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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach i

Manual for Media Trainers

A Learner-Centred Approach

A U T H O R S

Drew O. McDaniel& Duncan H. Brown

A N D

I L L U S T R A T I O N S B Y

Chin Mun Woh

Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Development (AIBD)


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ii Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

Copyright 2001 AIBD and UNESCO

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form

or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage andretrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher.

Publication of this book was made possible

by funding from UNESCO

Published by

Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Development (AIBD)

P.O. Box 1137, Pantai, 59700 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

e-mail: [email protected]

andUNESCO

Illustrations by Chin Mun Woh

Design & layout by Adrian Cheah, C-Square Sdn. Bhd., Penang, Malaysia.

Pre-press services by _____________________

Printed by _____________________

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach _____________________

ISBN 983-408-36-02

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________


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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach iii

Contents

FOREWORDBY DREW O. MCDANIEL vi

PREFACEBY JAVAD MOTTAGHI viii

PREAMBLEBY WIJAYANANDA JAYAWEERA x

SECTION ONEWhat is training? 1

What trainers do 2

Training compared to education 5

Training is different from education 5

Adults learn differently from children 6

Three principles that guide our approach to training 7

A learner centered approach 8

Adult training is different 8Planning training is a circular rather than a linear process 11

SECTION TWONeeds assessment 14

Conducting a job analysis 18

Purpose of the job analysis 20

Carrying out a training needs analysis 21TNA Question 1What is the performance discrepancy? 24

TNA Question 2Is the performance discrepancy important? 25

TNA Question 3Is it a skill deficiency? 27

TNA Question 4Could the job be performed satisfactorily

in the past? 27

TNA Question 5Is the skill used often? 28

TNA Question 6Is there a simpler solution? 29TNA Question 7Do staff have the capacity to meet

job requirements? 30

Additional considerations in training needs analysis. 31


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iv Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

SECTION THREETheories of training 37

Domains of learning 37

Cognitive learning 39

Learning and memory 40

Psychomotor skills 43

Attitudes 45

SECTION FOURTraining objectives 51

Five questions to answer 55

Selecting performance levels 57

Writing objectives 58

Learning domains and learning

objectives 68

SECTION FIVEMotivating Adult Learners 73

Motivation theories 74

Using motivational techniques in training 76

Encouraging motivation through a learner centered structure 79

Prior experiences 79Prior expectations 80

Creating a safe and supportive learning enviornment 81


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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach v

SECTION SIXTraining techniques 86

Preparing your session 86

The first step 86

Sequencing 89

Needs to know 90

Structure of sessions 92

Learner centered sessions 92

Discussion leading 95

Using questions 97

Demonstrations 99

Training aids 100

In conclusion 102

SECTION SEVENEvaluation 107

Formative evaluation 108

Collecting feedback during a training program 110Summative evaluation 110

Creating items for questionnaires 111

Avoiding problems with questionnaires 113

Evaluating learning outcomes 119

SECTION EIGHT

Supporting Newly-Trained Staff 125

SECTION NINEAdditional Resources 131

Print resources 131

World Wide Web resources 132

ABOUTTHE AUTHORS 133


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vi Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

Foreword

This manual is intended for persons whose media organization has

asked them to plan and present training programs. Our main concern

is with programs where employees are taken out of their normal

assignments to attend activities aimed at helping them learn new skills or

develop their existing skills. We recognize that a great deal of training in the

media takes the form of on-the-job training. No doubt you are familiar with

the situation in which someone skilled in a job shows a novice how to do the

work. This manual is less concerned with this form of training, although it is

discussed briefly in section six.

The creation of this manual was prompted by our observation that many

who are asked to become trainers of trainers often have little knowledge of

how best to approach the task. We hope that the material included in this

manual will help you. The manual begins by asking the question What is

training? To answer this, we review how training differs from education

and why adult instruction cannot adopt the kind of approach that is oftenused with children. The second section describes how to conduct a training

needs assessment, to help you decide whether training is an appropriate

solution to a perceived problem. It is important to recognize that not all

problems organizations encounter in the workplace can be solved through

training programs, however well-designed they may be. A short review of

various theories about training follows in the next section. These theories

can help you to identify the kind of training task you are about to embarkon and to determine strategies suited to the outcomes you want. The fourth

section emphasizes the importance of defining the objectives you hope to

achieve. Success in training is more likely if you adopt a learner-centered

approach, and to this end various ways to motivate adult learners are offered

in section five. The sixth section suggests specific techniques you can use to

structure and present your training programs. The need for evaluation is then

explained, and some of the forms it can take are described in section seven.Finally, in section eight, we end by suggesting a few ways to encourage your

newly-trained trainees to incorporate what they have learned into their

everyday work.


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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach vii

We hope you will find this material useful and that you will return to it

to help you as new training tasks are assigned and different challenges emerge.

However, it is a relatively brief treatment of a huge topic. Therefore, we

have included a list of additional resources you might wish to consult at the

end of this manual as section nine.

Good luck with your training!

Drew McDaniel


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viii Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

Preface

Since the establishment of the AsiaPacific Institute for Broadcasting

Development (AIBD), various efforts to strengthen the skills of

broadcast trainers have been made over the years, both at the Institute

and in its member countries in the Asia & Pacific region. The efforts have

been much to be commended for, notably the highly acclaimed Training

Methodology courses implemented by the AIBD in the 1980s.

Training Methodology was a special development course for Trainers/

Instructors dealing with the planning, conduct and management of

programmes for the development of core competencies of organizational staff,

which dealt with the concepts and philosophies of Androgogy and their

application, instructional Techniques and Instructional Systems Design.

In an era of unprecedented technological development in the broadcast

industry, the dearth of well trained broadcast trainers became a pressing

problem for the members of AIBD. Arising out of this need for TrainedTrainers the institute was mandated to implement Training of Trainers courses

as one of the core development programmes of the Institute.

This Manual on Training of Trainers integrates the components of the

Training Methodology for adult learning. It shows AIBDs continuing efforts

to assist the actual needs of the Institutes members. This Handbook can serve

as a guide for professional trainers and for those who wish to use systematicand standardized methods in imparting knowledge and skills to others.

UNESCOs continuous support for the Training of Trainers scheme

enabled AIBD to revive its concept on Training of Trainers, which ultimately

resulted in this publication. We envisage that those who have the occasion to

make use of this manual are trainers in a face-to-face learning situation.

The joint publication of UNESCO & AIBD is a noteworthy and timely

publication supporting the on-going efforts in developing the Human

Resources and trained broadcast trainers of its members in the Asia-Pacific

region.


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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach ix

We are deeply indebted to Professor Drew McDaniel, Professor of

Telecommunications and Director of Communication and Development

Studies, along with Professor Duncan H Brown (University of Illinois) of

the Ohio University who authored this Manual. Professor Drew McDaniel

is one of the pioneers in designing and implementing the Training

Methodology Courses for AIBD since mid 1980s, along with the late Mr.

Hugh De Silva. We acknowledge the continuous support extended by

UNESCO through Mr. Wijayananda Jayaweera, UNESCO Representative

to India and Regional Communication Adviser for Asia for his support to

AIBD that resulted in the publication of the Manual. To our own colleagues

at the AIBD, Mr Wilfried Solbach, for his contributions and last but not the

least Mrs. Manil Cooray who deserves credit for her commitment in handling

this core activity on Training of Trainers and the publication of the Manual.

Javad Mottaghi

Director

AIBD


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x Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

Preamble

Taining of Trainers is one of the most important tasks in building

local capacity of developing countries. UNESCO, in line with its

Major Programme to develop a Communication and Information

Society for All therefore, has been in the forefront to support the development

of a core group of local media trainers in the region. In this direction AIBD

with UNESCOs continued support, indeed, made a remarkable contribution

by producing a significant number of broadcasting trainers with the help of

a very effective androgical approach developed by Prof. Drew McDaniel of

Ohio University. Many trainers who benefited from this approach not onlyhave contributed to human resource development in their countries but also

gained respect and recognition by applying androgical approach in their own

individual careers.

This manual authored by Prof. MacDaniel contains the core of AIBDs

well tested training approach. It demonstrates that genesis and development

of training methodology is in part a history of contest to establish an

andragogical method for adult learning against the traditional teacher centeredpedagogical approach.

Those who are already familiar with training methodology will find this

manual a refreshing source of material available to them with conceptual

approaches and the human element of delivery they bring with them. Aspiring

trainers and many others who use this manual are likely to encounter

challenging new approaches to conceptual structures of adult learning and

practice and to the evaluation of their own perceptions. For them, it may

just revolutionize their work or at least will aid them in the process of

professional self-evaluation and development of their own professional careers.

UNESCO welcomes the AIBDs decision to publish this manual and to

share the professional wisdom and experience it contains with a wider

audience. As a comprehensive guide, this training manual will no doubt will

be a valuable contribution to international cooperation in local capacity

building efforts, particularly in the area of human resource development.

Wijayananda Jayaweera

Regional Communication Adviser for Asia

UNESCO Office

8, Poorvi Marg, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi 110057, India


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Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach xi

SECTION ONE

What is training?


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What is training? 1

SECTION ONE

What is training?

Atraining program can serve a range of diverse purposes, an

organizations initiate training programs for many different reasons.

In broadcastin one of the strongest motives is the need to respond

to challenges presented by new technologies. As our technology changes at

an increasingly rapid pace, it requires new skills. The resulting changes in

job descriptions frequently blur boundaries between previously distinct jobs,

producing greater demands for a multi-skilled staff. In any event, many

persons will need to be trained in the new skills required by technology

changes, and some of that retraining will be conducted within their

organizations.

Improving efficiency and performance to ensure that the organization is

capable of responding to the challenges of its competitors will sometimes

require a very different kind of training program. But in striving for enhancedefficiency and levels of performance, training should also be seen as a part of

individual professional development. An organization can increase the

likelihood that it will keep valued employees if it demonstrates that it is willing

to invest in their professional development, by helping them gain new skills

and expertise through organizational support for their training.

The symptoms of a lack of proper training are many. The most self-evidentare haphazard work, delays and malfunctions because of errors or mistakes,

performance and quality standards not met, excessive wear of equipment,

and failures to follow established rules and procedures. Other more subtle

signs include a lack of interest in work, untidy work, lack of a sense of

responsibility, absenteeism, and poor communication. Effective training

imparts not only a way of doing but also a way of thinking. A well trained

person when faced with a problem should be able to respond quickly andwisely. Appropriate training should lead to a better and happier person on

the job, an individual who is able to function as part of the organizations

team.


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2 Manual for Media Trainers: A Learner-Centred Approach

Where an organization has dispersed operations, perhaps with production

units located in several different locations, a central training program can

even help to promote a sense of esprit de corps throughout the organization.

Employees who attend training programs will have met people working for

other units and made contacts that can be maintained as part of an enriched

working environment. Common working practices among employees also

ensures that they can work together more efficiently and effectively. Moreover,

when demands at one location require personnel to move temporarily to

another job site, the time it takes to assimilate them into operations at the

new location will be significantly reduced if they have had previous training.

In all cases a training program needs to match the broader goals of the

organization. The costs of providing training need to be compared to the

benefits it brings. Unless the outcomes of the training move the organization

forward in ways that match its larger organizational plan the costs will

outweigh the benefits. Therefore, training programs need to be developed as

an integral part of a broader organizational strategy.

What trainers do

It may not be obvious what trainers are expected to do in connection

with their daily work. Of course they are involved with instruction in the

training room, but it is important to recognize that they must assume a

number of additional entirely different roles. Although the main concern

might be conducting training activities, there is actually much more work tobe done behind the scenes. Most of this occurs prior to entering the training

room or after trainees have gone back to their regular jobs. The following

pages will describe many of these tasks, but some aspects of trainers duties

are beyond the scope of this basic reference guide. For example, we will not

get into detailed description of the techniques of using various types of training

aids, nor will we get into a full discussion of instructional design. These

complex topics require additional, more advanced preparation than we canoffer here.

Generally, we can identify five separate categories of responsibility. These

tend to occur in a sequence and tend to be repeated again and again in the


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What is training? 3

way training is usually carried out in broadcast organizations. Trainers must

be capable of managing all five, although the precise demands in each of

these areas depend on the policies and operational practices of the organization

to which trainers are attached. For instance, some organizations have planning

departments that assume certain training roles, notably ones involving needs

assessment and management consultation. Needless to say, where planning

departments have been assigned these roles, it is important that there be close

coordination between the planning and training departments.

The starting point of training is usually a training needs assessment. In

this stage, the trainer is expected to be able to properly identify and determine

training requirements. This exercise usually must include current deficiencies

and the projection of future requirements. In this process the trainer must

also be able to lay out specific training and development objectives. These

objectives must be directed toward the requirements of the organization and

must be appropriate for the capabilities of staff members who will receive

training. Often in needs analysis the trainer must assist in judging staff

members readiness for training and in selecting trainees from among a poolof persons nominated by their supervisors.

Second, the trainer is required to design courses and programsincluding

evaluation schemesaccording to the most appropriate modes and media

(i.e., methods and means). This is done by taking into account the specific

subject matter, participants, and trainers. Included in this category of

responsibility are tasks such as sequencing of instruction, preparation of allrequired course materials such as handouts, OHP transparencies or

PowerPoint presentations, and planning of course activities. In designing

practical exercises, the trainer must make arrangements to obtain all resources

required including equipment, materials, and support staff.

Third, naturally, the trainer must be prepared to conduct training in

courses. This obligation typically includes presentation of instruction,management of practical sessions, leading discussions, coordinating trainee

evaluation and feedback, and oversight of incidental matters such as

refreshments, parking, security, accommodations, and the like. Trainers need

to be proficient in the use of training aids and materials. Needless to say,


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trainers must be skillful communicators,

able to present complicated ideas in an

understandable and easily understood

fashion.

Fourth, the end of the activity

produces responsibilities in training

evaluation and analysis. This means

collecting from the trainees their appraisal

of the training, both its adequacy and its

results. Also required is a systematic

assessment of the performance of trainees, in

order to refine and improve the results obtained in future offerings of the

training program.

Fifth, trainers should be expected to participate in consulting with

management on overall training requirements as well as particular

organizational deficiencies that training might be able to address. Today,organizations view of training has evolved into a more complete view of

staff members. Instead of considering each person as an individual cog in the

overall mechanism of the organization, enterprises now recognize staff as the

most important of its assets. Any organization can acquire equipment and

facilitiesgiven the right amount of fundingbut its human resources are

priceless. For most broadcasting organizations, replacing staff members with

individuals having comparable experience and abilities would be extremelydifficult. Consequently, managers generally work hard to retain their staff

and to develop them in ways that make them more useful and productive,

while also attending to individual staff members personal needs. Clearly, to

satisfy this objective, trainers must be made a part of the management team.

When this is done, the trainers role is enlarged to what is commonly termed

a human resource manager.

The broad responsibilities that are assigned to trainers in the modern

organization mean that they must exhibit greater levels of skill and

professionalism than previously. As before, trainers must have communication

and instructional abilities and a knack for explaining. But today trainers must


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What is training? 5

also play significant roles as managers, providing problem-solving, counseling,

and leadership functions to their organizations. On top of this, trainers must

keep abreast of the state of the art in training and human resource

developmenta field that is constantly evolving and changing. The human

qualities of leadership expected of trainers also has grown; today trainers are

expected to exemplify the highest standards of professionalism. Collectively

these demands represent a very tall order for persons who take up training

responsibilities, but this is offset by the knowledge that the influence of trainers

on their organizations has never been greater. Whether it is recognized or

not, most organizations futures depends on their human resources (or

training) departments and on the effectiveness and productivity of trainers

who work in them.

Training compared to education

This manual is based on two fundamental beliefs about training that have

shaped our approach and the suggestions we make.

Training is different from education

Clearly there are overlaps, and the boundary between the two can sometimes

be blurred but Milano & Ullius (1998, p.4) summarized the distinction very

well when they wrote that: Education focuses on learning about; training

focuses on learning how.

Education has broader goals than training and the material covered isintended to be used in many different contexts. This distinction is clear if we

contrast broadcast education with broadcast training. In addition to including

courses to learn skills in such areas as production or management a universitys

undergraduate curriculum in broadcasting will also include courses in topics

such as the history of broadcasting, its social purpose, the legal and regulatory

frameworks that shape its performance, and the ways its output has been

critiqued. The graduates of that program will move on to many differentoccupations and they will use what they have learned in a variety of ways.

While training may, of necessity, occasionally touch on these more

inclusive areas of knowledge they will be less central to the activity.


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Fundamentally, training helps someone do something better and the skills it

develops are usually specific to a particular task. Therefore, the objectives in

training are more specific than those in education. In training it is usually

easier to state the goals in a clear and ultimately measurable form because

the expected outcome is more easily defined. In education the objectives are

less specific and thus determining whether or not those goals have been

achieved becomes much more challenging.

Because of the difference in aims between training and education, the

strategies and techniques each uses in instruction is different. A common

problem for trainers is to unlearn teaching methods they have acquired

without thinking during their schooling years. Breaking habits of instruction

that teachers use can be the first step toward becoming a highly effective

trainer.

Adults learn differently from children

This is the second fundamental belief about training that has shaped our

approach to this manual. At its core is the recognition that to be successfuladult training must show that it values the experiences adult learners bring

to the training situation and build on those experiences. Ideally, a visitor

happening upon a training session should find it difficult to identify

immediately who is the trainer and who are the trainees. The session should

be more of a dialog among all involved.

Clearly, there will be times during almost any training program when therole of trainer and trainee is well defined. For example, it is sometimes very

appropriate for the trainer to be at the front of the room facing in one direction

with the trainees sitting facing him or her in the familiar lecture format. The

problems arise if this is the only format. In our teaching we all tend to teach

using the techniques that we encountered as students. If those experiences

were limited to sitting neatly in rows and trying to remember as much as

possible of what the teacher said we may try to adopt the same approach inour training. Many would question how successful this approach is even with

children, but it will certainly be less successful with adult learners.


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What is training? 7

While we would never suggest that even the youngest child brings no

prior experiences to the classroom it is obvious that adults will bring more.

Training programs need to build on those experiences and incorporate them

into both the initial design and the final presentation. To do otherwise is to

miss a wonderful opportunity. In planning your training programs avoid only

asking yourself what they need to know. Also consider what they already

know and find ways to incorporate that into the sessions. Even the

conventional lecture format can be converted into much more of a dialog.

By doing this you will also demonstrate to the trainees that you respect them

and value the experiences they bring to each training session. Since, as adults,

we are all largely a product of our prior experiences your recognition of their

worth is one of the ways to increase motivation among adult learners. This

idea will be developed more fully in section six of this manual along with

other suggestions to increase motivation.

Three principles that guide our approach to training

From these two fundamental beliefs:

(1) that training is different from education, and

(2) that adults learn differently from children, three principles emerge that

have guided the approach to training we have adopted in this manual.

(1) We need a learner centered approach because:

(a) The trainees are adults,(b) Recognizing that they are adults improves learner motivation, and

(c) It enhances the potential of achieving long-term gains from training.

(2) It is crucial to recognize the distinction between adult training and our

prior learning experiences in school as children and adolescents.

(3) Planning training is a circular rather than a linear process. It includes thepotential for an unlimited number of revisions based on feedback from

prior presentations.


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A learner centered approach

The shift to a learner centered approach involves several changes from the

more traditional teacher centered model with which many of us are more

familiar from our school days. First, the role of the trainer changes from

being the source of all knowledge for the trainees. Instead, the trainer is seen

more as a facilitator or guide to the learning process. As their guide you create

opportunities for learning to occur. Although the term empowerment has

been so overused recently as to render it almost meaningless, you are to a

very real extent empowering the learner. Birchall and Smith (1999, p. 357)

make the following observations about the assumptions behind the learner

centered approach.

Generally, adult learners are now assumed to learn most effectively when:

Use is made of authentic learning tasks seen as meaningful by the

learner.

Use is made of discovery learning methods where the learner constructs

his or her own understanding, rather than instruction by the teacher .

. . There is an emphasis on learning how to solve problems rather than

learning facts.

There is support for collaborative learning and problem solving.

Evident in these four assumptions is the idea that the role of the learner

also changes. Instead of passively absorbing material the learners now play a

much more active role, taking responsibility for their own learning.

Adult training is different

The distinction between learning in children and adults is so important

that experts have assigned them different names. Pedagogy is the word used

to describe learning by (and instruction of) children. Ped is taken from the

Greek word for child and gogy is taken from the Greek word for learning,

hence pedagogy means the art and science of teaching children. Unfortunately,many people use the term pedagogy more generically, denoting any kind of

instruction. It is more accurate to use the word to mean instruction only of

youngsters. Adult learning has a different name, andragogyandra from

the Greek word referring to man.


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What is training? 9

Pedagogy is biased toward education rather than training and is associated

mainly with the development of knowledge on topics where no previous

learning exists. When a baby is born, its brain is a blank slate and all of the

childs learning is new. Gradually, the youngster grows into adulthood and

the process of learning changes from one of new learning to learning that is

incorporated into an increasingly complex bank of knowledge. Pedagogy has

as its goal the shaping and formation of a well-adapted human being. Adults,

of course, are already fully developed human beings and therefore their

learning needs are more about adaptation and restructuring of knowledge.

Andragogy takes into account the learning needs of adults in a number of

different ways. The most important concern is that by the time people reach

adulthood, they have accumulated a wealth of experience and knowledge.

Andragogy stresses the importance of building on the foundation of previous

learning gained through life experience. Another issue is that adults neither

need nor will they readily accept learning imposed on them by other persons;

but adult learners will act maturely and responsibly as partners with their

instructors in the learning process, if the need and benefits of learning areclearly spelled out. Andragogy therefore emphasizes the participation of

learners in setting instructional objectives and defining their own learning

needs. Other aspects that distinguish adult learning from pedagogy include

the greater need among adults for applied learning and for immediately useable

knowledge.

Pedagogys perspective is centered on the teacher, because the child learneris a highly dependent being and is expected merely to follow the dictates of

the instructor. Andragogy, on the other hand must be centered on learners

because they are expected to participate in the definition of their own

individual needs and objectives. Pedagogy attempts to mould children to

make them into socially adapted adults and therefore learning must follow a

somewhat rigid, hierarchically structured pre-determined syllabus. This is

contrast to andragogy that aims to match learning to the individualrequirements of each person and so must remain flexible and adaptable

according to their needs.


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Comparing children and adults, Hart (1991, p. 15) includes the following

in a list contrasting the differences between children and adults as learners.

During our time in school as children and adolescents we rely on others to

decide what we will learn. Children rely on others to decide what is important

to be learned. Adults decide for themselves what is important. Children

accept the information being presented at face value while adults need to

validate the information based on their beliefs and experiences. Children

expect that what they are learning will be useful in their long-term future.

Adults expect that what they are learning is immediately useful. Finally, at

least in our abbreviated list, children have little ability to serve as a

knowledgeable resource to the teacher or fellow classmates. By sharp contrast,

in the adult training situation the trainees have significant ability to serve as

a knowledgeable resource to the facilitator and group members.

Again, evident in the final quotation from Harts list is the idea of a change

of roles for both the trainer and the trainees. The teacher becomes a

facilitator and the child with his or her fellow classmates becomes a

member of a group. Training programs designed for adults must take all ofthese differences into account if they are to be successful. A training program

that simply tells the participants that this is what they must learn and fails to

involve them actively in the learning process is failing to acknowledge that

adults learn differently. Achieving this kind of involvement does not require

complex structures. Something as simple as building into the design of the

training program several points where decisions can be taken either

individually or collectively about where the emphases should be placed incovering the material, and perhaps inviting suggestions for additions, would

be a good starting point.

This idea of a training program as something that is not fixed in stone,

but rather capable of changing and improving brings us to the last of the

three principles that guided us in the approach we have taken to adult training

in this manual. It refers to the need for, and importance of evaluation andfeedback.


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What is training? 11

Planning training is a circular rather than a linear process

One textbook on the design of training programs suggests that there are five

stages (Milano & Ullius, 1998, pp. 17-20). Summarizing their ideas, the

sequence is:

(a) Set the goals and objectives based on an earlier needs assessment

(b) Identify the key topics that need to be covered

(c) Select the training flowthat is, the optimum sequence to present

the topics that you think will be most successful.

(d) Design the training materials to be used

(e) Create a strategy for evaluation and design the evaluation tools.

It is evaluation, the final part of the sequence, that concerns us here. Those

who design training programs know that their task is never over. Each

presentation of the program provides an opportunity to collect feedback from

the participants that can be used to improve future presentations. But

evaluation of the program need not be limited to those who have participated

in it. For example, you might also want to investigate whether what they

learned really matched the requirements of the units from which they came?What had happened to the trainees six months, or a year, after they returned?

The topic of evaluation will be covered in section seven of this handbook.

The remaining four stages, and several other topics will also be covered. But

in the next section we begin with an explanation of why the planning process

should begin with a careful assessment of what training is needed.

References

Birchall, D. & Smith, M. (1999). Technology supported learning. In A. Landale (Ed.),

Gower Handbook of Training and Development. (3rd ed., pp. 354-362). Aldershot, England:

Gower Publishing..

Hart, L.B. (1991). Training Methods that Work: A Handbook for Trainers. Menlo Park, CA:

Crisp Publications.


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Needs assessment 13

SECTION TWO

Needsassessment


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Needs assessment 15

SECTION TWO

Needs assessment

Normally, training is offered by an organization when it senses

deficiencies in its staffs capability. Persons who plan training

programs should pay close attention to the formation of perceptions

about staff members inadequacies and to the specific factors that prompt

managers to recommend training. Not all personnel shortcomings can be

corrected by training. When is training a suitable remedy for problems that

occur in an organization? This is the question the following section will try

to answer.

We can say with some assurance that training should not be treated as a

one-size-fits-all remedy for organizational difficulties. If it is, training is likely

to be wasteful, and its outcomes may be disappointing. This occurs because

training quite simply is not the appropriate solution for every problem. As a

starting point, the trainer needs to ask What exactly was it that promptedthe proposal for training in the first place? The answer to this question will

provide information vital to obtaining positive results. It is this logicthat

effective training is built upon clearly defined needs, and that carefully

developed training objectives must be crafted around those needsthat guides

the assessment procedures discussed in this section. The process of building

a plan for training centers on what is called the training needs assessment

(TNA), a rigorous approach to analyzing an organizations requirements andresources to determine whether training is an appropriate course of action

and, if so, what sorts of training are needed. Training that is not adequately

justified on the basis of need will not produce desired benefits and this will

eventually reflect poorly on everyone involved: trainers, those who get training,

training departments, and organizational management.

As suggested in the preceding paragraph, any training project should beginby asking the questionFor what purpose is training begun? Training should

be viewed as an investment. The investment in an organizations human

resource will produce gains both for individuals involved and for the enterprise

itself. In the end, training should raise the quality, level of output, and


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productive capacity of the organization. The trained person is more competent

and productive thus improving the organizations overall capacity. Lets look

at some of the common reasons training is considered. There are a range of

possible triggers that raise the possibility of training, but the following

discussion will touch on three: something new is about to be started;

individuals are not performing well; or staff may simply need to be updated.

In broadcasting, change is a feature of daily life. New technologies enter

the workplace continuously, causing changes in the way that work is done.

New techniques arise frequently too; techniques for program production

change, revisions in laws require new procedures, and so on. As a result, staff

members need regular updating just to stay current with these changes. Some

organizations rotate staff through different divisions, and years may elapsebetween two assignments within the same section of the organization. In

such cases, training may be a useful way of easing the transition between

assignments. Such updating is typically accomplished by training on-site, in

other words by on-the-job training. Often this kind of training is not even

recognized as training, or is treated so informally it lacks any kind of planning

or structure. This may not seem to be training at first glance, but really it is.

Unfortunately, it may not be obvious when staff need updating, so the

decision to carry out training may be difficult. The TNA process, to be

described shortly, can help clarify the options available to improve staff

performance. Another sort of training may be suggested when the changes


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Needs assessment 17

being introduced are so great as to require something much more formal and

comprehensive. For instance, the introduction of digital technologies in

broadcasting has meant a total re-tooling of skills among technical staff, nearly

all of whom were trained mainly or exclusively in analog technologies. The

differences between the two fields of electronics are so great that no simple

and quick transition is possible; a full-scale retraining of affected staff members

is usually required. This kind of training is seldom difficult to recognize.

More of a problem will be found in those cases where staff are thought to

be underperfoming. If staff are not working up to the expected level, if errors

or problems are encountered, or if personnel are not providing the quality of

performance desired, then training may be an option. Then again, there may

be other issues besides a lack of knowledge or skill. Determining exactly what

is wrong can be more difficult than it might seem, and the trainer needs to

work closely with organizational managers to make good decisions in cases

of underperformance.

Often training seems to be called for because of organizational changes.For example, the organizational structure might be modfied to make it more

efficient or more productive. For a number of years, broadcasting

organizations around the world have undergone staff reductions to flatten

their structures (meaning that levels of hierarchy are reduced) to promote

efficiency. To accomplish such a move requires a significant reassignment of

personnel which leads to multi-skilling requirements (assignment of multiple,

not closely related tasks, to individual members of the organization). Anylarge change in an enterprise will inevitably mean a reallocation of

responsibilities, and this tends to imply a likely need for training.

Sometimes training is proposed because basic indicators of overall

performance suggest a problem exists. In broadcasting, this may take the form

of poor ratings or inadequate advertising revenues. Criticism from outside

the organization can motivate an investigation of training options. This isespecially true if the stature of the critic makes the criticism credible and

persuasive. Complaints from government officials or from business or political

leaders can make an organization reevaluate its performance, and this may

lead to the decision that a training needs analysis ought to be done.


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There are many sources of information that can help in investigating

whether training is needed. As a first step it is usually a good idea to examine

records concerning the work itselfdetails of work output, observation of

work production, work samples, performance appraisals, and so on. Not all

these might be available to training planners, but all that can be obtained

should be consulted. Even when no problems have been identified, such

reviews can be rewarding. Indeed, routine observation is a good habit. Over

time it allows one to observe trends that might not be evident otherwise.

The benefit of simply keeping an eye on performance is that one soon

gains an overall picture of the organization and its performance history.

In some organizations formal data gathering techniques are possible. The

training department might conduct surveys of staff or use one of a large

number of organizational tools to study needs. Some examples of approaches

that have been applied to training needs analysis include SWOT (strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis, force field studies, and Delphi

research, among many others.

Conducting a job analysis

One component of training needs assessment is job analysis. At the micro

level, one can evaluate the specific sets of capabilities needed by people filling

various roles in organizations. This step is often neglected, perhaps on the

assumption that people working within an organization understand it perfectly

well and have little need to study it to understand the roles people fill. Thisassumption has been shown again and again to be faulty. Much wasteful

training occurs because no one has thought about what actual needs might

exist. Before training can begin, the trainer must know detailed components

of jobs the learning is meant to address. After all, the performance criteria

for training courses have to be built around the performance criteria in the

workplace.

A job analysis typically is done with a visit to the workplace. Even if the

training planner is familiar with the setting, it is better to be present when

trying to break job descriptions down into their component parts. While on

the scene, interviews with those who do the jobs, and their supervisors and


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sense of the work environment, personalities of people on the job, and many

other intangibles that can subtly affect the success of training. Building a

training activity to incorporate such impressions can lend a texture and realism

that would otherwise be lacking. And realism is vitaltrainees must feel that

the training activity understands their reality and is addressed to their actual

working conditions in order to accept the training as valid and worthwhile.

Purpose of the job analysis

A job analysis is useful not only to document the work specifications of

potential trainees. The job analysis also should help in carrying out an

assessment of skills, requirements (time, resources, etc.) for training,

information components needed, a logical structure of training to be utilized

in instructional design, and performance standards to be achieved in training.

In addition, job analyses provide other important planning information: the

priorities of different components of training, budget, time allocations for

specific segments of training and for an entire activity, facilities, and modes

and media to be used in training.

The skills and knowledge required on the job need to be known and

carefully specified as part of the planning process in training. These lead to a

set of judgments that will be outlined fully in the section on instructional

design later. For now, it should be sufficient to note that knowing what is

done in the workplace should lead to a clear conception of what skills need

to be cultivated by training and what knowledge must be imparted in thecourse of the exercise. Sometimes the TNA produces a need for further

research: What are other organizations doing to achieve the same result? What

are the precise needs for training that have to be met in order for other

divisions of the organization to work effectively with the units receiving

training? What do managers want and expect to happen as a result of the

planned training? Questions such as these have to be answered at an early

stage of planning to avoid errors and wasted time later.

Time decisions are critical in the planning process. Training has real costs

associated with its activities. These take the form not only of formal budgets,

but also of lost productivity due to the unavailability of staff during training,


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Needs assessment 21

incidental costs in wear and tear on equipment, and the like. Consequently,

the more efficient the training the lower the costs and, in the long run, the

greater the training departments influence on the organization because of

its ability to mount more activities. Choices need to be made about the overall

length of training. This depends on the kind of training required and on the

scope of training being developedthe more ambitious the goals, the longer

time will be required. But the issue is not merely the total amount of time

required for training, but the time required by the individual components

that make up the overall plan. Deciding on the length of time to train for

each task, sub task, and task element will ultimately lead to an overall estimate

of the length of time required.

The logical sequencing of training is sometimes not self-evident and must

be determined through a training needs analysis. Again, this topic will be

taken up in comprehensive way in the section devoted to planning sessions.

The key idea here is that training that follows a chronological sequencing

based on steps performed on the job may not be correct. If a task is performed

in an A, B, C, and D sequence, it does not necessarily follow that learning Abefore B, and B before C, provides the best learning approach. It may be

that knowing C well may facilitate learning A and B; knowing more about

subsequent steps can help a learner understand what needs to be done. Imagine

what it would be like to bake a cake without ever having seen one. It would

be a puzzle to envision what the finished product should be likesoft or

crunchy, sweet or sour, pale or dark, etc. In other words, it helps to know

what a cake looks, tastes, and smells like before starting to make one. Similarly,the sequencing of steps in training can have a tremendous influence on the

results obtained.

Carrying out a training needs analysis

Training needs analysis is a systematic procedure for planning human resource

develop-ment programs. This technique takes into account a wide selectionof factors found in the workplace that affect organizational outcomes. It is

used to evaluate the difference between what is desirable in an organizations

performance and what it is actually accomplishing. Of course, an organization

is nothing more than a collection of individuals, so when we speak of an


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organizations performance what we really mean is the collective performance

of the individuals who make up that organization. Once we have defined the

difference between what is desired and what is actually occurring, we then

have the basis for developing a training program that can narrow the gap

between the two. All training is aimed at this fundamental objective.

Within organizations, there must be expectations about what each person

in the enterprise should do and about how much or how well the job should

be done. Sometimes, these expectations exist only in the minds of staff

members, but many organizations spell them out in detail. Commonly called

job descriptions, these formal statements explain precisely what specific

responsibilities are assigned to individual positions, and they provide criteria

through which one may judge performance. Even if formal documents do

not exist, there undoubtedly will be performance expectations held by staff

throughout the organization. The problem is that if formal documents do

not exist, then confusions about expectations are bound to occurwhether

the person doing the job has the same understanding as their supervisor or as

their colleagues will be very much in doubt. This is why any training needsanalysis must begin with a review of job descriptions; these documents offer

the detailed information needed to determine whether or not training is

advisable. If job descriptions do not exist, training planners should

encourage the organization to develop policies to

draft and publish them.


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Needs assessment 23

Performance goals

should be incorpo-

rated in every position

description. Performance

goals give staff members

clearly-defined targets for them

to work toward. Achieving these

performance levels ensures the

organizations success, because meeting

performance goals in each position will

ultimately lead to the collective attainment oforganization-wide goals. To be useful, such

performance goals need to be stated in the simplest and clearest terms.

Everyone concerned should have no doubt about what is actually meant by

the language of performance goals. If misunderstandings do occur, problems

are bound to follow. These goals must be realistic and attainable without the

use of extraordinary measures. There is a tendency for goals to be over-written,

meaning that people tend to develop inflated expectations for jobs (at least,if they are not required to meet them personally). In a way, this is not entirely

a bad thing. The establishment of high standards should surely be encouraged,

but if the required level is unlikely to be achieved by nearly all persons assigned

to the job, then the job description will be a recipe for failure.

In effect, performance standards define the characteristics of people who

should fill jobs. If position descriptions call for specialized capabilities, thesemust be recognized at the time people are recruited or are given their

assignments . If care is taken as people are placed in their positions, the need

for training can be lessened, and disruptions in the work of the organization

will be minimized. Again, transparency is a must; everyone affected must be


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clear about expectations laid out in position descriptions.

The differences identified between expected and actual results in an organi-

zational setting are called performance discrepancies. Performance standards

must be met if organizational goals are to be achieved, hence eliminating

or at least reducingperformance discrepancies will be decisive in

determining whether an organization meets its overall objectives. Performance

discrepancies occur when what is being done now is not what should be

done. Getting staff to perform in expected ways at expected levels might be

accomplished in varied ways, some obvious and others not, and only one of

the options available is training. As training is an expensive time and labor

intensive activity, managers generally prefer to exercise other options before

accepting training as a remedy for performance discrepancies. It is not

uncommon to hear the opinion we have a training problem or our staff

need training, when what is meant is that in some manner performance

standards are not being met. However, what is not clear in these statements

is an evaluation of whether training is the logical remedy.

To determine whether training is an appropriate measure to correct

performance discrepancies, seven questions must be answered by the training

needs analysis. These questions should be incorporated into the survey that

the training planner conducts as a preliminary step in organizing a training

activity. Each one of these seven questions yields an answer that will guide

the organizer to a fitting plan of action.

TNA Question 1What is the performance discrepancy?

There are lots of reasons why performance discrepancies occur and the chief

aim of a TNA is to uncover the origin of the deficiency. After gaining this

information, the trainers fundamental question must be whether or not

training can correct this problem and, if so, whether training is the most

efficient and effective means of solving the discrepancy.

Lets illustrate this issue with a hypothetical scenario. Suppose that a

member of a television news department who is responsible for field-produced

video packages is making poorly organized and sloppily edited pieces for the


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Needs assessment 25

early evening telecast. An examination of the video packages reveals a lack of

good editorial judgment and a poor sense of production values. Ones first

reaction to the problem might be that somehow the staff member in question

is not performing to accepted standards because he lacks the skills or lacks

the knowledge of proper production techniques. Such a performance

discrepancy can be narrowed or eliminated by training. But can you think of

other possibilities? Suppose that on investigation you discovered the staff

member was arriving late at his desk. And further suppose that his late arrival

was forcing him to work hastily in order to produce each days packages in

time for airing. It is quite possible that in the rush needed to meet deadlines

he was forced to make quick choices and accept less than ideal editing work.

If this were the situation, could training aimed at developing improved

production knowledge and skills provide a correction? Obviously not. If

people already know how to do what you want them to do, further instruction

in that knowledge will not get the results you desire. If the producer already

knew how to do the job further training might marginally improve his abilities,

but it is not at all likely to remedy his work habits, which is the real problem

in this hypothetical case.

Training can be formulated to attack problems of poor work habits. Of

course this is not an easy undertaking, but it is possible. In order to be

successful in training, however, the planner must know what is actually the

real problem. And this is why a study in the workplace is necessary to

determine what is going on there. A training needs analysis conducted by

the planner will determine what is causing the performance discrepancy. Theinvestigation should deal with issues such as what, specifically, is the evidence

that a performance discrepancy exists and why is there dissatisfaction with

performance. The answer to the first question leads to a further question:

TNA Question 2Is the performance discrepancyimportant?

It might appear that a performance discrepancy that rises to the attention of

a training planner has already qualified as important enough to merit

consideration. If supervisors are unhappy with performance, one might think,

it is a problem that should be dealt with. But there can be cases where


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discrepancies are matters that may be upsetting to supervisors, but not really

factors in meeting organizational goals.

Take for instance the case of a worker who dresses

carelessly and wears long hair. This might be a source

of irritation to a supervisor who may be offended by

the appearance of the staff member, but if the level

and quality of work is not affected and

it has no general effect on the

productivity of the organization,

does it really matter? Of course,

there might be a few circum-

stances in which long hair really

is a problem, say for example

where the long hair might pose

a physical danger. If a

worker were to work

around mechanical equip-ment where hair might get caught and cause injury, then there would be a

serious issue. Or it might be an issue in situations where the long hair might

somehow degrade the quality of the final product, as for example in food

production where head coverings are usually required to keep stray hairs from

ending up in the edibles.

One way of answering this question in a TNA is to consider theconsequences of leaving the situation as it is. If no training is attempted and

things go on as they are, what negative consequences will result? If the negative

results do not affect the workers output or the organization in any important

way, it might be better to leave the existing situation to be solved by means

other than training. In this connection, it is important to recognize that

training departments cannot substitute for appropriate supervisory actions.

If the supervisor in the situation just described is unhappy with the groomingof his staff, the supervisor is the best person to deal with the issue properly.

Asking the training department to correct behaviors of staff can simply be a

way of passing the buck or of ducking the responsibility to address a problem

directly.


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Needs assessment 27

TNA Question 3Is it a skill deficiency?

By this point, you have decided that the problem is a real performance

discrepancy, and that it is important. It needs attention. What comes next is

an evaluation that determines the cause of the discrepancy. This questions

asks whether the shortcoming stems from an inability of the staff to perform

as desired because he or she lacks the skill to do it. What needs to be

determined in this phase of analysis is whether the problem is a lack of skill

or whether some other fault exists. If the person in question is able to do the

job, but isnt doing it, the remedy lies elsewhere, not in training. If not, it

should be up to the supervisor to determine how to change conditions so

that performance capabilities can be realized.

At this point it is appropriate to ask whether the person considered to

have a problem could perform if he or she really had to. Could this person

do the job if his life depended on it? Whenever you hear the expression he

ought to be doing it, it is likely you are not dealing with a real skill deficiency.

The idea that a worker ought but is not implies that, in the judgment ofthe person speaking, the worker prefers not to perform as desired. The key

word is ought. If there were a genuine skill deficiency, the expression is

more likely to be something like he cant do it.

TNA Question 4Could the job be performedsatisfactorily in the past?

If the performance discrepancy is real and important, the training planner

should inquire whether the proper standard was ever within the capabilities

of the staff member under consideration. Usually the answer is clear, but if

you dont know for sure, it is important to ask. The reason is that there is a

very great difference between a skill that once existed and one that never

existed. If the skill once existed something has happened to cause its loss.

Here the training planner needs to first ask why skills have been lost. If thereason is through neglect, lack of practice, disinterest, or simply forgetting,

the job of regaining the performance standard is generally much less

challenging. A remediation training exercise might be all that is required.

However, one might question motivation and commitment in such a case,


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and perform an additional investigation into why the staff did not desire to

maintain and enhance his or her capabilities.

TNA Question 5Is the skill used often?

If the skill needed is not regularly exercised, it may decline simply due to

lack of use. This situation can be corrected either by a skill maintenance

program or a performance maintenance programor both. It is common

for pianists to practice daily in order to maintain and develop their skills.

The same may be required of anyone whose job demands performance skills,

particularly if they do not utilize those skills frequently. Musicians might

perform in public only occasionally, and if they practiced just when preparing

for a concert, their skills would quickly decline. Another example of an

irregularly performed skill requiring regular practice is marksmanship among

police officers. Some police officers complete their careers without once firing

a shot from their handgun in the line of duty; most police are rarely required

to use weapons. For this reason, police departments generally require member

of their force to complete routine target practice. If officers did not practiceregularly, they would not have the ability to use their weapons accurately on

the rare occasions when they needed to open fireand this could be a very

dangerous situation. These two examples represent cases where peak

performance is required infrequently.

Suppose the skill in question is one the person could perform properly at

an earlier time and it is a regularly used skill. What could it mean if the skillis not now satisfactory? One often hears the adage that practice makes

perfect. If this is true, then how can performance actually decline over time?

Well, it seems that old saying is only partially correct; under certain conditions,

it is quite possible for performance to deteriorate with the passage of time.

One factor that may cause performance to worsen is working in the absence

of feedback. If staff perform work without receiving guidance, random changes

occur, bad habits creep in, misunderstandings about standards arise, and soon.

The fact that skills change as time passes shows how important it is that

feedback be built into the practice routine. If the staff member who is not


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Needs assessment 29

performing up to par were to get regular, understandable, and appropriate

feedback, the problem might well disappear. Anytime performance on the

job is not what is desired and the expected performance is within the persons

capabilities even though performed regularly, one should check to determine

whether timely information about the quality of performance is being given

the person.

TNA Question 6Is there a simpler solution?

There is an old adage that says if you are a hammer, then everything looks

like a nail. In other words, if you have a particular set of skills and abilities,

it is a natural inclination to use those tools anytime a problem arises. And

while training may seem to be a suitable answer for performance problems,

it may not always be the best solution. Training is an expensive business,

both from the standpoint of financial budgets and from human costs

associated with activities. Also, training is a labor-intensive activity; it ties up

a lot of human resource for long periods of time. No effort should be spared

to ensure that training is initiated only for those situations where a goodoutcome is likely. In many situations, other kinds of measures make more

sense and will save the organizations resources. As already hinted above,

training is only one of the ways to improve performance, and its use should

be limited to those cases where there is a realistic chance of positive results

being obtained.

If there is a genuine skill deficiency, there are at least two alternatives.First the person or persons could be trained in order to raise their skill levels

this is where the training plan comes in and that is what this whole manual is

about. But, secondly, one should not ignore the possibility of changing what

is expected of staff. This can be accomplished in several ways. One would be

to reassign the person to responsibilities for which he or she already has the

required level of ability. Another would be to revise requirements in the

present position. This might mean restructuring aspects of the job so thatthe skill deficiency becomes unimportant, or it might mean shifting the way

the job is being done to accommodate the skill levels available. Be warned:

there is likely to be resistance to job requirement changes, especially if they

seem to be lowering performance standards. Changes must maintain overall


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quality standards of the organization, and the modification of performance

requirements must be arranged to ensure this. Furthermore, there is a tendency

for staff to resist almost any kind of change in their work rules, so a good

deal of persuasion may be needed to win them over.

TNA Question 7Do staff have the capacity to meet jobrequirements?

Finally, one must ask whether the person or persons have the capacity needed

to meet requirements of the job. The reasons people simply cannot do a job

are varied. It is not always based on their physical or intellectual limitation,

it can also arise from the mental or emotional or attitudinal state. If a staff

member is over-qualified, their motivation may be lacking; if the job in

question is disliked, it may not be done properly; or if there is an overall lack

of morale, commitment to the job will be low. If you have determined that

there is a real performance discrepancy, that it is important, that it is a

performance goal never met previously, that there is plenty of opportunity

for practice, that training has not eliminated the deficiency, and that the jobrequirements cannot be alteredthen shifting personnel may be the only

way of meeting desired levels of performance. When confronted with this

situation, there really are only two choices: change the job or change the

person. The latter choice is often a difficult one to make because, in a way, it

means admitting defeat. Furthermore, it can have negative consequences

because it tends to convey a sense of failure to the person whose abilities do

not measure up. When the need to adjust assignments in this manner becomesnecessary, the human dimensions of this situation should be treated sensitively.

Of course, it may be possible to redefine performance standards to reflect

the actual capabilities of the people in those positions. Oddly, this solution

seldom occurs to managers, perhaps because they become locked into a

particular approach to defining responsibilities, and they often resist a remedy

like this. However, the benefits of redefining jobs can be a powerful persuasivetool. It may be up to the training planner to initiate a discussion about how

job standards can be modified, so as to make the best use of personnel available

and to minimize the costs of reassigning or retraining staff.


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Needs assessment 31

People whose performance is being studied should be given the

opportunity to participate as a partner in the training needs analysis. This is

a key consideration in making the training a learner centered activity. Making

staff members equal co-workers in the data gathering phase has several benefits.

First, people are bound to cooperate more fully if their opinions and beliefs

are taken seriously. Secondly, people who do the jobs are in the best position

to know what problems exist in the work situation. Finally, an equal

partnership ensures that the training planner will work closely with staff

through the information gathering phase and this makes it more likely that

the data will be reliable and valid. The close partnership will likely make the

results of the analysis much more acceptable to everyone involved. If people

believe they have had an opportunity to participate fully in the study, they

will be more inclined to accept the conclusions reached.

In some situations there may be tools available outside the organization

for judging performance. For example, in the United States broadcast technical

personnel may obtain certification through the Society of Broadcast Engineers

(SBE). The SBE offers a series of tests to assess individuals knowledge ofbroadcast electronics and laws. These are used by broadcast organizations to

determine staff qualification and by individuals to earn important widely-

accepted certification. Other kinds of testssome simple, some complex

can be found for other assessing abilities in areas of broadcasting. Sometimes

these are administered by external bodies such as the SBE and others can be

administered in-house by the organization itself. You may wish to consult

resources mentioned in section nine, if you would like further informationabout such tools.

Additional considerations in training needs analysis

The end product of a training needs analysis is a set of recommendations

for action, if any true performance discrepancies have been identified. In

conducting training needs analysis, care must exercised to ensure thatrecommendations are matched both to the genuine requirements of the

organization and to long-range personal potentials of individuals. There is a

danger of focusing on short-term needs of the specific jobs being filled by

staff. If the training decisions are based solely on the immediate situation, it


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Needs assessment 33

remainsare there true performance discrepancies, and if so, is training the

proper course of action. Of course, based on the point made in the preceding

paragraph, if a person is doing well and has a bright future in the organization,

then an investment in that individuals long range potential is easily justified.

On the other hand there are cases where just the reverse situations occur

people are sent for training as a punishment. Once again, the logic of this

practice is questionable. If the person really needed further instruction, as

determined by a training needs analysis, then certainly training would be

appropriate. But if training is seen as a punishment, individuals will not be

enthusiastic participants and the difficulties in achieving positive results are

multiplied. In the end, the aim that TNA is meant to fulfill is to ensure that

training is effective for everyone concerned by adopting measures that make

training available to the right people at the right time. This in turn makes

training more cost effective and efficient. It also gives training departments

the best opportunity to play an important role in the overall success of the

organization.


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Theories of training !#

SECTION THREE

Theories

of training


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!$ Training of Trainers


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Theories of training !%

SECTION THREE

Theories of training

This section of the manual will provide a detailed explanation of the

mental processes behind training and learning. Although explanations

are presented as theories, they have profound practical implications

in training. It is because of this real world importance that every trainer

should understand and be able to apply concepts presented in the following

pages. This is essential so that trainers can be conscious of the factors at work

in their learners mental processes, and in order to realize the greatest transfer

of knowledge and skill.

Domains of learning

In the 19th century, instruction tended to be a simple transactional process.

Instructors presented material in a manner they considered understandable,

and learners were expected to learn. At the time, trainers had nothing morecomplicated than this in mind. Those who did not learn well enough were

considered somehow personally negligent, and methods were used to reinforce

learning that would make failure quite uncomfortable. In Europe and North

America slow learners were even punished. At the very least, those who had

trouble learning were stigmatized or ostracized. You may be familiar with

Charles Dickens novels containing themes about the negative consequences

of this simplistic and harsh method of instruction. Inherent in the perspectiveof that era was the assumption that learning is primarily the responsibility of

the learner, and the instructors role is merely as a conduit to material.

In the 20th century, a new movement arose that offered an alternative

conception. This movement attempted to adapt scientific models and to apply

them to the learning process. Adherents of this new philosophy espoused the

belief that learning could be carried out with the same discipline and precisionused in science, and that this would result in more consistent results. Such

an approach to learning was mirrored in application of so-called scientific

methods to a wide range of fields. For example, there was a scientific

management school that argued for strict application of the principles of


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!& Training of Trainers

physics and mathematics in organizations. These movements had many

unfortunate outcomes, but they also led to some positive results. For one

thing, in the field of education they focused attention on the nature of the

relationship between the instructor and the learner. It soon became clear that

learning was a much more complex task than had originally been thought.

Additionally, the role of the instructor was recognized as important to the

success of a learning exercise. One could not blame the learner alone when

learning failed to occur. Instructors had an obligation to become skillful in

transferring instruction and to make the learning as easy as possible for the

learner.

As the decades passed, and with the further application of science, most

particularly the study of physiology and psychology, knowledge about the

process of learning grew more complete. What emerged as research into

learning continued, was that there were actually multiple dimensions of

learning, not just one. It also was realized that learning in each dimension

was distinct, requiring different sets of skills and abilities. This meant that a

person might be brilliant at learning in one of those dimensions and not inothers. It also meant that instructors could not rely on only one method of

presenting material; they had to tailor their method of instruction to the

nature of the particular intended dimension of learning.

These dimensions are usually called domains, a term that refers to broad

categories defining distinct types of learning. Conventionally, three domain

have been identified by researcherscognitive, affective, and psychomotorskills. There are also subdivisions within these domains recognized by

researchers and other experts, but generally most instructional theorists accept

the three as adequate descriptions of learning categories. Indeed, it is worth

emphasizing that most persons who study learning and learning behavior

believe that there is not just one mental aptitude, but many. Experts discovered

long ago that an individual who has strong verbal abilities may or may not

have good mathematics abilities. Likewise, the person who is recognized as agood writer may not seem to be very skillful when speaking aloud. Their

oral aptitude may not match their writing aptitude because the two capacities

require different skills and mental abilities. The exact number of different

mental abilities is not known, though some experts believe there are many,


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to set their own objectives and to strive for these goals. In a positive learning

environment, these goals are influenced by the successes of others in the

training group and by the leadership of the trainer.

One of the most common types of abstractions included within the

domain of cognition is the ability to learn or memorize meanings and

associations of words. This can include what words mean, lists of words, and

so on. It includes any other kind of learning that involves acquiring facts and

knowledge. Facts not only mean numbers and words, the kinds of things we

normally think of memorizing, but the way that something looksits color

and appearance. It can include sounds, and other types of impressions that

our senses give us. Cognition might involve such things as the steps in

troubleshooting a piece of equipment, the proper way to light a set, the

procedures for filing budgets in our organization, and so on. Beyond mere

memorization, cognitive learning also involves problem-solving, decision-

making, and explanation. These are obviously complex processes, but we can

generally define a series of steps required in each. Take, for example, problem

solving. First, must come an awakening of interest in the problem, then areview of the issues, an analysis of the problem, tentative formulation of

explanations or solutions, weighing of these options, and finally selection of

the best option. This is then followed by some kind of evaluation as the

option is exercisedin other words asking, does the solution work as expected?

Learning and memory

As a side aspect of cognitive learning, it must be recognized that the wayhuman brains process information apparently has three modes: short-term

memory (also called working memory), long-term memory, and sensory

memory. Short-term learning is the memorization of information to be

retained for relatively short periods of time. The time may be just seconds,

or at most minutes, before learning is lost if it is retained only in short-term

memory. This may seem to be a problem for trainers, but it actually can be

an advantage. Suppose your memory was cluttered with long-unused names,facts, and other trivia. It is really better to remember some things only long

enough to use them, then they should be discarded. For instance, suppose

you wanted to make a telephone call to schedule an appointment. You would

look up the number and quickly memorize the number, then dial it. Ten


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minutes later, you would not be able recall the number. Dropping items

from memory that serve no further purpose avoids the mental jumble that

might otherwise accumulate.

Long-term memory is used to retain important and useful information

for long periods, perhaps for years, decades, or a lifetime. Even in long-term

memory, our brains are constantly culling through the items stored to find

ones that can be discarded. For example, can you recall your familys telephone

number used when you were a child? When you were a youngster that

telephone number was important, and you made use of it often enough to

retain it in long-term memory. But today you may not use the number any

longer or it may have changed. Retaining in memory a

manual for media trainers

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