manitowapow - portage & main press · 2020. 11. 2. · duncan mercredi 261 cree/métis 1951–...

niigaanwewidam james sinclair and warren cariou, editors

foreword by beatrice mosionier

aboriginal writings from the land of water

Manitowapow

Manitowapow_interior.indd 5 1/3/12 11:26 AM

©2011 by Niigaanwewidam James Sinclair and Warren Cariou

Excerpts from this publication may be reproduced under licence from Access Copyright, or with the express written permission of HighWater Press, or as permitted by law.

All rights are reserved, and no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, scanning, recording or otherwise, except as specifically authorized.

HighWater Press gratefully acknowledges the financial support of the Province of Manitoba through the Department of Culture, Heritage, Tourism & Sport and the Manitoba Book Publishing Tax Credit, and the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund (CBF) for our publishing activities.

Proceeds for this book will be donated to the Emerging Aboriginal Writers’ Fund, administered through the Centre for Creative Writing and Oral Culture, University of Manitoba.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Manitowapow : Aboriginal writings from the land of water / edited by Niigaanwewidam James Sinclair and Warren Cariou.

Includes bibliographical references and index. Also issued in electronic format.ISBN 978-1-55379-307-6

1. Canadian literature (English)--Native authors. 2. Canadian literature (English)--Manitoba. 3. Native peoples--Manitoba-- Literary collections. 4. Canadian literature (English)--21st century. I. Cariou, Warren, 1966- II. Sinclair, Niigaanwewidam James

PS8235.I6M347 2012 C810.8'089707127 C2011-908336-1

HighWater Press is an imprint of Portage & Main PressCover Photo The Creation of the World by Daphne Odjig. ©The Manitoba Museum, Winnipeg, MB. Used by permission of the artist.

Printed and bound in Canada by FriesensCover and interior design by Relish Design Ltd.

Email: [email protected]: 1-800-667-9673Fax-free: 1-866-734-8477www.highwaterpress.com

About the Debwe SeriesIn the spirit of the Anishinaabe concept debwe (to speak the truth), HighWater Press presents a series of exceptional Aboriginal writing from across Canada.

C016245


For all who have experienced the power of this place.


ContentsForeword xvPreface xviiIntroduction 1Traditional Systems of Writing in Manitowapow 7

Peguis 13Anishinaabe 1774–1864

A Reply to the Selkirk Settlers’ Call for Help 13

An Open Letter to the Queen’s Representatives 14

Pierre Falcon 17Métis 1793–1876

Li Lord Selkirk au Fort William 17

The Dance of the Bois Brûlés 19Cuthbert James Grant and the Sioux Chiefs 20

Métis 1793–1854/unknownLetter from the Sioux Chiefs

to the Métis 21Letter from Cuthbert Grant

to the Sioux Chiefs 22Letter from the Sioux Chiefs

to the Métis 24Peter Jacobs (Pahtahsega) 25Anishinaabe/ Mississauga 1807–1890

From The Journal of the Reverend Peter Jacobs 26

Henry Budd (Sakachuwescam) 33

Cree 1812–1875From The Diary of Henry Budd, 1870–1875 34

Louis Riel 39Métis 1844–1885

Declaration of the People of Rupert’s Land and the North West 40

From “The Métis of the North West” 42

La Métisse 43Song of the Métis Maiden 44Palpite, Ô Mon Esprit 45Shudder, My Spirit 46

Gabriel Dumont 46Métis 1837–1906

Episodes of My Life 47My Wound at the Battle

of Duck Lake 48My Story 49

Harriette Goldsmith Sinclair Cowan 53

Métis/Cree 1832–1926On My Father 54The “Evil One” 55The 1850 Manitoba Flood 55On Being Captured by Riel 56

Charles Alexander Eastman (Ohiyesa) 57

Santee Sioux 1858–1939The Maidens’ Feast 57

Kuskapatchees 60Swampy Cree 18??–19??

Kuskapatchees: The Smoky One 61

How the Flood Came 63How the World Was Made Again 65

Why the Moose’s Skin Is Loose 66

Why the Loon Has a Flat Back 68


x Contents

William Berens (Tabasigizikweas) 69

Anishinaabe 1866–1947The Boy in the Red Tuque 70The Priests and the Furnace 71The Birth of the Winds, Flint,

and the Great Hare 71Maurice Sanderson 75Cree 1877–?

Mill Stones at Fairford 76Reminiscences of St. Paul’s Industrial School 77

Recollections of an Indian Missionary 79

Alex Grisdale 82Anishinaabe 1896–?

Death Island 83Niskesis and the Little People 85

The Torch Woman 86The Dene Elders Project 88DeneMarisis Aze 89

Early Life 89Dreamers 90The Story of Thanadelthur 90

Bart Dzeylion 91Using Bones 92

Helen Joseyounen 93Childbirth 93More Than One Wife 93

Gabriel Tsannie 94Stories of Crowhead 94

George Barker 96Saulteaux 1896–c. 1980

My Early Years 96Medicine Dance 100

James Redsky (Esquekesik) 104Anishinaabe 1899–?

Eagle Feather 105The Creation of Man 107

Albert Edward Thompson 108Cree/Saulteaux 1900–1973

From Chief Peguis and His Descendants 109

Thomas Boulanger 113Cree 1901–?

From An Indian Remembers: My Life as a Trapper in Northern Manitoba 113

Norway House Elders 117CreeIrene Muswagon 117

Red Willow Crystals 117Muskeg Leaves 118Ginger Roots or Wíhkés 118

Tommy York 119Treaty Days 119Rations 120York Boats: The Tail End of

an Era 120The First Airplane I Ever Saw 121

Ruby Beardy 122Residential School Burns, May 29, 1945 122

Betsy Muminawatum 123The Winter Setting at

Máhtawak 123The Travelling Stores of

the Fur Buyers 124Off to the Spring Camp 125Homemade Jeans and Woolen

Socks 126David Courchene Sr. 126Anishinaabe 1926–1992

Message of the Grand Chief 127Problems and Possible

Solutions 128Alice Masak French 132Ninatakmuit Inuit 1930–

Grandmother Susie 132


Contents xi

Louis Bird (Pennishish) 135Omushkego Cree 1934–

John Sakaney 135Bernard Gull 136Our Grandmothers’ Powers 137

Elders of Moose Lake 139Cree

The Story of East Arm Narrows 139

The Medicine Man, Two Claws 140

The Story of Norris Lake 140The Origin of the Wetigo 141

Tobasonakwut Kinew 142Anishinaabe 1936–

“Let Them Burn The Sky”: Overcoming Repression of the Sacred Use of Anishinaabe Lands 142

Elders of Grand Rapids 145Cree

We Had a Good Life 146No Fish Can Go Up There 147We Helped Each Other 148

Bernelda Wheeler 149Cree/Assiniboine/Saulteaux 1937–2005

I Can’t Have Bannock but the Beaver Has a Dam 150

Our Beloved Land and You 152The Prairie Call 155

Welcome to The Prairie Call 155Unity 156The Rain-Dance and the Car

Lot 157The Importance of Defending

Our Culture 160Outlook in City—Bleak 162The Damaged Goods 163

Citizens of Camperville 164Métis

Statement by the Citizens of Camperville 165

George Morrissette 167Métis 1938–

Michif Toune Buffalo 167Le Pique-nique des Purs 168

Doris Young 171Cree 1940–

Northern Manitoba Hydro Electric Projects and Their Impact on Cree Culture 171

Theodore Fontaine 175Anishinaabe 1941–

Killing the Indian in the Child 176

Marie Annharte (nee Baker) 180Anishinaabe 1942–

Hudson Bay Bill 181One Way to Keep Track of Who Is Talking 182

Penumbra 182Pretty Tough Skin Woman 183Raced Out to Write This Up 184

Jackson Beardy 185Anishinaabe/Cree 1944–1984

The Revenge 186The Story of the Giant

Skunk 187The Bachelor 191

Phil Fontaine 193Anishinaabe 1944–

Statement to the Pope 193Joe McLellan and Matrine Therriault 196

Métis 1945 and Anishinaabe/Cree 1946Nanabosho and the Cranberries 196

Ovide Mercredi 197Cree 1946–

A Different Politics 198Elijah Harper 200Cree 1949–

What Canada Means to Me 200

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xii Contents

Charles Nelson (Mizhakwanigiizhik) 205

Anishinaabe 1949–“Protection” Conflicting with

Anishinabe Rights 205Emma LaRocque 207Plains Cree Métis 1949–

Geese Over the City 208Long Way From Home 209My Hometown Northern Canada South Africa 213

Beatrice Mosionier 217Métis 1949–

From In the Shadow of Evil 218From Come Walk With Me, A Memoir 225

Patricia Ningewance 229Anishinaabe 1951–

Aabiding E-niibing Gichi-mookomaanakiing 229

Once on a Summer in the United States 232

Murray Sinclair 234Anishinaabe 1951–

Suicide in First Nations People 235

Inmates at Stony Mountain Institution 245

AnonymousUnemployment & Indians 246When the Aboriginal Justice

Inquiry Came to Stony Mountain 247

The Great Snake and the Boy 248Tomson Highway 249Cree 1951–

From Kiss of the Fur Queen 250From The Rez Sisters 258From Iskooniguni Iskweewuk: The Rez Sisters in Cree 259

Duncan Mercredi 261Cree/Métis 1951–

Betty 262

Blues Singer 263born again indian 263yesterday’s song 265Wachea 265

Lorraine Mayer 267Métis 1953–

Scrip 268À la façon du pays 269

Marvin Francis 271Cree 1955–2005

mcPemmicanTM 271Pulling Faces 272Soup for the Hood 273Air Miles Poem 273Duncan Donut Cig Poem 274

Ila Bussidor 274Dene 1955–

From Night Spirits: The Story of the Relocation of the Sayisi Dene 275

Douglas Nepinak 277Saulteaux 1960–2005

Main Street 278Bone Memory 279indians 280

Darrell Racine 281Métis 1960–

From Stretching Hide (with Dale Lakevold) 281

Joanne Arnott 284Métis 1960–

Manitoba Pastoral 284Migration 285

Brenda Isabel Wastasecoot 287Cree 1963–

Down the Flats 287Jordan Wheeler 289Cree/Anishinaabe/Assiniboine 1964–

Sap 289Cheryl Smoke 297Dakota Sioux 1964–

The Hills 298


Contents xiii

Trevor Greyeyes 299Anishinaabe 1964–

Jupiter and Mars 300David McLeod 304Anishinaabe/Métis 1964–

I write 304Statement of account #346 305boy I can’t wait to get my cheque 307

Paul DePasquale 309Haudenosaunee 1965–

At the Edge of the Woods Is a Fire 309

School of Hard Knocks 310Shayla Elizabeth 311Cree 1965–

Chief miska muskwa 311Gregory Scofield 313Cree/Métis 1966–

Women Who Forgot the Taste of Limes 314

The Repatriation of Mrs. Ida M. Scofield 315

Prayer Song for the Returning of Names and Sons 317

Warren Cariou 320Métis 1966–

Going to Canada 320Gilbert James Fredette 328Cree/Innu 1966–

Visions or Screams 329A Lifetime Ago 329

Randy Lundy 330Cree 1967–

deer-sleep 330ghost dance 331ritual 332the trees are spirits 333

Ian Ross 333Anishinaabe 1968–

NSF 334Moose on the Road 335

A Little Dog Wearin’ Nail Polish 336

Nichola Tookoome Batzel 338Inuk 1970–

Our Stories Belong Here Too: Manitoba Inuk 338

Columpa C. Bobb 343Coast Salish 1971–

From Will Work 4 Home 344Nahanni Fontaine 344Anishinaabe 1971–

Our Cherished Sisters, Mothers, Aunties, and Grandmothers: Violence Against Aboriginal Women 345

Rosanna Deerchild 347Cree 1972–

back home 348crazy horse is a girl 349northern lights 351paper indians 351

Colleen Simard 352Anishinaabe/Cree 1972–

Listen to the Roar of the Thunderbirds 353

Thanks, Mr. Paul, for All Your Help 354

Maeengan Linklater 356Anishinaabe 1974–

Home 356Althea Guiboche 357Cree/Saulteaux 1974–

I Found Myself the Other Day 357

I Dream of Jigging 358Niigaanwewidam James Sinclair 359

Anishinaabe 1976–Water Scroll 359

Donna Beyer 365Cree/Anishinaabe 1976–

nichimos 366backroads 366


xiv Contents

Clayton Thomas-Müller 367Cree 1977–

The Seventh Generation 367Ryan McMahon 370Anishinaabe/Métis 1977–

Hystereotypes, Eh? 370Katherena Vermette 373Métis 1977–

nortendgrrl 374David Alexander Robertson 378Swampy Cree 1977–

From Ends/Begins 379Wabanakwut (Wab) Kinew 384Anishinaabe 1981–

Good Boy 384Julie Lafreniere 385Métis 1982–

Adventures in Dating a White Guy 386

Jennifer Storm 387Anishinaabe 1986–

From Deadly Loyalties 387Suzanne Morrissette 398Métis 1987–

incomplete thoughts on knowing through place 398

Rebecca Kantimere 399Anishinaabe 1989–

A Mother’s Promise 400Alyssa Bird 401Cree/Anishinaabe 1993–

Frustration 401Permissions/Sources 405Thematic Index 411


ForewordAs a publisher at Pemmican Publications in the 1980s, I realized that there was a desperate need to have Aboriginal educational materials available for school curriculums. With the success of my first novel, In Search of April Raintree, with students, came the next realization—educational materials must be able to engage students and teachers, too. In early 2010, Niigaan and Warren told me about their plan for an anthology and what it would include. Listening to them, I thought of all the students I’d met at school visits who hungered for more knowledge of the Aboriginal experience. This would be a book that would feed their hunger. As teachers, writers, activists, and vi-sionaries, Niigaan and Warren were the ideal editors. I believed in their vi-sion and I believed in them. The proposed anthology would include excerpts from Aboriginal writers of Manitoba, from those who lived before our times to the writers of today. All together, they would tell the story of our province, known by many as Manitowapow.

More than a year after my initial meeting with Niigaan and Warren, I received their manuscript. One glance at the cover artwork, The Creation of the World by Daphne Odjig, promised me that within would be pages and pages containing a collection of rich, colourful, diverse stories written from our perspectives. The care taken to find and choose this perfect artwork is the same care taken to find and choose the collection within.

Because the excerpts in this book were compiled by Niigaan and Warren, I hungrily absorbed each piece, and by the time I reached the last page, it came to me that I had just read a memoir of Manitowapow. This collection of Aboriginal writings made me want to read on, read more—and it made me want to write! Imagine that. It aroused my emotions for as many different reasons as there were stories. It made me laugh; it made me cry; it brought joy; it brought anger. Most of all, it renewed my pride in my community. In spite of so many setbacks in their lives, consecutive generations maintained their sense of generosity, perseverance, compassion, and, of course, that won-derful sense of humour, evident in both the early and more recent stories.

This unique collection opens with early Aboriginal writings of Manitoba, including illustrations of petroforms, rock paintings, and birchbark scrolls. The excerpts that follow are organized chronologically, and each section is preceded by an invaluable brief biography of each contributor. Because this book is rich with prose, poetry, and historical events, it will be


xvi Foreword

invaluable in Native studies, literature, and history courses, as well as for the general reader.

Another feature is the diversity of the collection. It’s a gathering of rec-ollections, songs, legends, speeches, plays, poetry, and a graphic-novel ex-cerpt. Some are told in the languages of our people.

Once, at an Aboriginal writers’ conference, I heard a writer say that if you are born Aboriginal, you are born political. There is a political thread throughout the offerings. As the oppressed, we are on an ongoing quest for social justice. Watching newscasts of the historical event at Oka, one 12-year-old, who became the activist Clayton Thomas-Müller, became inspired. He writes: “Our greatest power as the peoples of Mother Earth is in maintain-ing our sacred responsibility to protect her and to speak to those animal and plant relations that cannot speak for themselves.”

On the light side, there’s even a recipe for bannock—yummy!—with a story on the side. So much food for thought and—well, I keep thinking of food—yet, all these excerpts are served like a feast at a potlatch, all comple-mentary to one another, and with enough choices to satisfy different appe-tites. You can even go back for seconds.

I share a vision that the editors and the writers have brought to life. Manitowapow: Aboriginal Writings from the Land of Water will bring an understanding of the Aboriginal experience, which readers can take with them into the future. They will learn from one another, put aside distrust, shun the erroneous misconceptions of the past, and embrace our human-ity and compassion. They will know why the Aboriginal person values the land, the waters, the animals, the plants above material wealth, because if our Mother Earth is not healthy, nothing else will matter. I relish the words of Elijah Harper, one of our well-known leaders: “There needs to be a heal-ing of the land and the people. There needs to be reconciliation, restoration, and restitution. Because of our relationship with the Creator and this land, this is a spiritual process. A nation without a vision has no hope. A nation without a vision has no future. We now embark on this journey together for the benefit of all people in Canada.”

—Beatrice Mosionier


IntroductionIn 1971, Potawatomi/Odawa artist Daphne Odjig was commissioned to cre-ate an artwork to honour the province of Manitoba’s centennial. The result was the ten-by-twelve-foot mural titled The Creation of the World, installed on a steeply curved wall at the entranceway to the Earth History Gallery in the Manitoba Museum. A remarkable work, it still stands there today and is viewed by thousands of visitors yearly. We are honoured that Odjig and her family gave permission for it to adorn the cover of Manitowapow: Aboriginal Writings from the Land of Water.

In The Creation of the World, a studious Nanabush is focused, working with a mound of earth on the shell of a turtle. From the earth, he creates land, hills, and mountains that run off the painting, from left to right.1 This

“new” earth is full of rich layers and colour, with part of it morphing into a female face whose eyes are closed and who appears to be in an act of prayer or thought. Around Nanabush and the turtle are three animals: a beaver and an otter, who both gaze at Nanabush, and a dead muskrat with outstretched paws. Water encompasses the bottom and left side of the frame, with large (and somewhat threatening) waves emerging throughout. Sun rays and waves of turbulence encompass the sky and meld into the landscape, blending to-gether land, water, and air. Above all of the images, a thunderbird watches the happenings of the world below. The scene suggests a cacophony of ev-erlasting and dynamic movement.

Like many of the writings in this book, The Creation of the World is a story full of other stories. The most evident one is the famous Anishinaabeg Flood Story, which tells of the covering of the world by water and the recre-ation of it by Nanabush after a heroic muskrat dives and sacrifices himself to get a paw-full of earth. Another is a version of the geography and his-tory of Manitoba itself. During the last Ice Age, between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago, Manitoba was the bottom of an enormous glacier that covered most of North America. As this body of ice melted, it became a huge body of water—the great Lake Agassiz—that eventually drained into the world’s

1 Known also as Wenabozho, Naanabozho, and other names in Anishinaabeg communities, Nanabush is a half-spirit, half-human being of aadizookaanag, sacred stories. We use “Nanabush” here to refer to Daphne Odjig’s usage, also available in her 1971 series of children’s books, The Nanabush Book Series. For more on these texts, how to order them, and other information about Odjig see: <www.daphneodjig.com>.


2 Introduction

oceans and formed parts of local ecology (for instance, Lake Winnipeg, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Manitoba are remnants). Literally, as ice and wa-ter receded and carved out the environment, land formed. Another story in the work involves Odjig’s innovation of Anishinaabeg art and aesthetics. As has been well documented, she worked tirelessly to bridge traditional Anishinaabeg iconography (as found in media such as birchbark scrolls and rock paintings) with her knowledge of Pablo Picasso, cubism, and other European artistic traditions.2 There are also many stories about relationships throughout the mural; tales that explain ties between Nanabush and animals, spirits and land, and water and life—to name just a few.

This leads to some of the most interesting stories in The Creation of the World. While it is hardly a stretch to pinpoint certain cultural images and aesthetics in Odjig’s art, critics often ignore the context in which her work emerged, her interests in activism and advocacy, and her commitment to Aboriginal historical and intellectual traditions. For instance, what cannot be forgotten is the time period in which this mural was produced—in 1970s Canada, when Aboriginal people from all walks of life were actively (and somewhat fiercely) advocating for themselves and their communities, often called the “Red Power” era. For Odjig, it was crucial that Aboriginal people be exposed to and learn their stories in order for cultural revitalization to be possible. As she stated in a 1968 interview: “If you destroy our legends you also destroy our soul.”3 The themes of constant movement and “creat-ing a world” are reminiscent of the history of the Anishinaabeg, too. In the Anishinaabeg Creation Story, it is recounted how their ancestors travelled from their original homelands in the East across North America and even-tually segmented into communities of Ojibway, Potawatomi, and Odawa—while trading, warring, and eventually settling with communities such as the Sioux and Cree along their path.4

This brings us back to where the work was created, where it stands, and where it continues to live: in Manitoba. As the works in this anthol-ogy also suggest, Manitoba has always been a place of activity, change, and struggle—movements that illustrate the harshness and beauty of life. From

2 For excellent studies of Odjig’s use of Anishinaabeg aesthetics and cultural tradi-tions see: R.M Vanderburgh and M.E. Southcott’s collaborative book (written with Odjig), A Paintbrush in My Hand (Toronto: Natural Heritage, 1992), and Bonnie Devine’s edited collection, The Drawings and Paintings of Daphne Odjig: A Retrospective Exhibition (Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 2007).

3 As quoted in Vanderburgh and Southcott, 174 For a version of the Anishinaabeg creation story, see: Edward Benton-Benai’s

The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).


Introduction 3

time immemorial, ancestors of Aboriginal communities now known as Anishinaabe, Assiniboine, Cree, Dene, Inuit, Métis, Oji-Cree, and Sioux in-habited, migrated to, and settled throughout these lands. They made homes, held ceremonies in sacred spaces, and forged relationships amongst them-selves and with beings throughout the environment. They established tra-ditions that extend into today. Much of this involved an intricate use of oral and written expressions that changed and adapted with the environment over time—a handful of which are included in this book.

Activity, change, and struggle have particularly been evident over the past two centuries in Manitoba, embodied by contentious relations between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples. Manitoba has been the scene of some of the most oppressive moments in Canadian history, featuring a flood of brutality and violence. A short list of the events that have created the province include exploitation by settlers and traders, unfulfilled treaty promises by governments, repression of the Red River Resistance and the murder of Louis Riel, many illegal and illegitimate removals (including citi-zens at St. Peter’s/Peguis and the Sayisi Dene), dozens of Indian residential and day schools, some of the worst examples of the aptly named “Sixties Scoop,” and countless unsolved “disappearances” of Aboriginal women and children. This is not to forget the many instances of flooding that takes place in First Nations communities due to poor drainage, industrial de-velopment, or the mistreatment of water. In fact, as we write this in 2011, over 2,100 flood evacuees from eight Manitoba First Nations communi-ties—many of them children—have been unable to return to their homes for over six months and reside in Winnipeg.5 This history obscures the myriad instances of cultural and political exchange, trading, and sharing that have made Manitoba into a collective mosaic of people and commu-nities. And, while there are many strong and interdependent Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities here, there is indeed a long way to go in creating a healthy, positive relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Manitobans.

Odjig directly references her own experiences of Manitoba in The Creation of the World. While her artistic interests began as a child, it was not until she moved to Manitoba in 1964 with her husband, Chester Beavon, that her professional career emerged and expanded. In 1966, as a govern-mental community development officer, Beavon was assigned to work in northern Manitoba with the Chemahawin Cree at Cedar Lake; they had been removed to Easterville after a hydroelectric dam at Grand Rapids flooded

5 See: “First Nation evacuees get Sally Ann space.” <cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/story/2011/11/08/mb-flood-school-salvation-army-winnipeg.html>.


4 Introduction

their territory. Odjig, accompanying her husband in his travels, witnessed the devastating effects of this removal on the community and saw how a way of life drastically altered could lead to cultural and political atrophy, poverty, and substance abuse. She also saw how this community resisted, adapted, and demonstrated incredible perseverance. With her experiences at Easterville fresh in her mind—and particularly the floods of devastation and the floods of resilience she witnessed there—Odjig was unquestionably influenced by Manitoban history.

This gestures to arguably the most important story of all in The Creation of the World: the creation of a respectful and dignified home. As one can see, it takes a tremendous amount of constant and tireless work. It involves creating a place full of possibility, built through sustainability and equita-ble relationships involving people, animals, spirits, and the landscape. It in-volves being honest with one’s history, truth-telling, and talking about the complicated parts—even if that inspires discomfort and disagreement. It involves recognizing and understanding that many have sacrificed much to provide others with opportunities. It involves constant motion, eternal change, and a commitment to balance, cooperation, and mutual responsi-bility. It involves acknowledging that life is complex, that it is all around us, and that we are a part of it. Many more stories exist in the mural of course, but this one—of the creation of a home full of opportunity, integrity, and in-cluding all diverse parts—is the most poignant. The Creation of the World is about the struggle that is Manitoba, or as it was historically called by many Aboriginal peoples, Manitowapow.

Manitowapow has always been a powerful place. This is embodied in one of the stories of the original name of this place, in its very name. While many alternate and legitimate versions and claims exist,6 the most common explanation of the name is that it originated in the Cree words Manitou (Great Spirit) and wapow (sacred water), or in Ojibway, Manito-bau. From the Narrows of Lake Manitoba, where waves dashed against the rocky shores of Manitou Island, these sounds were thought to be sacred beats that dashed

6 There is considerable dispute when it comes to how Manitoba received its name. For instance, some Aboriginal communities claim that the petroforms of Manito Api are where the name Manitoba came from (see our description of this place in this anthology). Meeting Assiniboine communities near Lake Manitoba, French explorer La Verendrye heard the name “Mini-tobow,” which he re-named

“Lac du Prairies” (“Lake of the Prairies”) and used to refer to all lands in and around the region. Others cite alternative originating words and stories. For a detailed survey of potential origins of the name, see: Frank Hall, “How Manitoba Got Its Name.” Manitoba Pageant 15.2 (1970) <www. mhs.mb.ca/docs/pageant/15/manitobaname1.shtml>. Without disputing the legitimacy of these other claims of origination, we offer “Manitowapow” as one version among many.


Introduction 5

throughout Creation and created beauty, definition, and meaning. This is the voice of the Great Spirit, Manitowapow.

Settlers who came to Manitowapow also noted these sounds, often lik-ening them to chimes or church bells. In 1867, Thomas Spence, leader of a growing settlement at Portage la Prairie, was the first to “officially” use the term, after forming a council and declaring the settlement the Republic of Manitobah. The republic collapsed, and Spence would later join Louis Riel’s Métis Council.

In 1870, a delegation from the Council went to Ottawa to negotiate with Canada over the jurisdiction of the growing and lucrative Red River set-tlement, The territory was known as Assiniboia. but Riel never liked the name. On April 19, 1870, he sent the following letter to delegate Father Noël-Joseph Ritchot:

The name of the country is already written in all hearts, that of Red River. Fancy delights in that of “Manitoba,” but the situation seems to demand that of “North-West.” Friends of the old government are pleased with that of Assiniboia (but) it is not generally enough liked to be kept. Choose one of the two names “Manitoba” or “North-West.”

In 1870, the Canadian parliament passed the Manitoba Act. The traditional name of Manitowapow, which morphed through speakers of other languages into “Manitoba,” became the name citizens of the province recognize and use today.

Alphabetical writing, of course, was first imported to Manitoba by Europeans, but the stories and the names existed long before the newcom-ers arrived, and Aboriginal people quickly adapted their expressive forms to this medium of text. This has resulted in an extraordinarily rich body of literature produced by Aboriginal writers in Manitoba over the last two cen-turies and more—a tradition that is presented uniquely in this book. The stories, poems, speeches, and nonfiction gathered in this collection present an analogue to Odjig’s The Creation of the World. The writings draw upon the complex traditions of the many Aboriginal communities they come from and comment on the present day concerns of each writer in his or her time and cultural context. The writings are about spirituality, geography, migra-tion, politics, and colonialism, yet they are also about hope and life and the importance of humour; beauty itself. They represent a broad history that en-compasses many incredible struggles, but they also give voice to Aboriginal cultural values of community, sharing, respect for the land, and honour for the ancestors. They open us up to Aboriginal understandings of what has happened in this place over time, but many of them are also contempo-rary, urban, and experimental. They are, in a sense, nearly uncategorizable


6 Introduction

in their variety. What the writings do have in common is that they are the most moving, dynamic, and important works of literature that we found in our many months of research into archives, libraries, and other collections of Aboriginal stories. They are also all responses to this place, Manitowapow, in its many manifestations.

In July 1885, while imprisoned by Canadian forces, Louis Riel famously said: “My people will sleep for one hundred years, but when they awake, it will be the artists who give them their spirit back.” It is our belief that he was not only speaking of Métis artists but also of other Aboriginal artists of the past, the present, and to come. Riel was speaking of the sounds of Manitowapow, resonances that have the ability—as Odjig demonstrates—to create our world. We honour this work. Whenever we hear someone speak the word Manitoba, we hear the echo of these stories. We hear, feel, and ex-perience Manitowapow. We hope they will do the same for you and that you enjoy the beauty of these expressions.


Traditional Systems of Writing in Manitowapow 7

Traditional Systems of Writing in Manitowapow

Systems of writing have been used in Manitowapow since time immemo-rial. Often employed alongside oral traditions, these texts record interac-tions among people and express connections to animals, spirit beings, and other creatures. Though they date from long ago, these writing systems have evolved over the generations as Aboriginal communities have changed and grown. Their intellectual and spiritual value is immense, and they provide a foundation on which all literature in Manitoba has been built.

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the rock petroforms of Manitou Api in Whiteshell Provincial Park, a place that has hosted ceremonies for thousands of years. Manitou Api is often translated as “The Place Where Creator Sat” and is

Figure 1

Figure 3

Figure 2


8 Traditional Systems of Writing in Manitowapow

considered by some Elders to be another source for Manitoba’s name. The images at Manitou Api document much knowledge: constellations, tradi-tional teachings, and the unique ties Aboriginal people share with animals and the spirit world. These images of a Turtle and a Snake express impor-tant teachings about politics, ceremonies, and belonging—important parts that make up a healthy and vibrant community. The Path of Life symbol-izes the choices human beings face throughout life. Echoing images found on birchbark scrolls, it illustrates the physical and spiritual journeys taken in life and death, as well as the many things that influence us along the way.

The next two images (figs. 4 and 5) are rock paintings, often called pic-tographs. Many can be found throughout Manitoba, usually near water and on shorelines. These images represent the complex ecological and spiritual systems embedded in particular places. They also illustrate a network of in-tellectual and physical pathways Aboriginal people travelled and how the trading of stories and information took place alongside goods and resources. The painting in figure 4 can be found in the northeast, on a rock facing Knee Lake. It shows a figure with hands raised, likely gesturing to the home of the mysterious and powerful memegwesiwak (little people of Anishinaabe

Figure 4

Figure 5



and Cree tradition), who live in rocks and hold medicinal and spiritual knowledge. The one in figure 5 is located in the southeast, on the shores of Sassaginnigak Lake (in Atikaki Provincial Park) and shows a human hold-ing a medicine bag in one hand and a bow and arrow in another. Emanating around the figure are waves of power and beauty, likely referencing the ac-tions (such as travelling and hunting) and ceremonies that take place there.

In April 1847, an Aboriginal leader named Wetus was among a group of Anglican converts near what is now The Pas. After a sermon by the Rev. Henry Budd, the missionaries demanded that any who wished to convert must give up their traditional ways, take a Christian name, submit their ceremonial materials, and be baptized. Wetus (subsequently named Louis Constant) gave Budd a Midéwiwin (Grand Medicine Society) scroll, written on birchbark (fig. 6). It passed through several hands and was later repro-duced in an 1851 book in England. Under the interpretive direction of Three Fires Midéwiwin Lodge leader and teacher Edward Benton-Benai, this scroll has been interpreted to be a meme version of a complete scroll. It is an out-line for Midéwiwin practitioners to use when teaching and explaining tra-ditional philosophies of creation, life, and history. The scroll depicts several interconnected lodges, locations of members, and objects within, and how they all relate to the world. These are more than just images; they constitute an entire spiritual path and perspective. For many reasons, the specific in-formation within the scroll is sacred and contextual to Midéwiwin practi-tioners (often never shared with non-Midéwiwin). But by viewing this small piece, one can get a sense of the immense body of knowledge that Wetus handed to Budd that day—and to future Aboriginal students and researchers.

Figure 6



“The Selkirk Treaty” (fig. 7) is an 1817 land agreement treaty signed by Chief Peguis and four other Aboriginal chiefs with Thomas, Earl of Selkirk, indicating a land transfer along the Red and Assiniboine Rivers. The chiefs signed using their totems, which indicated their community affiliations. The images of bear, catfish, and other animals therefore also represent land claims, laws, and forms of government in the diverse com-munities they represented.

Figure 8 is a “Letter from a Seioux Indian” from 1822. It shows traditional forms of mapping (indicated through canoe and bodies of water), locations of communities, and the writer himself (who is also represented by his clan

Figure 7



“signature” on the back). It tells a story about communication, travel, and a community on the move.

The Métis have created a rich body of non-alphabetical writing in Manitowapow, and a large hooked rug (fig. 9) created by Marie Grant Breland, the daughter of Cuthbert Grant, is one example. Images of earth and home drawn from her diverse heritage map a complex journey. Arranging tipi shapes, the prairie rose, “catalogne” rag weaving from Quebec, Anishinaabe diamonds, and pinwheel quilt patterns, the elderly artist tells a story that re-turns to where it begins in a constant cycle.

Figure 8

Figure 9



Aboriginal clothing represents many systems of expression. This northern Cree coat (fig. 10) is made from a single moose-hide that wrapped around the wearer’s body. Lines and circles were pressed or carved into the surface of the hide, and paints made from natural pigments were applied to depict shapes. The finely tanned hide, the painted symbols, and the porcu-pine quillwork were visual conversations with the animals to assure them that their sacrifice would be honoured and every part of their body would be carefully used and made beautiful.

Figure 11 illustrates an excerpt of a story told by Elder John C. Courchene (1914–1984) of Sagkeeng First Nation and written in Anishinaabe syllabics. It is taken from a book entitled Sagkeeng Legends: Sagkeeng Aadizookaanag, edited by his grandson, historian Craig Charbonneau Fontaine. Syllabic sys-tems represent the specific sounds and pronunciations of Aboriginal lan-guages. This short excerpt, from the story “Aadizokaan Niish,” introduces us to the two main characters, a young man and woman, and their families. Growing up together, we learn how they fall in love and are torn apart— setting the stage for a lifelong relationship that will carry them through sep-aration, death, and eventually rebirth.

These ancient writing systems in Manitowapow, rich in history, tradition, and thought, are the foundation on which later English writing has been built. On their own, they are rich and dynamic expressions worth reading and listening to. We invite you to enjoy, appreciate, and learn from them.

Figure 10

Figure 11


A Reply to the Selkirk Settlers’ Call for Help 13

PeguisAnishinaabe (St. Peter’s Reserve/Peguis First Nation) 1774–1864

Chief Peguis (also known as Be-gou-ais, Be-gwa-is, Pegeois, Pegouisse, Pegowis, Pegqas, Pigewis, Pigwys) was born about 1774 in the area known today as Sault Ste. Marie. Son of an Anishinaabe woman and likely a French fur trader, he led a community of Anishinaabe people to the Red River and settled at Netley Creek, south of Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba.There, he joined with a Cree and Assin-iboine community decimated by disease. He became known as a great orator, leader, and mediator who led trade ne-gotiations with the Hudson Bay Com-pany and was one of the one of the five chiefs to sign a treaty in 1817 with Lord Selkirk for lands near the Assiniboine and Red Rivers that they would turn over for the usage of the white settlers. Though Peguis was presented with a medal and promised yearly presents, Selkirk never honoured this responsibility. In 1832 Anglican Missionary William Cockran (Cochrane) persuaded Peguis and some of his people to move and settle in St. Peter’s Parish, a community north of present-day Selkirk. Soon after, and for political as well as spiritual reasons, Peguis was baptized and took the name William King—although he retained

many of his Anishinaabe beliefs and practices. His descendants have chosen to use the last name Prince.

Peguis was witness to many trade and land disputes settlers brought to their new territory. Frequently Peguis was asked to intervene and, at times, provide protection—such as in 1812 when he was instrumental in supporting Lord Selkirk’s settlers when members of the North West Company attempted to destroy their set-tlement. This was due to his abilities as a shrewd diplomat, peacemaker, and ad-vocate for Aboriginal rights. These two selections illustrate these abilities. The first speech, recorded by land surveyor Peter Fidler, was Peguis’s reply to Selkirk’s settlers on June 25, 1815, after they asked for his help when men from the North West Company burnt down their settle-ment, demanding they leave the region. The second is an 1857 letter printed in The Colonial Intelligencer (in London, England) that was likely written down by one of his sons. It is a mini-history les-son, shaped as a formal complaint to the Queen’s representatives, about the mis-treatment his community endured and the responsibilities and relationships set-tlers hold with his kin.

A Reply to the Selkirk Settlers’ Call for Help

We thank you for your speech. What is the matter with these People? You do not trade skins from us. Why then are they always quarrelling with you? They always had greedy hearts & jealous minds & always drove away those who brought us our necessaries. When your messenger came to our Tents he found my Brother Chief [Yellow Legs] and our young men assembled in order to come to your assistance as we had been told that the Canadians had carried off our Brother. We will offer these people the Pipe of peace and if they will not smoak with you, we will not restrain our young men more, but shall join them in the cry of War.


14 Peguis

What do these people mean by driving you from these lands? Had we no other support than what they give us we might freeze in our tents die of want and be at the mercy of our enemies. Look round & you will see our young men defended from the Inclemency of the weather & tormented of the musquitoes by your means, and we have even a Pipe of Tobacco to smoak and a round of ammunition to support our families—nor have we forgot-ten how pitiful & poor we were before your arrival here. It seems our great father has two children and perhaps he loved one better than the other. He certainly did not tell one Brother to make war upon the other. For my part I have always loved the White people and have always taught my young men to be kind to them.

The people of the other house are always breaking my ears with com-plaints & telling stories about my lands, but these are not my Lands—they belong to our Great Father—for it is he only that gives us the means of exis-tence, for what would become of us if he left us to ourselves. We should wither like the grass in the Plains, was the Sun to withdraw his animating beams.

The hearts of my young men are vexed & inclined to war; it is with dif-ficulty we can restrain them. I hope to procure you Peace but if my lands must be reddened with your Blood, my Blood & that of my Children shall be mixed with yours & like a stone we will sink together.

—1815

An Open Letter to the Queen’s Representatives

Many winters ago (in 1812) the lands along the Red River, in the Assiniboine Country, on which I, and the tribe of Indians of whom I am Chief, then lived, were taken possession of, without permission of myself or my tribe, by a body of white settlers. For the sake of peace, I, as the representative of my tribe, allowed them to remain on our lands, on their promising that we should be well paid for them by a great Chief who was to follow them. This great Chief, whom we call the Silver Chief (the Earl of Selkirk), arrived in the spring, after the war between the North-West and Hudson’s Bay Companies (1817). He told us he wanted our lands for some of his countrymen, who were very poor in their own country; and I consented: on the condition that he paid well for my tribe’s lands, he could have from the confluence of the Assiniboine to near Maple Sugar Point, on the Red River (a distance of 20 or 24 miles), following the course of the river, and as far Back, on each side of the river, as a horse could be seen under (easily distinguished). The Silver Chief told us he had little with which to pay us for our lands when he made this ar-rangement, in consequence of the troubles with the North-West Company.


An Open Letter to the Queen’s Representatives 15

He, however, asked us what we most required for the present; and we told him we would be content till the following year, when he promised again to return, to take only ammunition and tobacco. The Silver Chief never re-turned; and neither his son or the Hudson’s Bay Company have ever since paid us annually for our lands only the small quantity of ammunition and tobacco which, in the first instance, we took as preliminary to a final bar-gain for our lands.

This, surely, was repaying me very poorly for having saved the Silver Chief ’s life; for the year he came here Cuthbert Grant, with 116 warriors, had assembled at White-Horse Plain, intending to waylay him somewhere on the Red River. I no sooner heard of this than I went to Cuthbert Grant, and told him if he came out of the White-Horse Plain, where his warriors were assembled, I should meet him at Sturgeon Creek with my entire tribe, who were much more numerous than they are now, and stand or fall between him and the Silver Chief. This had the desired effect; and Mr. Grant did not make the attempt to harm the Silver Chief, who came as he went, in peace and safety. Those who have since held our lands not only pay us only the same small quantity of ammunition and tobacco which was first paid to us as a preliminary to a final bargain, but they now claim all the lands between the Assiniboine and Lake Winnipeg—a quantity of land nearly double of what was first asked from us. We hope our Great Mother will not allow us to be treated so unjustly, as to allow our lands to be taken from us in this way.

We are not only willing, but very anxious, after being paid for our lands, that the whites would come and settle among us, for we have already derived great benefit from their having done so—that is, not the traders, but the farm-ers. The traders have never done any thing but rob, and keep us poor, but the farmers have taught us how to farm and raise cattle. To the Missionaries especially we are indebted, for they tell us every praying-day (Sabbath) to be sober, honest, industrious, and truthful. They have told us the good news, that Jesus Christ so loved the world that he gave himself for it; and that this was one of the first messages to us, ‘Peace on earth and goodwill to men.’ We wish to practice these good rules of the whites, and hope the Great Mother will do the same to us; and not only protect us from oppression and injus-tice, but grant us all the privileges of the whites.

We have many things to complain of against the Hudson’s Bay Company. They pay us little for our furs; and when we are old we are left to shift for our-selves. We could name many old men who have starved to death, in sight of many of the Company’s principal forts. When the Home Government has sent out questions to be answered in this country, about the treatment of the Indians by the Company, the Indians have been told, if they said anything


16 Peguis

against the Company they would be driven away from their homes. In the same way, when Indians have wished to attach themselves to Missions, they have been both threatened and used badly. When a new Mission has been established the Company has at once planted a post there, so as to prevent Indians from attaching themselves to it. They have been told they are fools to listen to Missionaries, and can only starve and become lazy under them. We could name many Indians, who have been prevented by the Company from leaving their trading post and Indian habits when they have wished to attach themselves to Missions.

When it is decided that this country is to be more extensively settled by the whites, and before whites will be again permitted to take possession of our lands, we wish that a fair and mutually advantageous treaty be entered into with my tribe for their lands; and we ask, whenever this treaty is to be entered into, a wise, discreet, and honourable man, who is known to have the interests of the Indians at heart, may be selected on the side of the Indian, to see that he is fairly and justly dealt with for his land; and that from the first it be borne in mind, that in securing our own advantages we wish also to secure those of our children and their children’s children. I commit these my requests to you as a body well known by us to have the welfare of the poor Indian at heart; and in committing this to you on behalf of myself, do so also on behalf of my tribe, who are as one man in feeling and desires on these matters. Will you, then, use the proper means of bringing before the great Council of the nation (Parliament) and through it to our Great Mother (the Queen), who will shew herself more truly great and good by protecting the helpless from injustice and oppression than by making great conquests.

I give you, at the end of this, such certificates of character as I hold, from the Silver Chief (Lord Selkirk) and the Governor of Rupert’s Land (Sir George Simpson). I have also a British flag and valuable medal, from our Great Mother (the Queen), which I treasure above all earthly things.

Wishing that the Great Spirit may give you every good thing, and with warmest thanks for your friendship,I remainGentleman Your true friend Peguis or Wm KingChief of the Saulteaux Tribe at Red RiverX His Mark.

—1857


manitowapow - portage & main press · 2020. 11. 2. · duncan mercredi 261 cree/métis 1951–...

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