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A WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER

Managing Elephant Depredation in Agricultural and Forestry Projects

John Seidensticker

JOINT BANK-FUND LIBRARY

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MANAGING ELEPHANT DEPRADATION IN AGRICULTURAL

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A WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER

Managing Elephant Depredation in Agricultural and Forestry Projects

John Seidensticker

APF{ n

The World Bank Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Copyright@ 1984 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

First printing February 1984 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America

This is a document published informally by the World Bank. In order that the information contained in it can be presented with the least possible delay, the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate tQ formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The publication is supplied at a token charge to defray part of the cost of manufacture and distribution.

The views and interpretations in this document are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual acting on their behalf. Any maps used have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers; the denominations used and the boundaries shown do not imply, on the part of the World Bank and its affiliates, any judgment on the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.

The full range of World Bank publications, both free and for sale, is described in the Catalog of Publications; the continuing research program is outlined in Abstracts of Current Studies. Both booklets are updated annually; the most recent edition of each is available without charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department T, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from the European Office of the Bank, 66, avenue d'Hma, 75116 Paris, France.

John Seidensticker is a wildlife ecologist for the National Zoological Park of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. and a consultant to the World Bank.

The cover illustration shows that elephant herds are usually composed of related females and their calves. Bulls join these herds temporarily when a cow is in estrus. In African elephants (bottom) both sexes have tusks. Only male Asian elephants (top) have tusks, and in some populations almost all males are tuskless. Grass is an important food for both species. Drawing by Judy Gradwohl.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Qata

Seidensticker, John. Managing elephant depredation in agricultural and

forestry projects.

(A World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494) Bibliography: p. 1. Elephants. 2. Wildlife management. 3. Wildlife

depredation. I. Title. II. Series. QL737.P98S45 1984 639.9'7961 83-23596 ISBN 0-8213-0297-3

ABSTRACT

Agricultural and forestry projects established in traditional

habitats of African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta and Elephas

maximus, respectively) obligate elephants living there to modify their

movements and behavior. Damage resulting in major financial losses has

occurred when elephants live in or enter and feed in project areas. In

this paper, procedures sensitive to elephants' conservation status

(Asians are endangered, Africans are threatened) are described to plan

for and manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas; these

procedures are to be used in conjunction with overall project design

and operations.

A pre-project design assessment, conducted with local wildlife

authorities, can predict the response of elephants to a proposed project

and provide the basis for building measures into the project to avoid

major conflicts. Final project design should include features that

prevent elephants from entering production areas and ensure local

elephant access to critical resources or provide these through habitat

enrichment. Emphasis in the project design should be placed on passive

elephant-management features. These can include minor modification in

infastructure to either facilitate or block elephant movements, and

the creation of buffer zones to effectively separate production areas

and forest refuges. Careful scheduling of project activities is

required to ensure that groups of elephants are not isolated or 11pocketed"

in production areas. Such elephants can be very dangerous and destructive.

A successful elephant management program requires a strong local

institutional support base. Technical and financial assistance measures

which may be required by local wildlife management authorities are outlined.

ABSTRAIT

Les projets agricoles et forestiers entrepris dans des regions qui

constituent 1 1 habitat naturel des elephants d'Afrique et d'Asie (Loxodonta

africana et Elephas maximus) obligent ces animaux a modifier leurs depla­

cements et leurs comportements. Il arrive que des elephants vivant dans

des zones de projet, y penetrant ou s'y nourrissant, causent des degats

qui entrainent d 1 importantes pertes financieres. Ce document decrit des

procedures tenant compte de la situation des elephants (ceux d'Asie sont

en danger et ceux d'Afrique, menaces) et visant a mettre en oeuvre une

politique concrete a l'egard des elephants qui vivent dans des zones de

projet ou a proximite. Ces procedures doivent etre appliquees en harmonie

avec la conception du projet et son execution.

Une etude prealab:e, effectuee en collaboration avec les autorites

locales responsables de la faune sauvage, peut prevoir la reaction des

elephants a un projet envisage et assortir celui-ci de mesures suscep­

tibles d'eviter des problemes majeurs. Sous sa forme finale, le projet

devrait etre con~u de telle fa~on que les elephants ne puissent pas pene­

trer dans les zones productives, qu'ils aient acces a des ressources

vitales pour eux ou qu'on les leur assure en ameliorant leur habitat. Au

stade de la conception du projet, il conviendrait de mettre l'accent sur

des mesures passives de gestion des elephants, consistant, par exemple, a

modifier legerement !'infrastructure ou bien a faciliter ou empecher leurs

deplacements, et a creer des zones-tampons destinees a bien separer les

I

zones productives des refuges forestiers. Il importe de programmer soi-

gneusement les activites d'un projet pour faire en sorte que des groupes

I • 1 , 11b 1 , II d d d d elephants ne se trouvent pas 1so es au oques ans es zones pro uc-

tives, car dans ce cas, ils peuvent devenir tres dangereux et causer des

degats considerables.

Pour reussir, un programme de gestion des troupeaux d'elephants doit

s'appuyer sur des structures institutionnelles solides. Les differentes

formes d'assistance technique et financiere dont peuvent avoir besoin les

autorites locales responsables de la faune sauvage sont indiquees dans ce

document.

EXTRACTO

Los proyectos agricolas y de silvicultura emplazados en los habitat tradi-

cionales de los elefantes africanos y asiaticos (Loxodonta africana y Elephas

maximus, respectivamente) obligan a estos animales a modificar sus desplazamien-

tos y comportamiento. Los estragos causados cuando los elefantes habitan en

zonas de proyectos o las invaden para alimentarse redundan en fuertes perdidas

financieras. En el presente estudio se describen procedimientos para prever y

controlar el comportamiento de los elefantes, tanto en las zonas de los proyec-

tos como en las adyacentes, que tienen en cuenta los fines de protecci6n de la

especie (los elefantes asiaticos estan amenazados de extinci6n y los africanos

en peligro de llegar a estarlo). Estos procedimientos deben seguirse en el

diseno general y en las operaciones de los proyectos.

Una evaluaci6n previa del disefio del proyecto~ realizada con la colabora-

ci6n de las autoridades locales responsables de la fauna silvestre, permite pro-

nosticar el comportamiento de los elefantes en relacion con un proyecto pro-

puesto y proporciona la base para incorporar a este med que eviten conflic-

tos graves. El diseno definitivo del proyecto debera incluir instalaciones para

impedir la entrada de los elefantes a las zonas de produccion y, al mismo

tiempo, asegurarles acceso a los recursos necesarios para su supervivencia o

proporcionarselos mediante un mejoramiento del habitat. En el disefio del pro-

yecto se debera hacer hincapie en la inclusion de medidas pasivas para el con-

trol de los elefantes; estas pueden ser mod iones de menor importancia en

la infraestructura, para facilitar o bien entorpecer el transite de los elefan-

tes, y la creacion de zonas que separen e azmente las areas de produccion de

las que constituyen ios forestales. Es preciso programar cuidadosamente

las actividades de los proyectos para asegurarse de que no queden grupos de ele-

fantes aislados o "arrinconados 11 en las zonas de produccion. En esas condicio-

nes, los elefantes pueden ser muy peligrosos y destructores.

Un buen programa de control y proteccion de los elefantes exige una s6lida

base de apoyo institucional local. En el documento tambien se esbozan las medi-

das de asistencia tecnica y financ que podr!an necesitar las autoridades

locales a cargo de la fauna silvestre.

PREFACE

This technical paper is based on a seminar presented at the World

Bank on January 24~ 1983, which was jointly sponsored by the Agriculture

Department and the Projects Policy Department, Office of Environmental Affairs.

The Seminar was an outgrowth of awareness of elephant depredation in

the Jahore Land Settlement Project in Malaysia. Upon recognizing this as an

issue demanding attention, the Agriculture Department requested the Office of

Environmental Affairs to furnish information regarding similar problems created

by elephants in other Bank agriculture projects. This request resulted in a

selected list of 13 Bank projects where elephants were a major consideration.

The author, Dr. John Seidensticker, Wildlife Ecologist, National Zoological

Park, Smithsonian Institution, based this paper on his experiences with

elephants and wildlife management in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Nepal, and

Bangladesh.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper draws heavily upon the extensive research and writing

of Dr. John Eisenberg, Ordway Professor of Ecosystem Conservation,

University of Florida. Drs. R. Goodland, R. Rudran, S. Lumpkin, A.J.T.

Johnsingh, J.C. Daniel, J. McNeely and Ms. J. Tralka have helped in

crystalizing ideas and procedures presented here. The World Bank and the

National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, supported the preparation

of this report.

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

PREFACE

1.0 INTRODUCTION ••••••••••••••• 8 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1

1.1 About Elephants .......•••.•.............. ., . . . . . • . . . . . . . 2

2.0 PROJECT DESIGN ·•••••••••••••·~···••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9

~.1 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management ••••••••••• 12 2.2 Elephants in Project Design •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14

3.0 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••·•••••• 22

3.1 Managing Wildlife Refuges for Elephants •••••••••••••••• 22 3.2 Supporting Local Wildlife Management Authorities ••••••• 23

SUMMARY ••••••••••••••••••lll••••••••••••uae••••••••••••••o•••••••• 24

ANNEX Bank-Assisted Projects with Elephant Implications •••.••.•• 27

REFERENCES •••••••••••••••••••••••• Ill •••••••••••••• til •••••••••••••• 29

TABLES

Table 1 Recent Reports on the Local Distribution of Elephants 11

Table 2 Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology ...................... "" .. "" , ............. , ... . 13

FIGURES

Figure 1 Regional Rainfall Patterns and,Elephant .Movements 8

Figure 2 Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the 15 Slope of Banks in Reservoirs .••••••.•••••••.••••••..

Figure 3 "Edges": A Major Objective in Elephant Management ••• 18

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The World Bank and other international development agencies have

invested billions of dollars in hydroelectric, agricultural, forestry and

other projects in developing countries where excellent elephant habitat

occurs. The main World Bank assisted projects are listed in the Annex.

Recently there has been increasing concern for the welfare and survival of

the world 1 s estimated 23,000-41,000 Asian (!leEhas maximus) and 1.3 million

African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Authorities have designated these

species as 11endangered 11 and "threatened", and have listed them in the Red

Data Books of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources, and on the United States List of Endangered Species(53).

Continual loss of elephant habitat (e.g., conversion of forests to

agriculture) is a major conservation problem, which is further compounded

the elephants. They enter and eat the rich patches of food which

constitute the plantations of sugar cane, rice, teak, rubber and oil palm,

established in their traditional foraging areas, usually in disregard of

the best efforts to keep them out. This behavior has resulted in millions

of dollars in damage and in project cost overruns, thus causing concern to

economists and project designers(4,51). The losses have to be stopped for

the benefit of elephant conservation, for the a projects as well as

the investors. Management measures implemented have to be sensitive to

the elephants' status as threatened species.

Elephants have been raiding crops for thousands of years, but case

studie.s of such problems are not readily available to the economic planners

or wildlife managers who need them. The efficacy of the preventive and

mitigatory measures frequently proposed need in the light of what

has been learned in the last two decades about the behavioral ecology of

- 2 -

elephants. This paper is a step towards improved planning and management

in order to reconcile development priorities with the increasingly urgent

need for effective conservation measures.

1.1 ~bout Elephants

The elephant Order Proboscidea has a long and spectacular

evolutionary history from its beginnings in Africa during the Eocene(l4).

The two surviving species of this evolution are placed in different

genera. Elephas maximus is usually separated into 3 subspecies: E. m.

maximus of Sri Lanka, !· m. indicus of the Indian Subcontinent and South­

east Asia including Borneo and E. m. sumatranus from Sumatra. The "bush"

elephants of East and South Africa are usually placed in Loxodonta africana

africana and the West African 11forest 11 elephants, in~· !!.• cyclotis(l8,46).

African elephants are slightly larger than Asian elephants. Adult

males weigh up to 6000 kg; females up to 3200 kg. African elephants have a

concave shape to their back, large ears, relatively smooth skin, and a

trunk with 2 "fingers 11 at the tip; Asian elephants have a distinctive

convex shaped back, smaller ears, skin that appears wrinkled and a trunk

with one 11finger 11• There are differences between the two species distin­

guished by the number of ribs and vertebrae, and in the morphology of the

cheek teeth. Male and female African elephants have tusks; female Asians,

and a large percentage of males in some populations, do not have tusks.

Lacking tusks, both males and females may have an alternate type of modi­

fied incisor, or tushes, that are barely visible beyond the lip(l8,27,46).

From a management perspective, an important difference between the

two species is their ability to tolerate the sun and utilize open habi­

tats. Heat dissipation is a problem for both species. Asian elephants

need access to shade during much of each day(l5,18,27,33), while African

- 3 -

elephants are much less restricted~ except when young with calves. This

difference alone suggests that project design features which could

discourage Asian elephants may not succeed with African elephants.

Therefore, measures taken to manage elephants need to consider species as

well as site characteristics.

Elephants are never the numerically dominant ungulate in their

habitat, but they are frequently ecological dominants in terms of biomass

and the cycling of plant material. The habitats occupied vary, but usually

are ecotones between forest and grasslands and areas with moderate tree

cover grading into savanna. The sites are always in association with

permanent water which is well dispersed in the vegetational mosaic. Asian

elephants do not extend into desertic areas. They do occur in dense rain

forest only if there is sufficient interspersion of water and grass.

Secondary or disturbed forests contain more suitable food plants. In

suitable South Asian habitats, crude density of elephants can range from

0.1 to l/km2(14,16). Habitats described as suitable for Asian elephants

also support the densest African elephant populations, with the exception

noted that African elephants appear to have a greater tolerance for drier

conditions(7,13,14,16).

Asian and African elephant literature contain both useful and

confusing information on elephant husbandry and management(l8,27,46).

Resolving elephant-development conflicts requires data from which reliable

predictions can be made about the response of elephants to changes in the

patterns and processes in their habitat brought about by a particular

project. This is customarily termed a facultative or behavioral response

to environmental change, as opposed to a numerical response or change in

population numbers.

- 4 -

An important distinction should be made here between crude and

ecological density, because density estimates(7,15-16,33) are frequently

employed by wildlife managers. Crude density estimates take the average

density of a species over the entire sample space. Ecological density is

the crude density estimate corrected for habitat differences within a

non-homogenous habitat(l6). Through some habitat modifications, the

ecological density of elephants in a specific area might shift (a

behavioral response), but the overall or crude density of elephants in the

region might not (a numerical response).

The long-term problem of stabilizing elephant numbers in relation

to available resources requires knowledge of the genetic and quantitative

dynamics of populations and of the long-term coactions of these herbivores

with their food plants(28,29,32,37,43,49). These issues which have

generated extensive elephant management literature(9), are important in the

management of elephant refuges, but contribute little to solving the

problem of separating elephants and development projects.

Long-term studies of elephant behavioral ecology have been carried

out or are in progress in Manayara, Tanzania; in Amboseli, Kenya; in Addo,

South Africa; and in the dry zone national parks of Sri Lanka

(6,15,22,33,55). These are monsoon areas with strong wet and dry seasons.

There are few detailed behavioral and ecological data for elephants living

in wet, high tropical forest areas of Africa or Asia. This lack of

information is significant, because of the large number of projects located

in this vegetation type (Annex), and because of the differences in movement

patterns and densities of elephants already noted(40).

Elephants are the largest grazing-browsing herbivores(l4) that

improve the predictability of their food supply by maximizing the area over

- 5 -

which they forage(42). They push over trees or break them off to expand

their foraging space. Their large size and efficient locomotion provide

for energetically cheap long-distance cruising, with herd movement

constrained only by the youngest members. The trunk enables them to feed

on coarse forage ranging from short grasses to branches four meters and

more above the ground.

Asian elephants may spend 70% to 90% of their time foraging, with

two major bouts per 24-hour day. An adult consumes lSOkg of vegetation

(wet weight) per day with an average intake rate of about 7kg/hr. African

elephants consume up to 220kg/day(l3,14,15,23,27,33,38). While elephants

may at one time or another eat, or at least sample, a wide variety of the

plant species in their foraging areas, they have food preferences and

needs. Grass, for example, is always a major dietary component. During a

cycle, the rate of feeding varies with the food patch and increases

markedly as the animal approaches an optimum feeding site; once there,

feeding is at a maximum rate. Drinking sites appear to be

traditional(l5,33). Bouts of drinking and bathing by elephants ar~

clustered in the morning and evening(l3,15,33,55), and both species drink

once a day or more often if water is available.

Studies of elephant sociality show that females live in small,

cohesive groups of close relatives (mother-daughter and siblings) and their

offspring. At puberty, young females remain with the group while males

leave or are expelled. The age of puberty varies with nutrition during

development. These cow herds, termed clans by Eisenberg(l2,14), divide

into smaller units during the daily cycle and reassemble when drinking and

moving from one area to another. The subgroups frequently differ in sex

and age composition. Females with their immediate offspring constitute the

- 6 -

family units, and tend to move in company with their small calves. There

can be cohesive movement between females and half-grown young and between

males 6 or 7 years old. It is within the cow herd that the calf matures

and learns the template of its environment. The cow herd serves as the

repository of traditional knowledge, which includes routes to water-holes,

to mineral sources, and to seasonal foraging areas(l2,13,14,15,33).

Adult males live alone or occasionally in company with 1 to 3

satellite males with weak social bonds. Adults are capable of breeding at

any time of year, but when they reach an adequate nutritional plane they

enter a condition known as musth which is analogous to rut in bovids and

cervids. When in musth, males are extremely aggressive and dangerous, and

this condition probably allows them to dominate in contests with cows and

other males(l4). In the dry zone of Sri Lanka, males use restricted areas

that may be frequented by a number of cow groups. More than one male at a

time may be in attendance with an estrous female in a cow herd(l5,22,33).

Under the strong wet-dry seasonal regime of East Africa, bulls switch to a

strategy where they travel long distances in search of estrous females from

one that is associated with intensive feeding in restricted areas. During

the dry and early wet season, bulls maximize food intake; a fat bull has a

better chance of rutting longer and still retaining sufficient energy

stores to survive the long dry season(3).

To visualize the impact a project may have on elephant movements,

it is useful to examine how land-tenure and movement patterns reflect

elephant adaptations to different environments. The environmental patterns

can be characterized by first, seasonal flux in resources; second, predict­

ability in the timing and amount that will become available during the

flux; and third, resource distribution. These parameters are depicted in

- 7 -

Figure 1. There can be strong, intermediate, or little seasonal flux and

the resource base may be predictable or unpredictable. A useful rating of

the spatial distribution of food in the environment can be obtained by

plotting the richness of a patch against the density of simultaneously

available patches(l4).

In the dry zone, monsoon forests of Sri Lanka, elephants forage in

areas where there is a high density of simultaneously available patches.

These are usually of rather poor quality(23,37,55), in a moderate or low

fluctuating environment that is moderately unpredictable. Cow herds

display movements based on three time scales(34): 1) daily movements

associated with feeding, and moving to and from water; 2) seasonal

movements between dry season and wet season home ranges; and 3) medium-term

movements between sectors of the seasonal home range (Figure 1). For a cow

herd, home ranges of 25 krrfand 60 k~have been determined for wet and dry

seasons, respectively. Ranges for adult males vary from 10 knfto 17 km2 (24),

This contrasts with ~lephant movements in Kenya's huge Tsavo

National Park, which is semi-arid savanna with "notoriously irregular

rainfall 11• Elephants show high fidelity to their relatively small,

localized, dry-season areas which are near permanent water sources. Food

in these areas, however, becomes severely depleted by the end of the dry

season. Sensing rain from considerable distances, the first and subsequent

rain storms trigger long-distance elephant movements, up to 50 km, to eat

new grass growing where rain has fallen. This is schematically depicted in

Figure 1. Outward movements from dry season ranges are unpredictable;

return movements can be more accurately predicted. Aggregations of 1000

elephants and more can form in response to the first rains of the season

which come predictably to restricted areas(31).

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FIGURE 1

Regional Rainfall Patterns and Elephant Movements

Regional rainfall patterns determine the flux, predictability, patch size and occurrence of elephant food resources. The elephant 1 s large body size allows energy efficient, long-distance movements. Consequently, elephant feeding ranges can vary strikingly in pattern and size from one region to the next(l4).

In Tsavo National Park, Kenya, ele­phant clans spend the dry season near permanent water sources, the rivers. During the wet season, showers are irregular in time and space, and ele­phant groups move great distances to take advantage of the new grass. Home ranges from some clans exceed 1000 km2(31).

In Sri Lanka's Gal Oya National Park, some cow clans display movement pat­terns based on three time scales: i) daily movements associated with feed­ing and to and from water; ii) sea­sonal movements between wet and dry season home ranges; and iii) medium­term movements between sections of a seasonal home range. Total home ran­ges are less than 100 km2 in size{34).

In the Rokan-Barumun region in the Central Sumatran lowlands (Indonesia), big rivers block the north-south movements of elephants. Elephant groups rapidly cross large expanses of high rainforest to feed in dispersed patches of secondary forest and at ladangs (shifting cultivation) when crops are suitable as food. Ele­phants1 home ranges are probably lOO's of km2 in size in this vegetation type but they ha.ve never been adequately measured (Seidenst;tcke;r and Suyone, unpublished observations),

Patch richness/simultaneous avail­ability of food patches: D=dry seasont W=wet season; numbers indi­cate locations 1-3 above. Relation­ships indicated are hypothetical (14).

l Cl) Cl) LLJ z :l: u a: :X: u ~ 0.

HIGHLY SEASONAL

J J D

MODERATE

J 0

LOW FLUCTUATION

J J D

10

0 2W 0

IW 3 0 0

3 RELATIVE DENSITY OF SIMULTANEOUSLY

AVAILASLE PATCHES-

'\

- 9 -

Movements of elephants in rain forests resemble similar movements

during the dry season in Sri Lanka, with the exception that they move over

areas five times as large. However, elephants have no seasonally distinct

ranges. Instead, they move widely to find food patches that are

sufficiently rich to support them, but which become available

asynchronously(40).

The dispersion in time and space of food and water(l5,31,33,58),

and in some areas mineral licks(45,56,57), clearly determines the ways

elephants use particular areas. Home ranges vary widely in size, with

patterns of movement that embrace areas of prime foraging habitat. By

altering these resource dispersion patterns, a project obliges elephants to

modify their behavior accordingly.

2.0 PROJECT DESIGN

A rev1ew of elephant-development project conflicts shows that

project infrastructure and production areas usually affect elephants in

predictable ways. The following questions should be addressed during

project preparation:

1. Are elephants present in the project area? If so, is their

presence seasonal or continuous?

2. How large an area necessary to elephants, will be influenced by

the project, including their access to essential habitats?

3. Will the project remove a significant portion of the elephant

habitat in a region? If so, how much?

4. How many elephants are involved in total, and more specifically,

which clans and subgroups will be affected?

- 10 -

5. Will the project isolate clans or subgroups from more continuous

habitat areas during construction? Following project completion, will

there be access to continuous tracts of suitable elephant habitat? The

"pocketed herd 11 problem occurs where clans or subgroups become isolated,

and frequently the only resources available to the herd are in project

production areas.

6. Will the project block seasonal movements between feeding areas

and other critical resources such as water sources and mineral deposits?

7. Will the project alter the distribution, abundance and

predictibility of food and other critical resources?

Information at this level of detail is essential to prepare the

workable elephant management plan needed for each project. Much can be

anticipated during project design, but some details, such as the response

of individual clans and sub-groups, will only become clear with monitoring

during project construction and operation.

In the last decade, conservation and wildlife agencies~ in many of

the countries where elephants are found, have obtained detailed information

on the status and trend of many of their large mammal populations. This

information can be consulted by planners away from the site (Table 1) to

determine if elephants are likely to be a matter of concern.

If elephants are present, an initial overview of their response

patterns to that particular environment can be made based on the features

outlined. Maps, aerial photos and LANDSAT images can be used to make

overlays which characterize predictability and seasonality of rainfall,

regional landforms, the vegetational mosaic and the distribution of

temporary and permanent water sources. This process can be accomplished in

consultation with local wildlife management authorities familiar with the

- 11 -

TABLE 1

Recent 'Rep<;;tts on the Local :Oi,st;;f;liut:f,6n og Elephants

Area

Africa, most countries

Asia, general

Indian Subcontinent

India, Karnataka

India, Uttar Pradesh

India, Nilgiri Hills

Sri Lanka

Bangladesh, Cox's Bazar

Thailand

Indonesia, North Sumatra

Date

1979

1978

1980

1980

1980

1983

1980

1983

1982

1978

Reference

Douglas-Hamilton (11)

Olivier (41)

Asian Elephant Specialist Group (1)

Nair and Gadgil (38)

Singh (48)

Davidar and Davidar (10)

TAMS (51), McKay (33)

Khan, Khan & Rashid (26)

Bain and Humphrey (2)

Van Strien (54)

Note: Some reports are avai,lable trom the Offi,ce of Environmental Affairs.

- 12 -

site. Using these overlays, an initial assessment can be made of how

various project designs will affect the patterns and processes that

influence elephants. This approach should provide approximate answers to

the questions posed above.

Site specific measures of elephant numbers and their response

patterns to local environmental conditions are then required to check the

accuracy of the predictions of the first level analysis. This requires

specialized knowlege. Elephant field research has not stabilized into a

single accepted method or procedure. In most studies, methods have been an

art-of-the-possible. To assess numbers and seasonal movement patterns,

light aircraft have been used extensively in the African savannas, but in

the more closed forest habitats of Asia, aerial counting is of little use.

Rough estimates of elephants coming to water sources and crossing rivers

and roads are widely used in forests. Movements, habitat use and numbers

have been estimated using systematic counts of dung piles. Radio tracking

procedures and trailing groups and individuals also provide valuable

insights into their movements in response to other elephants and the

distribution of environmental resources. These methods, the parameters

measured, and selected references are listed in Table 2.

As this more detailed information is developed, the first level

overlays should be refined to ensure the basic assumptions are correct and

adequately predictive. With this information, measures can be designed

into the project with reasonable assurance that major conflicts can be

anticipated, avoided or mitigated.

2.1 Historical Traditions in Elephant Management

Traditions of elephant management emerged very differently in

Africa and Asia. In Africa, the taming of elephants has been very

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TABLE 2

Methods Used to Investigate Elephant Behavior and Ecology

Parameter

a) African habitats:

Aerial counts

Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to their environment

Ground counts

Establishing density and habitat use by dropping counts (dung piles)

Assessing age-structure

Establishing movement patterns with radio telemetry

b) Asian habitats:

Establishing population and habitat status and trend using interview methods

Establishing densities in closed habitats

Assessing age-structure

Establishing movement patterns with radio telemetry

Investigating migration path

Investigating elephant-plant relations

Source

Norton-Griffiths (39)

Western and Grimsdell (59)

Eltringham (17)

Wing and Buss (60); Jackmann and Bell (24); Coe (6)

Croze (8)

Leutholt (31)

Seidensticker (45) Nair and Gadgil (38)

Singh (47) McKay (33); Eisenberg and Lockhart (15)

McKay (33); Eisenberg, and Lockhart (15); Ishwaran (22)

Olivier (40)

Davidar and Davidar (10) McKay (33); Eisenberg and Lockhart (15)

Mueller-Domboia (37) Ishwaran (23)

- 14 -

limited. Insteaa, the ivory bas been viewed as a source of wealth,

resulting in the culling of elephant populations. Although culling, even

in protected natural areas, has been judged by some to be excessive, and

therefore controversial, it has been a frequent management tool(20).

The elephant in Asia embodies great metaphysical import, and among

domestic animals it is unique. Traditionally for 3000 years, Asian

elephants have been driven to other areas or captured and t~ained

(13,30,35) for use in work, ceremony and war. Captive breeding has always

been limited, and animals to be tamed are usually obtained from wild

populations. Throughout Asia, elephants enjoy strict legal protection.

Only the rare problem animal is ever killed, and then only if other means

fail.

With this history of elephant management, local authorities often

have considerable experience that can be applied to project problems in

their area. A judicious blend of recent technology and traditional methods

is called Ior ~n elephant c~nservation management,

2.2 Elephants in Project Design

Projects should be designed to keep elephants out of production

areas using passive features wherever possible. Portions of a project area

including catchments and banks of reservoirs, as shown in Figure 2, can

sometimes be used to accommodate displaced elephants. Some features in a

project may serve to stabilize environmental conditions for elephants in

the region. However, some active management measures are usually needed as

well, and can be undertaken in collaboration with local wildlife management

authorities. The features and requirements of specific projects will

dictate the training, technical and financial needs of the local

authorities in order to carry out the task.

- 15 -

FIGURE 2

Water Level Relative to the Floodplain and the Slope of Banks in Reservoirs

~1

RIJER11

FLOOD BED FLOOD PLAIN. PLAIN

WATER LEVEL COMPATIBLE WITH ELEPHANT LAND USE

WATER LEVEL WHICH ELIMINATES ELEPHANT HABITAT

The water level relative to the floodplain and the slope of banks in reservoirs will determine the capacity of a catchment area to support elephants. These can be adjusted in favor of feeding areas for elephants making them important conservation areas. Such areas can help to alleviate elephant problems in production areas.

Source: (13).

- 16 -

If there is an "elephant problem11 confronting project planners,

engineers and wildlife managers will usually need to consider and resolve

the following issues:

1). How are Elephants to be moved if they occur in production areas,

or are cut off from areas of continuous habitat?

2). What features in the project infrastructure can be adjusted, or

what other actions can be taken to keep elephants out of production areas?

3). How, where, and under what conditions should project

infrastructure be modified to accommodate elephant movements?

4). What mitigatory measures will ensure that elephant needs are met,

if substantial habitat areas or critical resources are eliminated by the

project? Can elephants be accommodated in parts of the project area such

as catchments and banks of reservoirs (Fig. 2)?

5). Who will monitor elephant responses to project activities, and how

will new findings be addressed during project implementation? Who will

carry out elephant management activities?

Elephants usually cross at traditional sites which are points

rather than areas. Asian elephants can traverse rather wide bodies of

water(25) and rivers which flow at considerable velocity. African

elephants swim, but the effectiveness of the barriers created by different

water bodies needs to be established(27).

Where infrastructure modifications should be made, and what

modifications are required depend on site-specific information obtained

during the pre-project assessment. Accommodations in the infrastructures

need not be extensive, just adequate. Specifications for canal crossings

can be obtained from zoos experienced in constructing exhibits with access

to elephant bathing areas, or from projects which have constructed

- 17 .....

successful intersections. In the construction of a new crossing, the

problem most likely to be encountered is how to get elephants to use it,

even though it may be physically traversable. Therefore, the task is to

turn an unfamiliar situation into one with which elephants are

comfortable. This suggests a sequence where crossings are established in

the canals or other project infrastructure at traditional sites. Elephants

are then allowed to become familiar with them under benign conditions,

i.e., before canals are activated and water levels rise. Domestic

elephants may be used to "season" an intersection by establishing clearly

that other elephants have gone before.

With this emphasis on the difficulties of providing access for

elephants, it should be clear that canals and other project structures can

be used as barriers to keep elephants out of production areas. It should

also be recognized, that depending on canal type, elephants are capable of

making their own crossings. If these are undesirable, barriers can be made

by sharply sloping the banks, and hardening them with concrete or other

substances where necessary.

Elephants respond to edges, the transition zone between forests

and grasslands, in a positive way. (See Figure 3.) The degree of

interspersion of edges and the density and richness of habitat food patches

are important determinants of habitat suitability, and thus density

(7,15,16,33). Consider then what the immediate juxtapositioning of forest

and crops or young tree plantations means to elephants. This newly created

"edge 11, together with year round provisioning of water through canals, can

turn what has been a seasonal or marginal environment into an attractive

one, much to the dismay of new settlers and project managers. Elephants

respond to the area by entering and eating; and they tend to spend time in

- 18 -

FIGURE 3

''Edges": A Major Objective in Elephant Management

B.

Amajor objective in elephant management is to turn 11edges 11 that engender a positive response where it is not wanted into "edges" which do not attract elephants.

a) Placing crops or production areas adjacent to tracks of forest invites trouble. Elephants switch into a refuging foraging pattern, spending the day in the forest and making nightly movements into the adjacent agricultural areas to feed. "Pocketed" herds occur when groups of elephants are isolated in patches of forest and can obtain their food only from surrounding crops.

b) Trenches and fences, even electrified fences, require major maintenance to keep them functional. This maintenance usually cannot be met in the long-term, or even after the first rains erode banks. Elephants respond to barriers of this kind by trying to get through; where an elephant is determined it usually succeeds. Therefore, a more useful approach is to make these 11edges" unsuitable as habitat.

c) Wide buffer zones which do not offer suitable food or cover can effectively separate production areas and forest refuges. The refuge areas must provide adequate food and other critical resources to support the number of elephants living there. It is frequently possible to take advantage of watershed protection areas and banks of reservoirs to provide these resources, stabilize the environment and reduce elephant foraging. ranges.

- 19 -

proportion to the amount of food provided by the newly established crops.

Attempts by men to curtail the nightly elephant raids by manning stations

at the margin of fields, even with fires, usually fail, and some men have

been killed. Steepsided ditches, or fences with electrification usually

are ineffective in repelling elephants(4,5,36,6). Ivory tusks do not

conduct electricity. Elephants may push over a tree on the fence or simply

shove the fence. They will fill ditches with earth using their feet and

head. Erosion accelerated by elephants in the wet tropics or during the

wet season can severely damage ditch systems(4). Alternatively, elephants

may simply walk around the obstruction (e.g., fence or ditch). The point

is that barriers usually employed to keep elephants away from attractive

food crops generally do not succeed. Of course, effective barriers can be

made. The use of high power energisers and elaborately designed, sited and

constructed fences seem to work in certain cases in Asia and Africa.

However, many other types of barriers are more expensive than the measures

already proposed, and require constant maintenance at a level not often

available in a project.

In these situations, project designers can shift emphasis away

from features which are essentially walls intended to challenge elephants,

to boundaries which have zero appeal (Fig. 3). This means switching from

negative design features attempting to thwart and punish elephants at

boundaries (e.g. electric fences), to establishing buffer zones that have

little utility or attraction as elephant habitat, that will effectively

separate elephants from production areas. This approach can be further

enforced through the provision of water sources and other habitat

enrichment features, such as establishing foraging areas away from project

production units.

- 20 -

Buffer zones can be created also by establishing broad expanses of

grassland adjacent to production areas that are heavily over-grazed by

domestic livestock, and lack any kind of suitable cover. Such zones have

been used in Sri Lanka to separate some national park boundaries from

agricultural areas. Wide expanses of Imperata grasslands may serve the

same function in the wet tropics. Care should be taken to ensure that

burning to maintain these areas does not occur at a time when the new

growth will encourage elephants to visit them. Buffer width must also be

calculated through surveys of where elephants will and will not cross open

areas.

The problem of "pocketed" herds is created when elephants, living

in development areas, are cut off from adjacent forest tracts, or when a

clan or subgroup moves into a project area that was formerly used for

foraging. In either case, they establish permanent residence in isolated

patches of habitat from which they emerge to forage at night. Uninitiated

observers are surprised at the number of "pocketed" elephants that live in

close proximity to people. These elephants can be extremely dangerous and

should be treated accordingly.

Early in the project, steps should be taken to provide suitable

habitat corridors through which these "pocketed" herds can be moved to

larger adjacent habitat blocks. Wildlife authorities in Sri Lanka, India

and Indonesia have considerable experience in moving elephants under such

conditions, and these authorities can be consulted for details. The

process of transferring elephants can involve 50 or 100 men working full

time for months. The important planning considerations are that these

elephants have a prearranged place to go, a way to get there, and no easy

route by which to return. This calls for careful scheduling of project

- 21 -

activities. There are cases of elephants returning more than 50 km after

considerable efforts have been made to move them. If habitat corridors

cannot be accomplished, Asian elephants from "pocketed" herds can be

captured and brought into the local domestic population for ceremony or

work. Also, they can be tamed for export or for zoos. This requires

marshalling local expertise in areas where traditions still exist, or

engaging specialists where they do not. As it costs a great deal to feed

and support an elephant, local authorities will have to use their judgement

as to what their economy can support. Accepting additional elephants might

be encouraged through tax incentives, thereby giving an advantage to those

who use ~.;rork elephants instead of motorized equipment.

It is often suggested that zoos should be able to absorb displaced

elephants. But the absorptive capacity of zoos is low, perhaps 50 for all

of North America, partly because elephants live so long. There is an

increasing trend towards establishing viable captive breeding programs with

wide cooperation between zoos. However, the numbers of elephants that can

be absorbed into these programs is small in comparison to the numbers that

are displaced by development.

Most risky for both elephants and people are operations where

elephants are "dartedn (i.e., immobilized through chemical restraint), and

transferred to more suitable sites(l9). Because this method involves

danger, it is not generally recommended unless other methods have been

judged to be impracticable.

In short, passive features in project designs to manage elephants

are always to be encouraged over overt management actions whenever that is

possible. A successful elephant management program requires a strong local

institutional support base. How this can be achieved and the issues

- 22 -

involved in creating reserves to hold displaced elephants are considered

below.

3.0 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 Managing Wildlife Refuge.s for Elephants

This paper indicates how elephants may respond to development

activities, and outlines methods for keeping them out of production areas.

Clearly, if elephants are to be moved from production areas there must be

some place to put them. Depending on the environment and the number of

elephants involved, adjacent natural habitats may require active management

to accommodate displaced herds. Wildlife habitat in national parks and

equivalent reserves can be managed under the United Nations definition

(21), but habitat management options may be limited by national

regulations. In these cases, elephant management areas can be designated

as wildlife refuges.

It may be possible to take advantage of portions of project areas

to enhance elephant habitat. Shores of reservoirs and catchment areas have

been utilized as elephant habitats in Sri Lanka, the Western Ghats of south

India and in other areas. The water level and slope of the shore (Fig. 2)

and the draw-down characteristics of the reservoirs must be appropriate for

the production of grass as food. The establishment of small water holes,

or the use of permanent water that may become available as part of

irrigation projects can be utilized to stabilize the habitats and enhance

elephant carrying capacity.

The cutting of high forests is not to be encouraged to provide

richer food patches for elephants. Under most conditions, there will be

- 23 -

adequate areas of secondary forests that can be manipulated to increase

their utility as prime elephant foraging areas. What manipulations are of

most value can be determined by identifying the food plants for which the

elephants show a preference, and applying appropriate silvicultural

techniques to encourage those specieso

Attention should be given to the availability of mineral licks. It

was noted in the first section that elephant distribution can be controlled

by the distribution of licks(45,56,57). The provision of appropriate

minerals at judicious locations and times can be used to draw elephants

away from the project-refuge interface at critical periods in the crop

cycle. The provision of minerals also may reduce the range that elephants

need to cover in a year.

All of this comes under the general rubric of '~abitat

enrichment", a subject for which there is no general theory or generally

accepted practice in the wildlife management profession although "habitat

management" is widely encouraged. The long-term concerns for the dynamics

of elephants and their vegetation, genetic management of populations, and a

decision to cull or not are, under most circumstances, the responsibility

of the local wildlife management authority. The dynamics of elephant

populations are not well understood(9,20,28,29,32). But a clearer

theoretical and practical understanding of the responses by elephants can

be obtained by carefully monitoring what happens during significant

environmental perturbations, such as those created during and after the

establishment of a project.

3.2 Supporting Local Wildlife Manasement Authorities

Most local wildlife management and conservation authorities do not

have the finances and manpower to provide the level of service required

- 24 -

when a major development project disrupts what has been a large area of

wildlife habitat. Many development projects create major shifts in the

ecological fabric of the region. A strong and well-equipped wildlife

management agency can greatly assist in reducing conflicts, avoiding harm

to workers, and reducing damage to project investments, while managing the

country's wildlife resources.

The local wildlife management agency can be supported in three

ways, by

1). providing technical and financial assistance during project

preparation, so that a wildlife management plan, and plans for wildlife

refuges can be included in overall project design;

2). providing technical and financial assistance for appropriate short

courses and seminars at local universities for department staff; (The

long-term wildlife monitoring program can be supported as a joint venture

between the wildlife authority and the local university.)

3). providing equipment for habitat improvement, buffer zone

maintenance and construction costs for the facilities required in wildlife

refuges.

An example of how this approach can be planned is provided in the

USAID supported wildlife management activities in the Accelerated Mahaweli

Development Program in Sri Lanka(51,52).

SUMMARY

If there were a single, easy way to keep elephants and development

projects separate, it would be applied on a routine basis. There is no one

way, but effective measures can be recommended depending on project type

and site. Elephants are usually treated as an externality in project

- 25 -

planning, and any economic advantage of keeping elephants out of production

areas is not systematically included as part of project cost analyses. As

more experience is gained, and ex-post audit data become available, the

expanding body of evidence suggests that it is more cost-effective to

manage elephants in and adjacent to project areas from the beginning of the

project. This requires careful pre-project planning, project designs which

will prevent elephants from entering production areas, and provisions to

ensure local elephants' access to critical resource areas, or to provide

these through habitat enrichment and other measures. Experience has shown

that progress in reducing elephant depredations can be achieved in many

projects through careful planning and manpower assistance to local wildlife

management authorities.

- 27 -

Ai~NEX. BANK-ASSISTED PROJECTS WITH ELEPPJrnT IMPLICATIONS

1. IVORY COAST: Rubber III (1978) Total Project Cost: $19.8M; LN-1633; effective October 1979. Following extensive damage to young rubber plantations (10% of the estate), the operating agency (SAPH) recruited a permanent team of trackers to follow the elephants in the Bettie region and operate a system of explosive elephant scarers to keep the herd away from the plantation.

2. IVORY COAST: Rubber IV (1983) Total Project cost: $84.8M; LN-2323; effective November 15, 1983. Electric fences are proposed to protect project "without resorting to killing" elephants and buffalo.

3. KENYA:· Bura·Irrigation Settlement (1977) Total Project Cost: $l78.0M; LN-1449 and CR-722; effective June 27, 1978. Adjacent area estimated to contain 6,000-11,000 elephants (4-7/km2). Access is maintained to riverine forest, ~<Thich declared a reserve. Irrigation canal crossings also are provided for. Animal watering points are provided every 5-6kms. Cotton (main crop) is not very attractive, but off':'"season maize and young trees in forest plantations, of which Prosopis is main species, (4,000 ha fuel wood) are attractive. Total project is undergoing review and will be.redesigned.

4. KENYA: Forestry III (1982) Total Project Cost: $74.1M; LN-2098 and CR-1213; effective May 31, 1983. Elephant moat rehabilitation component.

5. RWANDA: Bugesera (1977) Total Project Cost: S25.3M; CR-668; effective November 23, 1977. Elephant relocation is away from agricultural areas and is handled by helicopter to Akagera National Park (not Bank-assisted).

6. TANZANIA: Kidatu Hydroelectric Project (1961-1977) Total Project Cost: $50M and $109M; LN-715 and LN-1306; effective March 31, 1971 and March 1, 1977, respectively. (Stages I and II). This project included an ecological study of large herbivores, including elephants at the Mtera reservoir site. It was found that the Mtera reservoir threatened to cut off the elephants' access to traditional watering areas. As a result, the Bank recommended that the Ruaha National Park's boundaries be extended so that elephants and other wildlife could retain undisturbed access to these watering sites. This recommendation was adopted.

7. ZAMBIA: Industrial Forestry I (1968) (Plantations): Total Project Cost: $11.1M; LN-562; effective November 5, 1968. Elephants destroyed 5-8 year old Pinus kesiya plantations, but they did not damage Pinus oocarpa plantations.

- 28 -

8. BURMA: Forestry I (1974) Total Project Cost: $42.5M; CR-493; effective February 27, 1975. Project could further deplete the national stock in the public sector, of about 2,634 trained working elephants (down from 10,000 in 1942). Training of elephants needs 18 years and 3 people (oozies) per elephant. Wild elephant capture (150-200 pa) causes major mortality. This averages 12% in the "Keddahn system, and 14% in the "Mela-shikar" system. Project needs an elephant domestication component.

9. BURMA: Forestry II (1979) Total Project Cost: $86.4M; CR-949; effective December 20, 1979. No elephant management component.

10. SRI LANKA: Mahaweli Ganga III (1982) Total Project Cost: $201.8M; CR-1166; effective date February 8, 1982. Seasonal forest habitat currently occupied and used by elephants is to be converted mainly into irrigated rice. Sanctuaries, buffer zones, corridors and elephant relocation was discussed. Credit Covenant No. 3.10: The Government has formulated an Environmental Action Plan and it has been adopted by the Mahaweli Authority.

11. INDONESIA: Transmigration III (1983) Total Project Cost: $187.3M; Board Presentation March 1983; not yet signed. South Sumatra near but unrelated to bank project: 100 elephants (of Indonesia's 350 Sumatran sub-species of elephant) were driven/relocated (Dec'82) from Air Sugihan to Lebang Hitam costing Rp 100 million (ca $150,000) in non-project funds. They damaged a settlement and other infrastructure while attempting to return to their former habitat.

12. MALAYSIA: Johore Land Settlement (1974) Total Project Cost: $92.7M; LN-967; effective May 16, 1974. Of the total 94% cost overrun in the project, about 36% was attributed to physical changes (e.g., elephant damage) on 33,000 ha of young oil palms, plus the need for extensive electric fences and moats. Damage partly was due to the lack of sanctuaries which were called for during the design phase of the project (see OED report, December 13, 1982).

13. THAILAND: Nam Choan Hydro (Appraised 1982) Total Project Cost: $532 million of which the prepared Bank loan is $170.0M; not yet signed. The proposed reservoir (ca: 3 km wide) may interfere with elephant migration, and will bisect protected wildlife reserves of about 4000 km2. Seasonal woodland occurs on top; evergreen forests fill the valleys. A possible drawdown of 5-15 m will occur at the dam; but the reservoir will be shallow at its tail. Reservoir filling is estimated at 3 years. If migration is from alternate wet seasonal sides of the reservoir~ the dam may reduce herd. Field surveys have at 1 to be conducted to confirm the size of the elephant population and their migratory patterns.

- 29 -

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- 30 -

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- 31 -

29. Laws, R.M., Parker, I.S.C. and Johnstone, R.C.B. 1975. Elephants and their habitats, and the ecology of.elephants in North Bunyoro, Uganda. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 376p.

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33. McKay, G.M. 1973. Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. 125:1-113.

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1974. Movement patterns and habitat Pages 708-721 in Giest, v. and Walther, and its relati~ to management. IUCN

35. McNeely, J.A. and Sinha, M.K. 1981. Protected areas for Asian elephants. Parks. 6:4-7.

36. Milton, J.P. and Binney, G.A. 1980. Ecological planning in the Nepalese terai. Washington, D.C. Threshold., International Center for Environmental Renewal. 35pp.

37. Muller-Dombois, D. 1972. Crown distortion and elephant distribution in the woody-vegetations of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology. 32:208-226.

38. Nair, P.V. and Gadgil, M. 1978. The status and distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75:1000-1015.

39. Norton-Griffiths. M. 1978. Counting animals. Nairobi, Kenya. Afr. Wildl. Leadership Foundation. 139pp.

40. Olivier, R.C.D. 1978a. On the ecology of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.) with particular reference to Malaya and Sri Lanka. University of Cambridge, U.K. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis.454pp.

41. Olivier, R.C.D. 1978b. Distribution and status of the Asian elephant. Oryx. 14:379-424.

42. Pennycuick, C.J. 1979. Energy costs of locomotion and the concept of "foraging radius." Pages 154-184 in Sinclair, A.R.E. and Norton-Griffiths, M. (eds.) Serengeti, dynamics of an ~osystem. Chicago, Ill., Univ. of Chicago Press.

43. Ralls, K., Brugger, K. and Ballou, J. 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science. 206:1101-1103.

- 32 -

44. Seidensticker, J. 1974. A questionnaire technique for a survey of the distribution and population status and trend of the Nepal terai. Washington, D.C. Smithsonian Institution. Nepal Tiger Ecol. Proj. Rep. No. 5 (Mimeogr.) 12pp.

preliminary large mammals in Smithsonian

45. Seidensticker, J. and McNeely, J. 1975. Observations on the use of natural licks in the Huai Kha Khaeng wildlife sanctuary. Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 26:25-34.

46. Shoshani, J. and Eisenberg, J.F. 1982. Elephas maximus. Mamm. Species (Am. Soc.".ety Mammal.) 182:1-8.

47. Singh, V.B. 1969. The elephant (Elephas maximus Linn.) in Uttar Pradesh, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 66:239-250.

48. Singh, V.B. 1978. The elephant in Uttar Pradesh (India) - a resurvey of its status after 10 years. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75:71-82.

49. Soule, M.E., and Wilcox, B.A. (eds.) 1980. Conservation biology: evolutionary-ecological perspective. Sunderland, Mass., Sinauer Assoc.

50. Stoddart, L.A., and Smith, A.D. 1955. Range management. New York, McGraw-Hill. 547pp.

51. Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton (TAMS). Assessment: Accelerated Mahaweli Development Agency for International Dev. 4 volumes.

1980. Environmental Program. Washington, D.C.

an 395pp.

u.s.

52. Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy-Stratton (TAMS). 1981. Environmental plan of action: Accelerated Mahaweli Development Program. Minist. of Mahaweli Dev., Sri Lanka, Columbo, Sri Lanka. lOlpp.

53. U.S. Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. Republication of lists of endangered and threatened species and correction of technical errors in final rules. Washington, D.C., Fed. Register: 45(99):22848-22862.

54. Van Strien, N. 1978. Draft management plan for the proposed Gunung Leuser National Pa·rk. Bogor, Indonesia. World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia Programme (Mimeogr.) 123pp.

55. Vancuylenberg, B.W.B. 1977. Feeding behavior of the Asiatic Elephant in southeast Sri Lanka in relation to conservation. Biol. Conserv. 12:33-54.

56. Weir, J.S. 1972. Spatial distribution of elephants in African National Park in relation to environmental sodium. Oikos. 23:1-13.

57. Weir, J.S. 1973. Exploitation of water soluble soil sodium by elephants in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda. East Afr. Wildl. J. 11:1-7.

58. Western, D. 1975. Water availability and its influence on the structure and dynamics of a savannah large mammal community. East Afr. Wildl. J. 13:265-286.

- 33 -

59. Western, D. and Grimsdell, J.J.J. 1979. Measuring the distribution of animals in relation to the environment. Nairobi, Kenya. African Wildlife Leadership Foundation. 64pp.

60. Wing, L.D. and Buss, I.O. 1970. Elephants and forests. Wildl. Monogr. 19:1-92.

61. Woodley, F.W. 1965. Game defence barriers. East Afr. Wildl. J. 3:89-94.

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Thil!l revision adds a wealth of recent project data; e-Xpanded treatment of fann budgets and the efficiency prlc~ used to calculate the effects of an investment on natloml incomt;; a glossary of tecl'mical tez:ms; expanded append!ixl'1'.s on preparing an agricultural proJect report and I.!Sling dlocounting tables; and an expanded. completely annoblted bi.bl!ography.

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