is is not a ship, and the prime minister is not a captainnot a captain

TestimonyTestimony

Testimony is:Testimony is: The citation of authoritiesThe citation of authorities Rooted in our awareness that some Rooted in our awareness that some

people are recognized as expertspeople are recognized as experts

TestimonyTestimony

Do not forget they Do not forget they youyou are an are an authority on many thingsauthority on many things

You may use examples from You may use examples from personal experience as valid personal experience as valid testimonytestimony

TestimonyTestimony

Used for two reasons:Used for two reasons: Expert opinion carries weight with an Expert opinion carries weight with an

audienceaudience A change of voice (if the testimony is A change of voice (if the testimony is

not your own) is enjoyable for the not your own) is enjoyable for the readerreader

TestimonyTestimony

Testimonial downsides:Testimonial downsides: Words of an expert may be taken out Words of an expert may be taken out

of context or otherwise distortedof context or otherwise distorted Authorities may not be authorities on Authorities may not be authorities on

the present topicthe present topic I.e. Don’t use the words of David Suzuki I.e. Don’t use the words of David Suzuki

to argue one side or the other of the to argue one side or the other of the abortion debateabortion debate

StatisticsStatistics

Are especially useful in arguments Are especially useful in arguments concerning social issuesconcerning social issues I.e. If we are arguing to raise the I.e. If we are arguing to raise the

driving age, we will look up statistics driving age, we will look up statistics about the number of accidents cause about the number of accidents cause by people in certain age groupsby people in certain age groups

StatisticsStatistics Have the disadvantage of opening your Have the disadvantage of opening your

argument to dispute from the other sideargument to dispute from the other side The significance of statistics can be difficult to The significance of statistics can be difficult to

assessassess I.e. opponents of gun control legislation in Florida I.e. opponents of gun control legislation in Florida

cited a statistic that showed that gun violence cited a statistic that showed that gun violence increasedincreased after enactment of the law. after enactment of the law.

Supporters of gun control pointed out that in the Supporters of gun control pointed out that in the years following the enactment of the law Miami years following the enactment of the law Miami became the cocaine trafficking capital of the U.S., became the cocaine trafficking capital of the U.S., and the increase of drug trade, not gun control laws, and the increase of drug trade, not gun control laws, resulted in a higher rate of gun violenceresulted in a higher rate of gun violence


Use evidence from:Use evidence from: Your own experienceYour own experience Your readingYour reading Your talks with othersYour talks with others

Examples:Examples: Clarify and support your assertionsClarify and support your assertions Help make the abstract concreteHelp make the abstract concrete


How much evidence is enough?How much evidence is enough? Put yourself in your readers’ shoesPut yourself in your readers’ shoes Generally a single example may not Generally a single example may not

fully illuminate a difficult pointfully illuminate a difficult point More than two examples are often More than two examples are often

unnecessaryunnecessary


It is not possible to argue an It is not possible to argue an airtight case on most issuesairtight case on most issues

It is your job to offer a reasonable It is your job to offer a reasonable argumentargument

(and don’t forget to acknowledge (and don’t forget to acknowledge possible reasonable possible reasonable counterarguments!)counterarguments!)

making reasonable arguments claims and evidence. making reasonable arguments remember that in an...

Documents

reasonable claimsin

reasonable argumentsclaims

claim of value

claim of factclaim

capital punishment

claims of artistic valueare

sexeducation programs

aspects of moral education