manufacturing the future conference 2014 · moataz attallah, university of birmingham development...
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Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
Manufacturingthe Future Conference 2014Glasgow Science Centre
Conference Proceedings
CONTENTS
Conference Programme .......................................................................................................................... 1
Plenary Biographies ................................................................................................................................. 3
Oral Presentations ................................................................................................................................... 6
Session 1A: Innovative Control Methods in Process Manufacturing ......................................... 6
Session 1B: Graphene Manufacturing ........................................................................................ 11
Session 1C: Laser-based Manufacturing: Towards a National Strategy for UK Growth ............. 15
Session 2A: Manufacturing with Light ........................................................................................ 18
Session 2B: ICT in Manufacturing Informatics ............................................................................ 22
Session 3A: Novel Approaches to Metallic Materials and Processing ........................................ 26
Session 3B: Manufacturing Optimisation and Control ............................................................... 31
Session 4A: Novel Processes for Functional Surfaces and Structures ........................................ 35
Session 4B: ICT for Manufacturing ............................................................................................. 39
Session 5A: Sustainable Industrial Systems in Manufacturing .................................................. 43
Session 5B: Advanced Materials and Manufacturing ................................................................. 47
Poster Abstracts ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Theme: Innovative Production Processes .................................................................................. 51
Theme: Frontier Manufacturing ................................................................................................. 110
Theme: Manufacturing Informatics ............................................................................................ 146
Theme: Sustainable Industrial Systems ...................................................................................... 168
Author Index ............................................................................................................................................ 185
Delegate List ............................................................................................................................................ 187
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Programme
09:00-10:00
10:00-10:15
10:15-11:00 Session Chair: Alastair Florence, University of StrathclydeIMAX
IMAX - Session 1A Science Show Theatre - Session 1B Auditorium - Session 1C
Alastair Florence, University of Strathclyde Karl Coleman, Durham University Duncan Hand, Heriot-Watt UniversityInnovative Control Methods in Process Manufacturing Graphene Manufacturing Laser-based Manufacturing: Towards a National Strategy for UK Growth
Anna Jawor-Baczynska, University of StrathclydeDevelopment of continuous crystallisation processes of pharmaceutical compounds to achieve better control over particle attributes
Stephan Hofmann, University of Cambridge Chemical Vapor Deposition Enabled Graphene Manufacture and Technology
Stewart Williams, Cranfield UniversityScience underpinning: the route to laser-based manufacturing success
John O'Reilly, RocheThe Implementation of an In-process mid-IR PAT System for the safe Operation and Control of a Sodium borohydride Reduction Reaction and Bridging the Gap between Process Quality and Quality Control with PAT
Robert Dryfe, University of ManchesterDevelopment and Scale-up of Electrochemical Graphene production
Ken Lipton, Rofin-Sinar UKLasers: bridges to value-added production
Kate Wittering, University of BathTowards Control of Continuous Co-crystallisation of Urea-barbituric Acid
Eduardo Saiz & Cecilia Mattevi, Imperial College LondonFrom large scale synthesis of chemically modified graphene to 3D networks and films
Duncan Hand, Heriot-Watt UniversityLaser-based manufacturing roadmap: towards a UK National Strategy
12:05-13:00
13:00-13:45 Session Chair: William O'Neill, University of CambridgeIMAX
IMAX - Session 2A Science Show Theatre - Session 2B Auditorium - Session 2C Boardroom - Session 2D
William O'Neill, University of Cambridge Ivan Andonovic, ICT, University of Strathclyde Candice Majewski, The University of Sheffield Andrew Schofiled, BAE Systems
Manufacturing with Light ICT in Manufacturing Informatics Early Career Researcher Engagement
Thomas Bradley, University of SouthamptonTowards Manufacture of Ultralow loss Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fiber
Karthick Dharmaraj, Loughborough UniversityAutomated threaded fastener assembly in an unstructured environment Breakout session:
Early Career Researcher Engagement
Alasdair Mackenzie, University of EdinburghNon-Photochemical Laser-Induced Nucleation of Acid Compounds
Murray Robertson, University of StrathclydeICT Solutions for a Multisite Academic Project Register for this session with Candice Majewski ([email protected])
Robert Eason, University of SouthamptonDigital micromirror devices for laser-based manufacturing
German Terrazas, University of NottinghamCloud Manufacturing: a proof of concept of Manufacturing-as-a-Service
14:50-15:10
15:10-15:55 Session Chair: Richard Hague, University of Nottingham 15:00 Auditorium - Session 3C
IMAX
Plenary: Archie MacPherson, AFRCPeople make Glasgow Manufacturing
Hannah Pearson, EPSCR
IMAX - Session 3A Science Show Theatre - Session 3BRichard Hague, University of Nottingham Raj Roy, Cranfield UniversityNovel Approaches to Metallic Materials and Processing Manufacturing Optimisation and Control
Philip Prangnell, University of ManchesterNovel Approaches to Interfacial Reaction Control in Dissimilar Metal Welding
Tabassom Sedighi, Cranfield UniversityOptimisation of placement of additional sensors to identify critical failures to reduce no fault found
Filomeno Martina, Cranfield UniversityHigh-pressure rolling of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V parts: control of microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stress
Karen Yu, University of CambridgeControl System for Ultra Precision Processing
For Grant Holders, by invitation only.
Prasad Potluri, University of ManchesterDevelopment of Novel Automated Manufacturing Technologies for Dry Fibre Preforming
James Williamson, University of HuddersfieldPhase Calculation of Spectral Interferograms using Template Matching
From 17:10
Poster and Exhibition Review with LunchAtrium, Clyde Suite, Whispering Dishes
Buses depart for hotels outside Science Centre
Breakout session: ICT-Enabled Manufacturing Group
Key Research and Technology Themes for Future UK Aerospace Manufacturing
The presentation will provide an overview of Advanced Design & Manufacture National Technical Committee and the key trends and challenges facing the UK Aerospace Manufacturing companies.
Register for this session through CMAC ([email protected]) Limited to 25 people
Tuesday 23rd September 2014
Registration and Exibition OpensScience Centre Entrance, Atrium, Clyde Suite, Whispering Dishes
11:05-12:05
13:50-14:50
16:00-17:00
Plenary: Sir Mark Walport, Government Chief Scientific AdviserThe Future of Manufacturing
Opening Address: Lesley Thompson, Director of EPSRCIMAX
Plenary: Paul Sharratt, ICESPharmaceutical Manufacturing – the Quiet Revolution
Poster and Exhibition Review with RefreshmentsAtrium, Clyde Suite, Whispering Dishes
Wednesday 24th September 2014
09:00-09:45 Session Chair: Rob Darlington, Liverpool John Moores UniversityIMAX
IMAX - Session 4A Science Show Theatre - Session 4B Auditorium - Session 4CRob Darlington, Liverpool John Moores University Paul Conway, Loughborough UniversityNovel Processes for Functional Surfaces and Structures ICT for ManufacturingAdam Clare, University of NottinghamNew Coatings via Electrical Discharge Methods
Ali Baraka, University of SheffieldManufacturing Informatics and Human-in-the-loop: A case of study on Friction Stir Welding
Breakout session: Frontier Manufacturing
Eugene Kalt, Loughborough University An Intelligent Automated Polishing System
Katie Li, Cranfield UniversityUsing Storyboard to Communicate Manufacturing Informatics Scenarios Register for this session with Andy Lawrence ([email protected])
Moataz Attallah, University of BirminghamDevelopment and Processing of TiNi-based Shape Memory Alloys
Angel Sanchez, Loughborough University Study of Humans coping with variability in a complex manual manufacturing process for automation purposes
10:50-11:15
11:15-12:00 Session Chair: Graham Hillier, CPIIMAX
IMAX - Session 5A Science Show Theatre - Session 5B Auditorium - Session 5CSir Mike Gregory, University of Cambridge Siddharth Patwardhan, University of Strathclyde
Sustainable Industrial Systems in Manufacturing Advanced Materials and ManufacturingSteve Evans, University of CambridgeEmerging research themes in Industrial Sustainability
Deepak Jain, University of SouthamptonMulti trench fiber: an industrial solution for high power fiber laser manufacturing
Breakout session: Collaboration with Catapults and Universities
Stephen Yeates, University of ManchesterPolymer Degradation in Inkjet Printing and the Role of Polymer Architecture
Natacha Rodrigues, Newcastle UniversityMaterials Processing for the Manufacture of Hybrid Biopolymer-Bioceramic Medical Devices at the Point of Need
Register for this session through CMAC ([email protected])
Pavan Addepalli, Cranfield UniversityService damage characterisation: A new model to build a semantics based and automated evaluation system
HaNa Yu, University of BristolA novel discontinuous fibre alignment method – HiPerDiF (High Performance - Discontinuous Fibre) method
13:05-14:15
14:15-15:00 Session Chair: David Williams, Loughborough UniversityIMAX
15:05-16:00
16:00-16:15
16:15-16:30
16:30-16:35
Closing Remarks: Sir Jim McDonald, University of Strathclyde
Closing Address: Mark Claydon-Smith, EPSRC
Closing words: Alastair Florence, University of Strathclyde
Plenary: Alison Starr, GE AviationAnchoring global manufacturing in the UK
Poster and Exhibition Review with RefreshmentsAtrium, Clyde Suite, Whispering Dishes
Plenary: Sir Mike Gregory, University of CambridgeBuilding UK Manufacturing Capabilities
Debate Session: How do Universities add value to Manufacturing Research in the UK?David Williams, Loughborough University Panel Members: Mark Price, Queen's University of Belfast ; Clive Badman, GSK; Duncan Hand, Heriot-Watt University; Adam Clare, University of Nottingham; Siddharth Patwardhan, University of Strathclyde
12:05-13:05
Plenary: Mark Buswell, GlaxoSmithKlineUK Medicines Manufacturing Industry Partnership - Manufacturing Technology Innovation
Graham Hillier, CPI
Poster and Exhibition Review with LunchAtrium, Clyde Suite, Whispering Dishes
Andy Lawrence, EPSRC09:50-10:50
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Plenary Biographies
Dr Lesley Thompson Director, EPSRC
Dr Lesley Thompson has responsibility for managing the overall EPSRC portfolio, commissioning £740 million per year for research and postgraduate training in engineering and the physical sciences and managing our relationships with the research base.
She took over as Director in December 2006, before this she was an Associate Director Research Base which included coordinating the national capability Programmes including Engineering, Chemistry, Mathematical Sciences, Materials, ICT and Physics and has been Head of several programmes including the Life Sciences Interface from inception.
Lesley has enjoyed working for the Research Councils for more than 20 years.
She is a non executive director of UK SBS Ltd.
Sir Mark Walport FRS FMedSci Chief Scientific Adviser to HM Government and Head of the Government Office for Science
Previously, Sir Mark was Director of the Wellcome Trust, which is a global charitable foundation dedicated to achieving extraordinary improvements in human and animal health by supporting the brightest minds. Before joining the Trust he was Professor of Medicine and Head of the Division of Medicine
at Imperial College London.
He is Co-Chair of the Prime Minister’s Council for Science and Technology and has been a member of this since 2004. He has also been a member of the India UK CEO Forum, the UK India Round Table and the advisory board of Infrastructure UK and a non-executive member of the Office for Strategic Coordination of Health Research. He is a member of a number of international advisory bodies.
He has undertaken independent reviews for the UK Government on the use and sharing of personal information in the public and private sectors: ‘Data Sharing Review’ (2009); and secondary education: ‘Science and Mathematics: Secondary Education for the 21st Century’ (2010).
He received a knighthood in the 2009 New Year Honours List for services to medical research and was elected as Fellow of The Royal Society in 2011.
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Professor Paul Sharratt ICES
Following a PhD in reaction engineering at UMIST Paul worked for Imperial Chemical Industries for 4 years. He rejoined UMIST in 1991 where he was promoted to a full Chair in 2001. He held a Royal Academy of Engineering / EPSRC Chair in Innovative Manufacturing for the period 2001-6. His work produced many of the process understanding tools that are used by the BRITEST organisation. He holds an honorary chair in the Universidad Major de San Marcos in Lima, and is a fellow of the Institution of
Chemical Engineers. He also chairs the external advisory board of CMAC.
He has been the Division Head for Process Science and Modelling at the Institute of Chemical and Engineering Sciences in Singapore since 2008. His team of 55 researchers work in innovative processing, analytics, chemometrics, reaction engineering, process understanding, process design and operation of a range of pilot scale facilities.
Archie MacPherson Chief Executive, Advanced Forming Research Centre, University of Strathclyde
25 years experience in Manufacturing & Engineering with IBM, ICL, Lucas Industries, HDA Forgings & Mettis Aerospace (in Public, Private & Venture Capital backed ownership).
Including: 15 years leadership in the Forging & Forming industry, supplying complex components internationally to the Aerospace, Defence, Energy & Rail sectors.
Founding member of the Advanced Forming Research Centre.
Alison F Starr Lead for Strategic Partnerships for GE Aviation
Alison is based on their site at Bishops Cleeve in Cheltenham, where she co-ordinates GE’s activities with external partners including government, universities, key industrial partners and funding bodies.
Since graduating from the university she has worked on human factors research and design aspects of systems for aviation and defence systems. She initially
worked for Westland Helicopters as an Ergonomist, then moving to GE (formally Smiths Aerospace), continuing research into the human factors, systems design and issues of new and emerging technologies. She has published extensively in the area of human factors interface design, including work on automatic speech recognition, warning systems and new concepts of crew support systems.
Alison chairs the EPSRC Manufacturing the Future Strategic Advisory Team, and has recently chaired the EPSRC Equipment Panel, she also chairs the Composite Leader Forum with BIS, and the Composite Skills
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Working Group. She is a non-Executive Director of the West of England Aerospace Forum, and chairs the UK Human Factors National Technical Committee for the Aerospace and Defence industry.
Professor Sir Mike Gregory University of Cambridge
Mike Gregory is Head of the Manufacturing and Management Division of the University Engineering Department and of the Institute for Manufacturing (IfM).
Following an early career in industry he was the founder member of the team which established the Manufacturing Engineering Group. Subsequent developments in research and collaboration with industry reflected a broad view of manufacturing including services, management & policy and led to the establishment of the IfM in 1998. Integrating education, research and practice the IfM now has over 230 staff and research students and a further 100 undergraduate and Masters students.
Mike Gregory's work continues to be closely linked with industry and government and he has published in the areas of manufacturing strategy, technology management, international manufacturing and manufacturing policy.
External activities have included membership of various government and institutional committees. He served as Executive Director of the Cambridge MIT Institute from 2005-2008 and was Springer Visiting Professor at UC Berkeley in 2008/9. He chairs the UK Manufacturing Professors Forum and is a member of the UK Government's Manufacturing Analytical Group on Manufacturing.
He is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and Churchill College Cambridge.
Dr Mark Buswell GlaxoSmithKline
Mark Buswell is the Head of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies at GSK and is leading the implementation of the GSK Manufacturing Technology Roadmap that aims to transform pharmaceutical manufacturing. Mark joined GSK in 2002 and has held roles in R&D and manufacturing in process development and engineering,
innovation and sustainability. He has a PhD in Chemical Engineering from University of Cambridge and an MBA from Cranfield University. He is married with 3 children.
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ORAL PRESENTATIONS
SESSION 1A:
INNOVATIVE CONTROL METHODS IN PROCESS MANUFACTURING
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Development of continuous crystallisation processes of pharmaceutical compounds to achieve better control over particle attributes
Anna Jawor-Baczynska1*, Ulrich Schacht1, and Jan Sefcik1
1EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Abstract
Crystallisation from solution is an important separation and purification process commonly used in manufacturing of a broad range of solid products, including fine chemicals, such as dyes, pigments and explosives, as well as active pharmaceutical ingredients and excipients. Over 90% of all pharmaceutical products like tablets, capsules, suspensions contain active pharmaceutical ingredients in particulate, generally crystalline form1. Consistent pharmaceutical product attributes, such as form, habit and particle size distribution are desirable for uniform dissolution time and good bioavailability. Currently, pharmaceutical crystallisations are typically performed in batch mode which often leads to problems in achieving consistent product specifications, e.g. crystalline form, particle shape and size distribution. Moving to continuous crystallisation technologies has the potential for significant increases in efficiency, flexibility and product quality1-3. However, development of continuous crystallisation processes is challenging due to lack of understanding of particles nucleation and growth mechanism under flow conditions and challenges related to control of encrustation and fouling.
In this work we have designed and investigated a continuous antisolvent nucleation unit (a nucleator) in order to generate seeding suspensions for subsequent crystallisation steps. The nucleator was constructed in such a way that a warm solution is injected into cold antisolvent using a small diameter nozzle. The unit is composed of a jacketed vessel in which the temperature of the wall could be controlled to mitigate potential fouling problems, keeping the solution near the wall less saturated than the bulk solutions. Another way used to mitigate fouling problems was by applying low power ultrasound as used in ultrasonic baths for cleaning purposes. The control of crystal nucleation kinetics was achieved by adjusting the mixing efficiency, solvent-antisolvent ratio, supersaturation and residence time in the nucleator. Crystal suspensions produced in the nucleator were continuously introduced to a cascade of continuous stirred crystallisers (MSMPRs) where seed crystals were further grown by cooling and/or subsequent addition of solution to be purified (Fig 1). Careful control of the crystal nucleation separated from subsequent crystal growth allowed for development of more flexible continuous crystallisation operations and improved ability to obtain desirable
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Fig. 1: Particle size distribution of paracetamol seed crystals produce in the continuous nucleation unit (antisolvent crystallisation) and final crystals produced in MSMPR crystallizer cascade by cooling and introduction of additional solution.
1 Chen, J., Sarma, B., Evans, J. M. B. & Myerson, A. S. Pharmaceutical Crystallization. Crystal Growth & Design 11, 887-895, doi:10.1021/cg101556s (2011).
2 Wong, S. Y., Tatusko, A. P., Trout, B. L. & Myerson, A. S. Development of Continuous Crystallization Processes Using a Single-Stage Mixed-Suspension, Mixed-Product Removal Crystallizer with Recycle. Crystal Growth & Design 12, 5701-5707, doi:10.1021/cg301221q (2012).
3 Zhang, H. et al. Development of Continuous Anti-Solvent/Cooling Crystallization Process using Cascaded Mixed Suspension, Mixed Product Removal Crystallizers. Organic Process Research & Development 16, 915-924, doi:10.1021/op2002886 (2012).
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The Implementation of an In-process mid-IR PAT System for the safe Operation and Control of a Sodium borohydride Reduction Reaction and Bridging the Gap
between Process Quality and Quality Control with PAT
John O’Reilly
Roche Ireland Limited, Clarecastle, Co. Clare, Ireland
Abstract
The implementation of a sustainable in-reactor mid-IR PAT system to allow the safe operation of an extremely hazardous sodium borohydride reduction reaction on the very large scale at Roche Ireland (API manufacturing) is described. The development, installation and operation of the mid-IR methodology is detailed. The performance of the system over a year of continuous operation in a turbulent heterogeneous, corrosive and changing environment is evaluated. The business benefits to Roche Ireland are noted. The opportunities afforded to (API) manufacturing of the future through the direct visualization of the chemistry in real-time are considered. A novel concept of virtual sampling that can bridge the gap between the manufacturing process and QC (QC-PAT) is introduced . The operation of a QC-PAT method is described and the many advantages of QC-PAT over traditional manufacturing control practices are highlighted. Real-time process verification through QC-PAT is explored.
Powerpoint presentation
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Towards Control of Continuous Co-crystallisation of Urea-barbituric Acid
Kate E. Wittering1, 2*, Chick C. Wilson1, 2, Ali N. Saleemi1, 3 and Chris D. Rielly1, 3
1 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC)
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom 3Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
*Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom, BA2 7AY. [email protected]
Abstract
As part of a collaborative effort in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation, (CMAC, an EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing), our research is focused on translating crystallisation of multi-component molecular systems from a batch evaporative process into a continuous cooling crystallisation environment. Industry has applied control via batch cooling crystallisation, which has been the mainstay of industrial crystallisation for centuries. The move to continuous crystallisation aims to: address scale up issues previously encountered when using the more common stirred tank batch reactor; increase productivity via higher throughput; and promote increased manufacturing flexibility and product quality [1].
Crystal engineering has been demonstrated to be a valuable tool in materials development. The large and successful area of co-crystallisation has shown the ability to produce new multi-component materials which retain the essential activity of the target material, for example the bioavailability of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), while having enhanced physical properties, such as solubility or morphology [2]. The co-crystal system of urea barbituric acid (UBA) [3] is a prime example of the value of crystal engineered materials, whereby the co-crystals display enhanced solubility over the barbituric acid target material, as detailed in this work.
Multi-component crystal systems, including UBA, are commonly discovered by small scale evaporation. This method, though useful for materials discovery, provides insufficient control over the homogeneity of the bulk product; this is of little value in our targeted scale-up to industrial crystallisation. Transferring multi-component systems into a continuous environment presents a range of challenges relating to polymorph / solid form selectivity, disparities in starting material solubility and optimisation of the yield of the desired multi-component product.
UBA is a particularly challenging multi-component system with three known co-crystal polymorphs. All three polymorphs crystallise readily in a polymorphic mixture, but prove difficult to crystallise individually. This work describes the crystallisation conditions required to isolate each UBA polymorph via batch cooling crystallisation and details attempts to preferentially produce each UBA polymorph in a continuous crystallisation environment using a range of continuous crystallisation platforms [4, 5].
1. J. Quon, H. Zhang, A. Alvarez, J. Evans, A. S. Myerson, B. L. Trout: Continuous Crystallization of Aliskiren Hemifumarate; Cryst. Growth Des. (2012) 6, 3036-3044.
2. P. Vishweshwar, J. A. McMahon, J. A. Bis, M. J. Zaworotko: Pharmaceutical Co-crystals; J. Pharm. Sci., 95 (2006) 3, 499-516.
3. M. Gryl, A. Krawczuk, K. Stadnick: Polymorphism of urea-barbituric acid co-crystals; Acta Cryst. (2008) B64, 623-632.
4. S. Lawton, G. Steele, P. Schering, L. Zhao, I. Laird, X. Ni: Continuous Crystallization of Pharmaceuticals Using a Continuous Oscillatory Baffled Crystallizer; Org. Process Res. Dev. (2009) 13, 6, 1357-1363.
5. S. Ferguson, F. Ortner, J. Quon, L. Peeva, A. Livingston, B. L. Trout, A. S. Myerson: Use of Continuous MSMPR Crystallization with Integrated Nanofiltration Membrane Recycle for Enhanced Yield and Purity in API Crystallization; Cryst. Growth Des. (2014) 14, 617−627.
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SESSION 1B:
GRAPHENE MANUFACTURING
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Chemical Vapor Deposition Enabled Graphene Manufacture and Technology
R. S. Weatherup, P. R. Kidambi, A. I. Aria, A. Cabrero, S. Caneva, P. Braeuninger,
S. Hofmann*
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FA, UK
Abstract
Many of the properties that motivate graphene as promising device material, including high charge carrier mobility, current-carrying capacity, thermal conductivity and mechanical strength, rely on a continuous 2D lattice structure of high crystalline quality. Further, as graphene is atomically thin, ie basically has no “bulk”, all its properties are support and interface dependent. For new technology to develop it is hence crucial to achieve high quality graphene on a large scale and at low cost, to develop industrial material standards and to interface and integrate graphene with other materials. We address these key questions of industrial materials development for graphene with integrated process technology based on chemical vapor deposition (CVD). CVD was the growth method that opened up diamond, carbon nanotubes and GaN to industrial scale production and we think CVD is a key enabler for industrial graphene applications [1-10]. This presentation will highlight the key principles and current state-of-art of this technology and the novel integration routes that we developed for a diverse set of near-term as well as future applications. The discussion thereby includes how CVD can be integrated with other manufacturing techniques such as atomic layer deposition (ALD) and roll-to-roll-technology.
[1] Weatherup et al. Nano Lett. 11 (2011), 4154
[2] Weatherup et al. Nano Lett. 13 (2013), 4624
[3] Patera et al. ACS Nano 7 (2013), 7901
[4] Kidambi et al. Nano Lett 13(2013), 4769
[5] Weatherup et al., ACS Nano 6, 9996 (2012).
[6] Degl’Innocenti et al., ACS Nano 8, 2548 (2014).
[7] Butt et al., Adv. Opt. Mat. 1, 869 (2013).
[8] Dlubak et al., ACS Nano 6, 10930 (2012).
[9] Dlubak et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 173113 (2012).
[10] Meyer et al.,Scientific Reports (2014).
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Development and Scale-up of Electrochemical Graphene production
Robert A.W. Dryfe1*, Ian A. Kinloch2, and Amor Abdelkader2
1 School of Chemistry, Univ of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL
2 School of Materials, Univ of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL
3 School of Materials, Univ of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL *[email protected]
Abstract
We will discuss the methods to produce graphene and graphene oxide, using electrochemical methods, which have been developed at the University of Manchester. Ongoing developments in the scale-up of these patented processes - from the gram to the 10/100 gram scale - will be discussed, as will specific applications of the materials, e.g. in electrochemical energy storage.
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From large scale synthesis of chemically modified graphene to 3D networks and films
C. Mattevi1, E. Saiz1, M.S.P. Shaffer2, A. Bismarck3, K. Li3, T. Peijs4, M.J. Reece4, A.C. Taylor5,
A.J. Kinloch5.
1Dpt. of Materials, Imperial College of London; 2Dpt. of Chemistry, Imperial College of London; 3Dpt. of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College of London; 4School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of
London; 5Dpt. of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College of London.
Abstract
The technological future of graphene rests on our ability to incorporate it in practical composites and devices that will often require 3D free-standing structures. The objectives our work are to define basic principles to guide the design or these materials and to develop efficient manufacturing approaches to build them.
The wide varieties of chemical compositions that graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide can present are often named “chemically modified graphene” (CMG). The chemical versatility of CMG allows its integration in a wide range of wet processing technologies as well as the manipulation of its interaction with different matrices in composites. We have developed large-scale production of chemically modified graphene in water with the use of a modular chemical reactor. Synthesis parameters can be controlled and automatically recorded enabling reproducible synthesis in terms of platelets concentration, chemical composition, and lateral size. In addition, our system enables production of flakes with specific lateral size which can within the range 1-500μm.
Our work combines solution-based engineering of CMG with wet processing technologies such as emulsion templating, extrusion or freeze casting to manufacture graphene three dimensional structures and composites with controlled architectures. In this presentation we will show examples of the fabrication of free standing graphene 3D networks, the use of CMG in a composite engineering context to improve the properties of polymer-based materials (e.g. in films or coatings) or the use of CMG as membranes for gas separation and liquid filtration will be discussed. For example, we will show how CMG membranes in a hollow fiber shape are of particular interest because of the high-efficiency and easy-assembly features at module level with superior figures of merit.
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SESSION 1C:
LASER-BASED MANUFACTURING: TOWARDS A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR UK GROWTH
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Science Underpinning: the route to laser-based manufacturing success
Stewart Williams*, and Wojciech Suder
Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield United Kingdom (
2 Affiliation of the B. Author (Department, Institute, City, Country) *[email protected]
Abstract
Laser based manufacturing has many attractions for high value applications. It can provide unique solutions to challenging manufacturing problems as well enabling innovation designs to be implemented. However the take up of laser based manufacturing in the UK is quite low compared to many countries such as the US and Germany. There several reasons for this but one may be that companies tend to avoid using laser based process due to the perceived or actual ‘black art’ that is needed or associated with them. When laser based manufacturing processes are developed they are usually specific to a particular laser system. Transferring processes between systems is often difficult requiring further process development.
In fact laser based manufacturing should be much simpler to implement than many other approaches due to the highly controlled and measureable properties of laser light. For example in welding the laser thermal profile can be very accurately controlled and is much better characterised than, say, an arc based process. Despite this companies are in general much more comfortable with arc based welding rather than a laser based process.
So why is there black art associated with laser based processes? The main reason can be found in the way in which lasers are used and processes developed. Most laser systems have two primary controls, power and travel speed, which we refer to as system or knob parameters. A further key system parameter is the beam profile on the workpiece which is sometimes not even known and certainly not usually intentionally adjusted. This approach is essentially an engineering one and is why any processes developed this way are specific to a particular laser system.
The solution to this is to apply a much more scientifically rigourous approach to the development of laser based manufacturing processes. These processes need to be developed or studied in terms of fundamental laser material interaction parameters rather than using system parameters that are specific to the laser system being used. By doing this the process conditions are unique and reproducible. It also enables the transfer of processes between different systems without any further process investigation. The system parameters for a specific system can automatically be found from the fundamental laser interaction parameters.
This scientific approach has already been developed and proven for laser keyhole welding [1, 2]. It is currently being evaluated by industry including the development of an expert laser system which would avoid process users needing any expert knowledge to implement a process. In this talk this development of the scientific approach for keyhole welding will be used to illustrate how it could increase the exploitation of laser based manufacturing. The talk will also include how we intend to extend the scientific approach to the highly topical and important process of metal additive manufacture (or 3D printing) using the selective laser melting process.
1. Suder W. J. and Williams S. W. (2012), “Investigation of the effects of basic laser material interaction parameters in laser welding”, J. of Laser Appl., vol. 24, ISSN 1042-346X
2. Suder W. J. and Williams S. W. (2012), “Power factor model for selection of welding parameters in CW laser welding”, Optics & Laser Technology 56 (2014) 223–229, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2013.08.016
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UK Roadmap for Laser-based Manufacturing Applications
Professor Duncan Hand FInstP, Director
EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Laser-based Production Processes
The EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Laser-based Production Processes and the Association of Industrial Laser Users organized a roadmapping workshop with input from 29 participants from industry, academia and public sector in the UK with the aim to:
Identify what applications are emerging in lasers, processes and materials Identify what type of lasers or associated equipment will be required by industry in the future Identify the capabilities and underlying technologies that will be needed to deliver future laser systems and
applications.
The workshop took place on 04 March 2014 at the Institute of Physics, London.
The key market and industry drivers and needs identified were the following:
New laser and machine processing capabilities to enable processing of dissimilar, advanced or brittle materials as well as integrating various processes into one laser system.
Reduction of manufacturing as well as laser systems costs including maintenance and lifetime cost of ownership to respond to global financial pressures.
The need for automation and real time decision making to enable product customisation. The development and deployment of improved and / or new lasers including tuneable power lasers; pico-
second (ps) and nano-second (ns) lasers.
The need to reduce environmental impact by reducing the energy consumption of laser tools, producing lighter and stronger laser systems; reducing material utilisation and production waste.
The priority laser-based manufacturing applications identified were predominantly around manufacturing processes that are applicable to a variety of products and industries, such as:
Additive manufacturing Surface processing and modification Joining of materials especially dissimilar or advanced materials Micro-manufacturing
The most important underpinning technologies and R&D priorities to deliver these applications were:
Fundamental science to improve the understanding of laser-material interactions and eliminate the “black art” associated with some current processes.
Development of better process output monitoring, analysis and control. Development of improved or new lasers and laser systems as well as their integration into machines, tools
and equipment.
Improvements of the laser beam delivery and control to enable better manufacturing precision and speed. Development of better and more sophisticated, high speed scanners and scanning systems.
The UK has strong capabilities especially around solid state material and laser research, optics, modelling and simulation, sensors, analysis and monitoring systems but lacks some relevant technical and engineering skills required to develop the next generation lasers and processing methods. As the UK market demand is very small it hinders large scale innovation and commercialisation efforts in these areas. New innovation methods are required with stronger collaborations between the academic and industrial communities to speed up the uptake of relevant research by industry.
18
SESSION 2A:
MANUFACTURING WITH LIGHT
19
Towards Manufacture of Ultralow loss Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fiber
Thomas D. Bradley*1, Yong Chen1, Natalie V. Wheeler1, John R. Hayes1, Eric Numkam Fokoua1, Francesco Poletti1, Marco N. Petrovich1 and David J. Richardson1
1 Optoelectronic Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Abstract
Hollow core photonic bandgap fibers (HC-PBGFs) are a class of optical fibers which guide light in a low index core region surrounded by a triangular lattice of air holes separated by a delicate silica web (1). The precise nature of this cladding structure requires extremely fine control of the fabrication parameters. While HC-PBGFs have found wide range of exciting research applications the initially anticipated potential for ultralow loss below that of single mode fiber (SMF) has yet to be realized. To date loss figures as low as 1.7 dB/km (2) have been reported, however surface roughness at the core cladding interface limited further loss reduction (3). The loss of HC-PBGFs can potentially be decreased further by increasing the core dimensions (4) and through optimisation of the fabrication process. To date, the manufacture of HC-PBGF’s is reliant upon the two stage stack and draw process. To target ultralow loss below what has been reported to date it has become necessary to ensure repeatability and uniformity in the labor intensive stack and draw process. Repeatability is ensured through rigorous cleanliness throughout preform preparation and by precise fabrication control at each stage of manufacture.
Figure 1) a) Scanning electron micrograph of a 19 cell core defect HC-PBGF, b) Attenuation scaling of the photonic bandgap (PBG) versus central guidance wavelength of 19 cell core defect HC-PBGF. (5)
Greater than 1 km lengths of HC-PBGF (Fig. 1a) can now be drawn with typical attenuations of the order of 2 – 3 dB/km and with significantly improved optical bandwidth (~ 100 nm) compared with previously reported (2). These developments open up HC-PBGF for a range of applications such as telecommunications, laser power delivery, gas sensing and strong light matter interactions, for which they have a clear advantage over conventional fibers. The attenuation scaling of the photonic bandgap (PBG) (solid curves) with central operating wavelength has been investigated in 19 cell core defect fibres (Fig. 1b) (5). The expected attenuation proportional to λ-3 relationship (dashed red curve) is observed until the infrared absorption edge of silica (black dot dash curve) is breached and the attenuation increases (green curve). Through strategic fabrication improvements we have achieved repeatable low loss manufacture of HC-PBGF’s. Future developments in fabrication control and fiber design will allow the realization of ultralow loss HC-PBGF.
1. Single-Mode Photonic Band Gap Guidance of Light in Air. R Cregan, B J Mangan, J C Knight, T A Birks, P St J Russell, P J Roberts, D C Allan., 1999, Science, Vol. 285, pp. 1537-39.
2. Low loss (1.7 dB/km) hollow core photonic bandgap fiber. B J Mangan, L Farr, A Langford, P J Roberts, D P Williams,F Couny, M Lawman, M Mason, S Coupland, R Flea, H Sabert,T. A. Buks, J. C. Knight, P. St. J. Russell. OFC, 2004.
3. Ultimate low loss hollow-core photonic crystal fibers. P J Roberts, F Couny, H Sabert, B J Mangan, D P Williams, L Farr, M W Mason, A Tomilison, T A Birks, J C Knight, P St J Russell., 2004, Optics Express, Vol. 13, pp. 236-44.
4. First Demonstration of a Low Loss 37-cell Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fiber and its Use for Data Transmission. N. K. Baddela, M. N. Petrovich, Y. Jung, J. R. Hayes, N.V. Wheeler, D. R. Gray, N. Wong, F. Parmigiani,E. Numkam, J. P. Wooler, F. Poletti, D. J. Richardson. San Jose : OSA Technical Digest, 2013. CLEO.
5. Understanding Wavelength Scaling in 19-Cell Core Hollow-Core Photonic Bandgap Fibers. Y Chen, N V. Wheeler, N Baddela, J Hayes, S R. Sandoghchi, E Numkam Fokoua, M Li, F Poletti, M Petrovich, and D J. Richardson. s.l. : OFC, 2014.
20
Non-Photochemical Laser-Induced Nucleation of Acid Compounds
Alasdair M. Mackenzie1*, Andrew J. Alexander1, and Colin R. Pulham1
1 EASTChem School of Chemistry, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
Abstract
Non-photochemical laser-induced nucleation (NPLIN) is a method for initiating crystal growth from supersaturated solution or supercooled melt. It was first observed in 1996 and although the mechanism is still unknown it is thought to involve light interaction with the polarizability of solute.1, 2 The potential for hands-off nucleation initiation in manufacturing is very promising, yet only about a dozen of systems are reported to undergo NPLIN in the literature. This work sought to screen compounds with a similar functionality to observe NPLIN at various supersaturations in water and add to the body of literature.
Compounds were picked on these criteria: COOH functional group, solubility at 20 °C of > 5 g kgwater-1 in water, low
toxicity, low cost and a relevance to pharmaceutical industry. Compounds were screened for NPLIN activity under the following constraints: able to be dissolved overnight at ≤ 75 °C, able to cool to 20 °C without spontaneously nucleating, able to observe crystallisation in the laser beam path within 30 minutes of irradiation and reproducibility. Under these conditions vials were shot with a 532 nm, linear polarized, nanosecond pulsed Nd:YAG laser for 60 s at 10 Hz or using a single pulse of ≤ 0.085 J per pulse at 20 °C.
Succinic acid was found to undergo NPLIN at 300 g kgwater-1, S20°C = 4.4 with a single laser pulse of 0.035 J. Nicotinic acid
was found to undergo NPLIN at 40 g kgwater-1, S20°C = 2.7 with a single laser pulse of 0.035 J. Adipic acid was found to
undergo NPLIN at 40 g kgwater-1, S20°C = 2.1 with 700 pulses of 0.035 J.
1. B. A. Garetz, J. E. Aber, N. L. Goddard, R. G. Young, and A. S. Myerson, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1996, 77, 3475–3476.
2. A. J. Alexander and P. J. Camp, Crystal Growth & Design, 2009, 9, 958–963.
21
Digital micromirror devices for laser-based manufacturing
R.W. Eason*, B.Mills, M.Feinaeugle, J.A.Grant-Jacob, D.J.Heath,
Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO171BJ, UK
Abstract
Digital Micromirror Devices (DMDs), containing arrays of around one million individually-controllable ~10μm square mirrors, provide an extremely cost-effective and practical method to modulate the spatial beam profile of a pulsed laser source for both additive and subtractive laser processing and printing. When demagnified by a factor of ~100 in one dimension (hence ~10,000 in area) a ~1mJ/cm2 laser pulse reflected from the mirrors on the DMD surface that are switched to the ‘on’ position, attains a fluence of ~10J/ cm2 at the workpiece, which is more than sufficient to ablate most materials of interest to the laser-manufacturing community.
More familiar in the context of high values of magnification by the laser projection industry, reversing the role to use them for equally high values of demagnification opens up a wealth of possibilities for ablation, multiphoton polymerization, security marking and fabrication of features that perhaps surprisingly can be well below the wavelength of the laser used. Of key relevance is that very high-resolution patterning can be achieved by a single laser pulse, and step-and-repeat processes, when combined with the refresh rates of the DMD pattern that are currently at the 30kHz level, open up the possibility of processing areas of up to 1cm2 per second with micron-scale resolution where each ~100µm x 100µm area patterned per pulse can display arbitrary pixelated content.
We will discuss the application of DMD-baser laser processing to the following areas of interest to the laser-manufacturing community:
1. Image projection-based ablation at the micron/sub-micron scale in materials including steel, semiconductors and diamond [1].
2. Multiphoton processing in polymers for single-pulse fabrication of extended 2.5D objects [2].
3. Use of DMD-assisted laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) for printing of solid phase materials such as polymers and semiconductors in the form of objects such as alphanumeric patterns.
4. Rapid machining of gratings to form bespoke diffractive structures that display multi-coloured (currently up to eight colour) patterns for security coding and marking.
5. The possibility of fabricating arrays with a resolution that is well below the diffraction limit (by using step-and repeat to fill in the pattern using more than one laser pulse).
1. B.Mills, M.Feinäugle, N.Rizvi, R.W.Eason Sub-micron-scale femtosecond laser ablation using a digital micromirror device Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 2013 Vol.23 pp.035005.
2. B.Mills, J.A.Grant-Jacob, M.Feinäugle, R.W.Eason Single-pulse multiphoton polymerisation of complex structures using a digital multimirror device. Optics Express 2013 Vol.21(12) pp.14853-14858.
22
SESSION 2B:
ICT IN MANUFACTURING INFORMATICS
23
Automated threaded fastener assembly in an unstructured environment
K.Dharmaraj1, R.P.Monfared2, and M.R.Jackson3
1, 2 & 3 EPSRC Centre for Innovation Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation, Loughborough University, UK. [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Threaded fastener assembly accounts for approximately one third of all assemblies carried out in industry, yet only limited research has been carried out in automating fastener assembly. Currently, in most industries either manual operators carry out fastening processes using hand held tools, or automated systems are used for repetitive fastening processes with the help of complex fixtures and feeding units. Manual fastening, although accurate and flexible, is also time consuming. On the other hand, existing automated fastening systems deliver reliable assembly results at the expense of flexibility and adaptability. Typically, high value industries such as aerospace are increasingly focused on intelligent and flexible fastening approaches that can be deployed across a range of target applications.
The research reported in this article is aimed primarily at investigating and developing a freeform automated assembly system, to carry out controlled fastening in an unstructured environment. The research was initiated with a comprehensive study of existing methods, technologies, and their applicability in high value manufacturing industries. These technologies included a number of three-dimensional (3D) identification technologies such as stereo cameras, cameras with pattern projector and also laser scanners. Structured laboratory tests were carried out to determine the applicability of these identification technologies for different lighting conditions ranging from controlled to those representative of a factory environment.
The approach taken for this research is to perform fastening of bolts automatically and to address control issues (e.g. torque and force to avoid cross threading) and lack of positional precision (e.g. coordination and orientation of target components to eliminate need for complex fixtures).
The proposed methodology includes using machine vision to identify a fastener and the target component with threaded fastening hole located randomly in the workspace. It also involves picking up the fastener and aligning it with the corresponding hole to perform torque controlled fastening.
A laboratory demonstrator has been developed (Figure 1), which includes a bolt holder, circular disc with different sized holes on multiple planes, tightening system, vision components, Yaskawa robot and a personal computer. The scope of the research is limited to ferrous material bolts with a hexagon head ranging from M5 to M12. The material strength, tolerances and pitch sizes of the bolts are limited to the standard values with torque required for tightening ranging from 80Nm to 120Nm.
The experiments were performed with different sized fasteners and under variable lighting conditions to analyse the applicability of the fastening method in industries.
Figure 2 : Laboratory demonstrator at EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation
24
Manufacturing the Future Conference 2014 Poster Presentation ICT Solutions for a Multisite Academic Project
Murray Robertson, Blair Johnston
Intelligent Decision Support and Control Technologies for Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation of
Pharmaceuticals and Fine Chemicals (ICT-CMAC), Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, John Arbuthnott Building, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK
Abstract
Information and communication technology (ICT) has been applied across the CMAC project to streamline and maximise productivity. This has been achieved through the implementation of researcher focussed ICT such as Electronic Lab Notebooks (ELN) and an Intelligent Decision Support (IDS) web-portal. These integrated systems provide web-based workflows for the automatic handling of experimental data, including: data extraction; mining; analysis and reporting, from a central location.
Here we discuss our system setup and the integration of data analysis and reporting. Embedding this within ELN reports reduces the amount of time spent on routine and repetitive experimental procedures. This adds considerable value to existing scientific ICT in the sector by extending the range of functions traditionally provided by standalone tools and focussing them on the specific needs of the researcher.
25
Cloud Manufacturing: a proof of concept of Manufacturing-as-a-Service
G. Terrazas†, D. Sanderson, E. Kelly and S. Ratchev
Institute for Advanced Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, UK
†University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, [email protected]
Abstract
The UK’s economic prosperity increasingly depends on maintaining and expanding a resilient and sustainable manufacturing sector based on sophisticated technologies, relevant knowledge and skill bases, and a manufacturing infrastructure that has the ability to produce a high variety of complex products faster, better and more cheaply [1]. In this paper, we present Cloud Manufacturing – defined as an approach for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of manufacturing resources and capabilities that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. Inspired by the cloud computing architecture [2, 3], we present advances towards a Manufacturing-as-a-Service platform built upon a collection of industrial use cases, a preliminary conceptual architecture, and a prototype implementation.
Following discussion with the industrial project partners on their use case requirements, we identified four main categories of use case: those based on the Cloud Manufacturing Service Platform, which dealt with issues such as ordering, resource allocation, virtualisation, mass customisation/personalisation, platform access, and platform interface; those that were Data-driven, concerned with data analytics/management and supply-chain information; Privacy and Security concerns, which dealt with platform access and the linked, yet distinct, issues of data privacy and data security; and finally those that are related to the Manufacturing Network, globalising existing relationships into a social-like network of manufacturing companies and users, and dealing with the new business models that may arise from this change. As a result, we have designed a preliminary conceptual cloud manufacturing model in terms of independent but closely linked components – the Platform Core, Data-oriented components, Social-like networking, Security methodologies, Business Models, Privacy techniques, and the Interface – each derived to address the aforementioned industrial use case categories. In this piece of work, we focus on a four-layered architecture for the Platform Core composed of the Physical Layer, the Abstraction Layer, the Business Logic Layer and the Front-end. The Physical Layer refers to resources and capabilities within distributed manufacturing facilities. The Abstraction Layer defines software components embodying hardware, software and other type of resources seen at the Physical Layer along with interoperability strategies and high-level manufacturing descriptions. The Business Logic Layer outlines intelligent operational decisions such as optimisation strategies, constraint handling, and resource allocation methods. Inter-layer data-flow begins when a customer submits a product specification together with manufacturing constraints and customisations to the cloud through the Front-end. This manufacturing request is captured and processed by the Business Logic Layer which collects descriptive information from the Abstraction Layer and orchestrates virtualised resources and capabilities into a manufacturing process which is ultimately performed by geographically distributed entities at the Physical Layer. The aim of this paper is then to report on a proof-of-concept implementation of a Manufacturing-as-a-Service distributed platform built upon industrial requirements, resources and capabilities observed in manufacturing facilities, state-of-the-art computing technologies, and an open source cloud computing technology [4].
[1] P. Dickens, M. Kelly, J.R. Williams, What are the significant trends shaping technology relevant to manufacturing?, Foresight, UK Government Office for Science, 2013.
[2] The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing, National Institute of Standards and Technology. Last access on 23 May 2014.
[3] X. Xu, From cloud computing to cloud manufacturing, Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 28(1):75, 2012.
[4] K. Flanagan, S. Nakjang, J. Hallinan, C. Harwood, R.P. Hirt, M.R. Pocock, A. Wipat, Microbase2.0: A Generic Framework for Computationally Intensive Bioinformatics Workflows in the Cloud, Journal of Integrative Bioinformatics, 9(2):212, 2012.
26
SESSION 3A:
NOVEL APPROACHES TO METALLIC MATERIALS PROCESSING
27
Examples of (a) the severe IMC reaction seen between Al and Mg at the joint interface and (b) the extremely thin reaction layer achieved in an Al-steel joint by the ABC-FSSW process developed in LATEST2.
Novel Approaches to Interfacial Reaction Control in Dissimilar Metal Welding
Y-C. Chen, B.M. Al-Zubaidy, Y. Wang, P.B. Prangnell & J.D. Robson
Abstract
New design concepts for light weight vehicles will increasingly involve multi-material structures, as they provide the best compromise between mass reduction, performance, and cost. Such designs allow materials to be used more efficiently and will involve combing light alloys with high strength steels and composites. Dissimilar joining is thus a key technology area for enabling increased fuel efficiency in transport. Interface reaction leading to the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds (IMCs) is one of the main factors preventing the implementation of dissimilar metal welding in multi-material structures. As well as investigating new low heat input solid-state friction welding techniques, for reducing the tendency for IMC formation through minimising thermal exposure, LATEST2 (Light Alloys Twards Environmentally Sustainable Transport) is engaged in fundamental research into understanding, modelling, and inhibiting the IMC reaction kinetics in Al-Steel, Al-Mg and Al-Ti dissimilar metal joints.
In this paper examples will be given of how a more fundamental insight into advanced welding processes and the IMC reaction behaviour can be combined with kinetic and process models, to develop new approaches to welding dissimilar materials that minimise the detrimental effects of IMC reaction at the joint interface. This work has involved a range of techniques, including 3D tomography, to gain a better understanding of the material flow, in friction welding, as well as thermal and microstructure modelling, to try to optimise welding processes for forming more rapid welds at lower temperatures. The potential of novel alternative welding technologies have also been explored such as, the FSSW-Refill technique. In addition mitigation strategies, such as the use of coatings at the weld interface, have been investigated.
28
High-pressure rolling of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V parts: control of microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stress
Filomeno Martina*,1, Matthew Roy2, Paul A. Colegrove1, Stewart W. Williams1 and
Philip J. Withers2
1 Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK
2 School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) processes have received notable attention in the past two decades mainly due to the substantial benefits from design freedom owing to free-from manufacturing and also from reduction in manufacturing cost, material wastage and lead time. Metal AM can be categorised broadly into powder-based and wire-based processes. Wire+arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) belongs to the latter, and consists of the use of arc-welding power sources for AM purposes. Metal inert gas, tungsten inert gas and plasma transferred arc can be adopted as deposition processes, according to the component design and materials’ requirement. Successful deposition of titanium, aluminium, steel, invar, bronze, copper and nickel super alloy is possible, and components have shown sound mechanical properties [1]. Due to the increased use of titanium in aerospace industries and the poor buy-to-fly ratio that is observed when complicated designs are carved out from a billet, titanium AM is now extensively researched for manufacturing of critical components for aerospace applications. Also titanium as a HCP structure can develop strong anisotropy, particularly when produced by depositing molten droplets [2]. Due to the thermal conditions and its solidification behaviour experienced during deposition, titanium AM components are characterised by a columnar prior β grains structure, with grains growing epitaxially from the base plate along the build direction, and often traversing the whole height of a component. Furthermore, α phase is strongly textured in the same direction. Other issues include residual stress generation and resulting distortion, similar to what is observed during welding.
To address these, high-pressure rolling was investigated as local mechanical tensioning, firstly on steel [3] and then on Ti–6Al–4V [4] AM parts. Rolling load was applied vertically by a roller along the length of the component [5]. If the load is large enough to deform the deposit in the normal direction, plastic elongation will occur in the rolling direction, relaxing the longitudinal residual stresses [6]. In the present research, part of the HiDepAM project funded by EPSRC, two rollers were tested (profiled and flat ones) and longitudinal residual stress in as-deposited and rolled WAAM Ti–6Al–4V parts were measured using the contour method. In the former strong tensile stress peak (500 MPa) was observed near the interface between the substrate and the wall, which gradually turned into a compressive stress towards the top of the wall (-300 MPa); while in the latter, stress at the interface was substantially reduced (200 MPa), was constant throughout the height of the component and finally turned into a compressive one (-500 Mpa) in the top 10 mm. Consequently, out of plane distortion was also reduced to less than half of the original distortion.
Furthermore, work hardening induced by rolling resulted in recrystallisation of the layer when a subsequent layer was deposited. Recrystallisation resulted in transformation of the large dendritic prior β grains to grains with high angle grain boundaries and dimension of about 60 μm. Moreover, α phase was also refined and the strong as-deposited texture changed to complete random orientation. The resulting mechanical property showed excellent isotropy, with yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of 1000 MPa and 1070 MPa respectively, and elongation of 14%. The constitutive properties are found to be identical in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
In conclusion, rolling proved to be an easy and very effective method to address some of the issues that are currently preventing AM from industrial implementation.
[1] F. Wang, S. W. Williams, P. A. Colegrove, and A. A. Antonysamy. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Wire and Arc Additive Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 44(2):968–977.
[2] B. Baufeld, O. Van der Biest, and R. Gault. Additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al– 4V components by shaped metal deposition: microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials & Design, SUPPL. 1:S106–S111, 2009.
29
[3] P. A. Colegrove, H. E. Coules, J. Fairman, F. Martina, T. Kashoob, H. Mamash, and L. D. Cozzolino. Microstructure and residual stress improvement in wire and arc additively manufactured parts through high-pressure rolling. Journal of Materials Processing Tech., 213(10):1782–1791, October 2013.
[4] F. Martina, S. W. Williams, and P. A. Colegrove. Improved microstructure and increased mechanical properties of additive manufacture produced Ti-6Al- 4V by interpass cold rolling. In 24th International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, pages 490–496, Austin, Texas, USA, August 2013.
[5] H. E. Coules, P. Colegrove, L. D. Cozzolino, S. W. Wen, S. Ganguly, and T. Pirling. Effect of high pressure rolling on weld-induced residual stresses. Science and Technology of Welding & Joining, 17(5):394–401, 2012.
[6] J. Altenkirch, A. Steuwer, P. J. Withers, S. W. Williams, M. Poad, and S. W. Wen. Residual stress engineering in friction stir welds by roller tensioning. Science and Technology of Welding & Joining, 14(2):185–192, February 2009.
30
Development of novel automated manufacturing technologies for dry fibre preforming
Prasad Potluri*, Dhaval Jetavat
EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Composites
North West Composites Centre, School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL *[email protected]
Abstract
Preforming, arranging flexible fibre assemblies into a desired shape with predefined fibre orientations, is the most labour-intensive part of the composites manufacturing process. Recent developments in automated tape laying and fibre placement technologies have been primarily aimed at prepregs, and similar levels of automation have not been achieved for dry fibres. Automation of dry fibre preforming in conjunction with resin infusion technologies has the potential to open-open high volume markets for composites.
Textile industry has the long tradition for developing low-cost, mass production technologies for converting fibres into yarns, fabrics and three-dimensional artefacts. However, textile machinery is traditionally optimised for processing commodity fibres (eg. cotton, polyester) at highest possible production rates. While conventional textile machinery, such as weaving, braiding and stitching, have been adopted for 2D preforming, they offer significant limitations in 3D preforming. Recognising these limitations, EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Composites (CIMComp) initiated a core research programme in developing robotic/multi-axial preforming machines for creating near-net 3D fibre preforms. These technologies have been developed from the first principles using state-of-the-art hardware/software solutions, rather than modifying the existing textile machinery.
Multi-axial 3D weaving
3D weaving combined with robotic fibre
placement
Robotic complex winding
Robotic tufting for joining preform sub-
assemblies
This presentation covers the conceptual framework for automated 3D fibre preforming. A number of examples including multi-axial 3D weaving, hybrid 3D weaving and fibre placement, complex robotic winding and robotic tufting will be presented. This research work has the potential revive the UK textile processing sector by creating a high-value dry fibre supply chain.
31
SESSION 3B:
MANUFACTURING OPTIMISATION AND CONTROL
32
Optimisation of placement of additional sensors to identify critical failures to reduce No Fault Found through improved system design
Alexandre Denis Gérard Vautravers, Samir Khan*, Piotr Sidor, Andy Shaw
EPSRC Centre for Through-life Engineering Services
Cranfield University, UK *Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The project identifies a methodology on how the addition of extra sensors (and tests) to an existing design can be used to identify mission critical failures and be used to improve design and reduce failure ambiguity groups leading to reduced incidents of NFF.
A fuel rig model has been developed to help understand the existing design limitations associated with testability. A failure mode and effects analysis (FMECA) is defined to identify the critical (mission) failures with ambiguity groups greater that 1. Using this information the project considers different sensor placement techniques and changes to the existing design that results in the reduction of ambiguity group. Finally each model will be simulated (using the DSI STAGE Tool) to identify the impact that the design changes have made both to the mission aborts, identification of NFF components and the overall reliability of the design, remembering that no sensor or test is ever 100% reliable. An illustration of the fuel rig model developed can be seen in Figure 1
The significance of this work is to help show how addition design effort can reduce through life costs by reducing NFF and suggest recommendations in design for testability. Its makes use of a software design suite called DSI eXpress diagnostic analysis to carryout all simulations of the fuel rig.
33
Control System for Ultra Precision Processing
Karen X.Z. Yu, Dr. Martin Sparkes, and Prof. William O’Neill
University of Cambridge
Abstract
High precision manufacturing of nano- and micro-sized objects has become increasingly prominent given current technological trends. However, while traditional macro-manufacturing systems rely on automatic feedback loops to detect errors and act immediately, this is a more difficult task when scaled down to the single micron or less. An ultra precision laser system is the chosen processing method, providing the necessary resolution and control parameters. Laser systems, however, are inherently unstable and very sensitive to environmental effects (e.g. temperature, vibrations) making efficient production difficult without an in-process monitoring and feedback system. The work presented has identified three metrology systems to monitor ultra precision processing: optical microscopy (ex-situ characterization), optical coherence tomography (high speed point inspection), and digital holographic microscopy (in process 3D monitoring). The metrology techniques are combined with control to create a closed loop system capable of delivering automated high precision rapid prototyping and batch production with limited user guidance.
34
Phase Calculation of Spectral Interferograms using Template Matching
James Williamson1, Haydn Martin1, and Xiangqian Jiang1*
1 University of Huddersfield, EPSRC Centre for Precision Technology, Huddersfield.
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Embedded metrology is the measurement of components or assemblies upon the manufacturing platform. Successful implementation enables a reduction in the cost and manufacturing time of high-added-value and high-precision components. Measurement of high-value components in-situ eliminates the need to remove them from the manufacturing platform, and eliminate the problems associated with re-alignment if further manufacturing cycles are required. Increasing the coverage of embedded metrology in modern manufacturing requires the development of new sensor technologies with the requisite attributes such as high dynamic range, high speed, small size and robustness against adverse environmental conditions.
Dispersed reference interferometry (DRI) aims to improve upon existing commercial single point measurement techniques such as chromatic confocal microscopy (CCM) by eliminating the requirement of expensive front-end optics while improving dynamic range. DRI has previously been demonstrated with a resolution of 250 nm over a range of 200 µm [1,2]. However, DRI is an interferometric technique which means high resolution phase information is inherent in the generated spectral interferograms and nanometre resolution is achievable over an axial range of several hundred microns. Extraction of phase data will improve the measurement resolution of DRI, thus increasing the dynamic range of the technique over and above commercial alternatives such as CCM.
This paper describes a method of phase calculation using template matching which is a technique commonly used in image processing. Template matching is used to extract high resolution phase information from an experimental DRI apparatus. 800 spectral interferogram templates, representing axial measurement positions at 1 nm intervals, are generated by simulation. These templates are cross-correlated with a captured spectral interferogram from the DRI apparatus. The peak of the resulting correlogram indicates the relative measured position with high resolution. This novel phase extraction method is evaluated in terms of linearity, resolution and operating range.
Clockwise from left: (1) Schematic of bulk optics layout (2) interferogram (blue) and autoconvolution result (green) (3) phase calculated using template matching.
1. Pavlícek, P. and G. Häusler (2005) White-light interferometer with dispersion: an accurate fiber-optic sensor for the measurement of distance. Appl. Opt. 44(15): 2978-2983.
2. Martin, H. and Jiang, X. (2013) Dispersed reference interferometry. CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol., 62 (1). pp. 551-554.
35
SESSION 4A:
NOVEL PROCESSES FOR FUNCTIONAL SURFACES AND STRUCTURES
36
New Coatings via Electrical Discharge Methods
Dr A.T. Clare, Dr J Sun, Dr J. Murray
University of Nottingham
Abstract
Coating procedures, in the industrial setting, for high value components are usually distinct from ‘shaping’ processes which bring a component to net shape. Hence process chains have been established which require components to be subject to multiple steps and employ a range of machine platforms. This comes at some expense to manufacturers and serves to extend lead times. Furthermore, this route to manufacture limits design freedoms since morphology and coating must be compatible.
The ability to modify surfaces and apply coatings while machining is therefore a highly useful technique. Emerging hybrid processes which combine multiple operations (e.g. machining and coating) and offer new capability are therefore of significant interest to manufacturers of high value components.
Early results of an EPSRC funded research project are reported here which includes practical work undertaken at the University of Nottingham and accompanying modelling work at the University of Edinburgh. The team will report on new hard facing and corrosion resistant coatings to high value components and will also present initial results of models which provide engineering insight into electrical discharge processes. Furthermore, the opportunities for this technology will be discussed in relation to the future challenges associated with this project.
37
An Intelligent Automated Polishing System
Eugene Kalt1*, Radmehr P. Monfared1, and Michael Jacskon1
1 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation, Wolfson School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
Abstract
The recent work carried out at the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation on automated finishing is reported by this article. The main focus is to investigate and develop appropriate level of automation to the existing manual finishing operations of small metallic workpieces to achieve required surface quality and to remove superficial defects.
In the manufacturing industries, finishing processes (such as polishing) plays a vital role in the development of high precision product, to give a desired surface finish, remove defects, break sharp edges and extend the working life cycle. The finishing operation is generally done at the final stage of the manufacturing process and traditionally carried out manually. It also can represent up to 37% of the production time, and [1]
The successful implementation of an automated polishing system requires a deep understanding of the polishing process and their parameters. [2] [3] To this end, a research framework have been created to systematically understand and capture the manual processes (through smart sensors), assess the challenges that an automated solution may be facing, and finally develop a novel solution to replicate and improve the manual processes through the use of right level of automation.
This article include a case study illustrating a method developed to capture the manual polishing operations through a set of sensors mounted on a workpiece holder. The sensors record in real-time the position (6DoF), accelerations, forces, and torques applied to the workpiece by the operator during a polishing process. These data are then compared with the pre-measurement of the workpiece to understand and quantify the polishing pattern based on the experience and habitual behaviour of a manual operator. These data are consequently analysed and reverse engineered to develop a robotic manipulation of the workpieces based on (almost) the same polishing pattern.
The article also illustrates some of the findings to this stage of the research based on the production and laboratory experiments carried out. The overall results are found encouraging to deploy further automation in a robotic polishing application.
Significance Statement
The significance of this work is to develop a novel automated finishing system through the study of manual operation. The authors believe that the framework mentioned early will help to understand manual operation and develop the right level automation for finishing.
[1] L. Liao and F. J. Xi, “A linearized model for control of automated polishing process,” Proc. 2005 IEEE Conf. Control Appl. 2005. CCA 2005., pp. 986–991, 2005.
[2] A. Rachmat and A. Besari, “Computer Vision Approach for Robotic Polishing Application using Artificial Neural Networks,” no. SCOReD, pp. 13–14, 2010.
[3] S. Nakajima, S. Terashima, and M. Shirakawa, “Development of an Operating Robot System for Die and Mold Polishing,” 2004.
38
Development and Processing of TiNi-based Shape Memory Alloys
M. M. Attallah, S. Li, N. J. E. Adkins, K. Essa, & H. Hassanin
School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
Keywords: TiNi, Shape Memory Alloys, Microstructure
Abstract
TiNi-based shape memory alloys (SMAs) have been a scientific curiosity for decades, yet with limited applications. This talk summarises our research activities around SMAs development using laser combinatorial synthesis (LCS) and processing using additive manufacturing.
LCS is a novel approach to assess the utility of alloy combinations in a time efficient approach, from elemental feedstock. The produced coupons can be used to study the phase transformation behaviour. However, advanced characterisation was performed to assess the microstructural and chemical inhomogeneities using quantitative microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The coupons showed limited microstructural inhomogeneity that does not affect the quick screening approach required from combinatorial methods. Furthermore, post-processing could be used to improve the chemical and microstructural homogeneity, although it is not essential.
A further activity in Birmingham focuses on assessing additive manufacturing for TiNi SMAs using Selective Laser Melting (SLM), aiming at creating functional structures that can utilise the shape memory (SM) or superelastic (SE) properties of the TiNi. The study focused on understanding the impact of the process parameters on the microstructure and shape memory behaviour. Melting during SLM results in the formation of Ti2Ni intermetallic particles that withdraw the Ti and Ni solutes, which affects the transformation temperatures. Post SLM homogenisation treatments managed to dissolve the Ti2Ni particles. Mechanical testing was also performed to understand the impact of the post-homogenisation treatment on the SMA performance.
39
SESSION 4B:
ICT FOR MANUFACTURING
40
Manufacturing Informatics and Human-in-the-loop: A case of study on Friction Stir Welding
<<One blank>> Ali Baraka1*, Adriana A. Gonzalez-Rodriguez1, George Panoutsos1, Kathryn Beamish2 and Stephen
Cater2
<<One blank>> 1Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
2TWI Ltd. UK, Granta Park, Cambridge, UK *[email protected]
<<
Abstract
Advanced manufacturing is information intensive, and human operators are often an integral part of the manufacturing process chain. On the one hand, human operators routinely perform cognitive tasks, such as visual processing and intuitive use of information for reasoning, while such tasks are very difficult to perform computationally. On the other hand, ICT and Engineering technologies are very efficient at raw data processing and extraction of information (data-mining). There is a need to create the underpinning ICT and Engineering science and technologies in manufacturing to assist the efficient integration of human skills and knowledge into the manufacturing process chain. This may involve human-machine interface technologies, human-in-the-loop robotics, linguistic-based approaches to data-mining and information capture, as well as algorithms and data processing techniques designed to ‘collaborate’ with humans. In this case study, we present a human-centric data-mining framework, where we create a model-based process monitoring system that is capable of providing real-time feedback to the process operator in linguistic form (natural language – rulebase). The proposed framework is applied to the manufacturing process of Friction Stir Welding for the joining of metals, from aerospace-grade aluminium alloys (AA7xxx) to shipbuilding steel plates (DH36). We take advantage of principles of Granular Computing (GrC) [1] and Computational Intelligence (CI) [2] to a) build a data-driven model to predict in real-time (during welding) the properties (Tensile Strength, Microstructure – Grain Size, and Surface Weld Quality) of the resulting parts, and b) we introduce a process monitoring algorithm that takes advantage of the previously developed model to provide continuous feedback to the operator – in linguistic format – on the performance of the process. The model-based approach relies on a Radial-Basis-Function model that can also be described via a linguistic rule-base and the monitoring algorithm utilises an information entropy measure to identify how the process performs in comparison with the predicted (from the model) results. In collaboration with TWI Ltd., who co-funded the two PhD projects involved in this research work, we carried out several experimental trials to demonstrate the developed system as a ‘proof of concept’. An overview of this approach is shown in the following figure:
Significance Statement: Human expertise, know-how and specialised knowledge are the traits that have been at the core of manufacturing innovation over the years; in particular, in areas such as high-value and specialised manufacturing. The human factor should be an integral part of our manufacturing the future research vision, and this can be achieved by inter- and cross- disciplinary research into human-centric systems (HCS), human-machine interaction, collaborative human-machine environments and reaching to disciplines beyond engineering.
[1] A.R. Solis and G. Panoutsos, Granular Computing Neural-Fuzzy Modelling: A Neutrosophic Approach, Applied Soft Computing,
13(9), pp. 4010-4021 (2013) [2] A. A. Gonzalez-Rodriguez, G. Panoutsos, K. Sinclair, M. Mahfouf and K. Beamish, Model-based process monitoring in Friction
Stir Welding, Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, 15-17 May, Alabama, USA (2012)
41
Using Storyboard to Communicate Manufacturing Informatics Scenarios
Katie Li1*, Ashutosh Tiwari1, Simon Astwood2, Pablo Bermell-Garcia2, Kiran Krishnamurthy2, Windo Hutabarat1, Vinayak Prabhu1, Jeffrey Alcock1
1 Cranfield University, College Road, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
2 Airbus Group Innovations, Bristol, UK
Abstract
Emerging gaming technologies are opening doors for innovation in the manufacturing environment. At a fraction of the cost of traditional sensing technologies, gaming devices (such as Microsoft KinectTM and Asus PrimeSenseTM) could be applied in manufacturing systems that previously may have been too complex or expensive to replace. However, as these technologies were initially designed for gaming and not manufacturing, care must be taken in how they are adapted for manufacturing purposes.
To successfully integrate gaming technology into existing manufacturing systems, not only must the designers understand the technology specifications and limitations of the technology, but it is essential that they know how it will fit within the existing system, and what it is that the customer need so that they are willing to invest in such technology. This presentation presents a case study exploring the obstacles that designers may face in communicating design concepts of such an environment. This research is part of a TSB and Airbus Group Innovations funded parent project (Using Gaming Technology to Digitise Manufacturing Knowledge, Technology Strategy Board project 16841-120195). Two individual use cases are presented. The first is the alignment of a car wheel and the second is the automation of carbon fibre placement. Both use cases involve the use of Microsoft KinectTM. As a result two storyboards and a short animation clip were developed.
Significance Statement: The significance of this work is the development of a visual language that aids communication of manufacturing informatics scenarios to people of different backgrounds.
42
Study of Humans coping with variability in a complex manual manufacturing process for automation purposes
Angel Sanchez*, Yee Mey Goh, and Keith Case
(Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United
Kingdom)
Abstract
This paper summarises the investigation of human interaction with external variability in a complex manual manufacturing process. Humans play a key role in complex manufacturing processes in industry and skilled operators carry out critical tasks in different industries such as aerospace, automotive and heavy-machinery. Most of these processes are difficult to automate due to the external variability presents in the processes. To understand how humans are coping with this variability and successfully delivering a product complying with the standards required is fundamental in order to automate the process.
The processes investigated within this paper are grinding and polishing of metallic components for high-value applications. First, the sources of variability were identified and the key characteristics for variability determined and after that, the operators performing the process were observed and interviewed, paying special attention to those steps where variability was present.
The results suggest that operators are able to adapt to external variability whilst delivering the product within specification, but they were not able to explain how. In addition, they have conscience of dealing with variability but, because they acting under skill and rule based behavior (Rasmussen, 1983), they could not clarify what are the methods used to successfully handle this variability. This means that, although they are successfully reducing external variation, it was very hard to extract their knowledge and to determine how they were coping with the variability because the tasks were performed without conscious attention.
They mainly use vision to check their work and they control critical features as marked in the operational procedure. They know when the tool is degraded but they cannot establish how often this happens. Operators adapt to this deterioration and customise their own tools. In order to automate the process, the automated solution should be able to monitor wear of the tool. In addition, it has to measure tool deterioration and be able to adapt to this deterioration by changing pressure applied and time of operation as operators are doing.
For automation purposes, the biggest challenge found has been how to deal with the wear of the tools. Operators have proved that they are capable of accommodating this variability but, if the process is automated, the solution would also need to overcome this wide range of wear in the tools. This will involve a profound study of tool deterioration and operators’ behaviour in order to link wear, pressure applied and time of operation. Furthermore, it was observed that operators prepare and customize their own tools. This customization has no effect in the final product delivered but it must be considered in the solution.
1. Rasmussen, J. (1983). Skill, rules and knowledge: Signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 13(3), 257–266.
43
SESSION 5A:
SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS IN MANUFACTURING
44
Emerging research themes in Industrial Sustainability
Professor Steve Evans
Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge Director of the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Industrial Sustainability
Abstract
This paper reviews the current state of the art in research plus the state of practice in industrial sustainability and explains the changing trends in this rapidly moving subject. Input on trends is based firstly on a review of a number of new reports worldwide, such as the UK Governments Foresight report, Industrie 4.0, and others. Workshops with academic experts in industrial sustainability were held and matched by workshops and interviews with leading practitioners.
The analysis of this rich data sets out new priorities for known research themes and brings some to new prominence. A concern for resilience rather than efficiency is one example, with implications for many research projects. Key themes to be discussed will include resilience, value exchange innovation and the meaning of value, Gentani, the role of modelling, adaptation as a performance attribute and governance.
45
Polymer Degradation in Inkjet Printing and the Role of Polymer Architecture
Joseph Wheeler1 and Stephen Yeates*1
1 Organic Materials Innovation Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13
9PL, United Kingdom [email protected]
Abstract
Ink-jet printing is an important technology for the defined spatial deposition of polymer solutions. It is recognised that the addition of small amounts of polymeric materials to ink formulations can have a large effect on the printing performance of the ink such as drop ejection and ligament breakup. Polymer degradation and inkjet printability was investigated in both drop on demand (DOD) and continuous inkjet (CIJ) systems. Model fluids of commonly available commercials materials of various molecular weights and polydispersity were printed1,2. The change in molecular weight distribution of the polymeric solute during to the printing process was investigated. It was found that in small scale research DOD systems monodisperse polymers above a critical molecular weight degrade centro-symetrically; whereas polydisperse samples exhibit random degradation. These observations are analogous to well documented elongational flow studies3.
We show for the first time that industrial CIJ systems also exhibit polymer degradation. However, the degradation does not occur as a flow induced process in the printhead but due to a long term mechano-chemical process in the pump system. This is in contrast to DOD system where 2-3 passes through the printhead are sufficient to fully degrade a polymeric solute2.
Two main challenges exist in the inkjet printing of high molecular weight polymers: the risk of degrading the macromolecule and the limited concentrations that it is possible to print. We go on to address both of these issues through the use of hyperbranched materials. By introducing small amount of crosslinker and chain transfer agent to simple free radical polymerizations it is possible to easily produce scalable amounts of high molecular weight branched polymers4. These materials have low intrinsic viscosities and require much larger concentration of polymer to produce inks with comparable viscosities to that of linear polymers. This allows much greater concentration of polymers to be printed when compared to high molecular weight linear polymer ink formulations. These materials also show a greater stability with respect to time when exposed to high shear environments inherent in inkjet printing.
1. K. Al-Alamry, K. Nixon, R. Hind, J.A Odel, S.G.Yeates, Macromol. Rapid Commun., 2011, 32, 3, 316-320.
2. J.S.R Wheeler, S W Reynolds, S. Lancaster V. Sanchez Romanguera S. G. Yeates, Polym. Degrad. Stab, 2014, 116, 114-121
3. A. Keller and J. A. Odell, Colloid Polym Sci I, 1985, 263, 181-20
4. S Camerlynck, PAG Cormack, DC Sherrington, G Saunders, J. Macromol Sci Phy, 2005, 44, 881–895
46
Service damage characterisation: A new model to build a semantics based and automated evaluation system
L. Redding, S. Addepalli, R. Roy1, J. Menhen, L. Tinsley, N. Morar, C. Okoh, E. Kakandar
EPSRC Centre in Through-life Engineering Services
Building 30, Cranfield University Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK Corresponding author: Professor R. Roy
Abstract
Maintenance has become the key cost driver in the aerospace industry. With the introduction of advanced, innovative, and complex components used in the manufacture of aero-engines, manufacturers and Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) facilities are now driven to look for alternate technological solutions to support their through-life activities. Typically such solutions aid both manufacturers and service providers by offering decision support tools which can utilise knowledge gained from information relative to a greater understanding of ‘in-service’ performance and failure and degradation mechanisms. Current research illustrates that interest in the maintenance process (the collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative MRO data which is both explicit and tacit in nature, supported by non-destructive testing) is intensive. This research seeks to develop novel solutions which are capable of predicting remaining useful life (RUL) based upon knowledge relative to the current health of the component and its ‘in-service’ history. It focuses on methods of characterising ‘in-service’ performance and damage/degradation thereby providing meaningful feedback to the design and manufacturing functions. The research delivers improved consistency in through-life service support decision making and thereby reduces whole-life cost. This paper presents the results on ongoing experimentation in the area of thermographic NDE applications together with comparisons obtained from 3D imaging and x-radiographic 3D computed tomography to evaluate the condition of the component. This is supported by research to identify common degradation mechanisms and typical defects and damages occurring during manufacture and service obtained through the data mining or historical service records. Finally, the summation of this information is used to build a database that will provide historical data feedback to the designer which aids design for service approaches.
47
SESSION 5B:
ADVANCED MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING
48
Multi trench fiber: an industrial solution for high power fiber laser manufacturing
Deepak Jain,* Yongmin Jung, and Jayanta K. Sahu
Optoelectronics Research Center, University of Southampton, UK SO17 1BJ
Abstract
Fiber lasers have become a tool of choice for industrial manufacturing. They find numerous applications in diverse fields such as medical, material processing, defence, oil and gas, aerospace, metrology, astrophysics, and space communications etc thanks to their outstanding features such as good beam quality, thermal management, and flexibility. However, non-linear effects have always been an obstacle for power scaling of fiber lasers. Several fiber designs such as Photonic Crystal Fibers (PCFs), 2D-All solid Photonic Bandgap Fiber (2D-ASPBGFs) etc, have been demonstrated to overcome these limitations by offering effective single mode operation and large effective area of the fundamental mode. However, such fibers are relatively expensive to manufacture as they require stack-and-draw technique to fabricate them.
We recently proposed a novel fiber design known as Multi Trench Fiber (MTF) shown in Fig. 1(a) and 1(b) [1-2]. The fiber can offer effective area larger than 10,000µm2 in rod type configuration and 800µm2 in flexible configuration. Figure 1(a) and 1(b) shows the refractive index profile and cross sectional image of 30µm and 90µm core diameter fabricated fibers respectively. The fibers are fabricated using conventional Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD) process in conjunction with rod-in-tube technique, hence suitable for mass scale production. Figure 1(c) and 1(d) shows the transmission spectrum and output beam profile, which ensures an effective single mode operation. The MTF geometry, being an all solid structure, offers other additive advantages of easy splicing and cleaving. A low-cost monolithic fiber laser device with can be developed using MTF thanks to their high suppression of the HOMs, conventional fabrication process suitable for industrial manufacturing, and all solid structure for easy splicing and cleaving.
Fig. 1(a) and (b) Refractive index profile of 30µm and 90µm core diameter MTF (c) Transmission spectra for two different length of 30µm core diameter MTF and output beam profile for optimum and offset launching (d) Transmission spectra for two different length of 90µm core diameter
MTF and output beam profile for optimum launching.
1. D. Jain, C. Baskiotis, and J. K. Sahu et. al. Opt. Exp., vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 1448-1455, Jan.2013.
2. D. Jain, C. Baskiotis, and J. K. Sahu et. al. Opt. Exp., vol. 21, no. 22, pp. 26663–26670, Oct.2013.
49
Materials Processing for the Manufacture of Hybrid Biopolymer-Bioceramic Medical Devices at the Point of Need
Natacha Rodrigues1, Kenneth Dalgarno1, Matthew Benning1, Javier Mungia1 and Naif Alharbi1
1School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK [email protected]
Introduction:
Osteochondral defects result in severe pain and disability for millions of people worldwide and massive healthcare costs. There is a recognized need for developing novel treatments based in bone tissue engineering. The use of Additive Manufacturing (AM) has been growing in recent years due to its ability to directly print 3D porous scaffolds with pre-designed shape and patient customized, solvent-free, controlled pore size and interconnected porosity [1]. This paper reports the results of an initial scoping study on the development of new processes to support the in-clinic manufacture and configuration of hybrid bioactive devices for large defects which are load bearing, functionally gradient, and biologically enhanced.
Methods:
As a starting point the aim was to develop a modular composite of a porous polylactic acid (PLA) block and wollastonite (A-W) cylinders. The long term aim is to have anatomical geometries derived from patient data. A Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) 3D printer was selected to fabricate the PLA part with a 0º/90º laydown pattern and the AW cylinders were produced by a Z310 Plus 3D printer (Z-Corp, USA) using prepared AW and Maltodextrin powder. Afterwards the A-W green specimens were sintered at 1150ºC for 2 hours. Measurements were performed before and after sintering and all specimens were observed with a stereomicroscope (Nikon SMZ1500).
Results:
The specimens were successfully manufactured as presented in Fig.1.A-E and the modular composite was assembled (Fig.1.F). The PLA block presents an interconnected porous structure characterized by approximately 300 µm pore size (Fig.1.C) which was defined by the CAD model geometry and the laydown pattern. Moreover the walls are also porous and interconnected with the surrounding porous structure (Fig.1.B), which is crucial for achieving an interconnected porosity throughout the hybrid device. Shrinkage of 15% and 18% for both diameter and length was observed after sintering of the AW cylinders.
Fig.1. A.PLA block top view; B. cross sectional view; C. Porous structure; D. AW cylinders after sintering; E. SEM of porous AW structure and F. Hybrid
composite. Discussion & conclusions:
The composite was successfully assembled and it is characterized by an interconnecting porous structure which is crucial for good osteointegration. Additionally the pore size and geometry can be controlled during the design step. Moreover, understanding the printing parameters influence (speed and temperature) on the extruded filaments width values is crucial for controlling the scaffold pore size.
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical Devices MeDe Innovation; http://mede-innovation.ac.uk/).
1. 1. Bose, S. et al. Materials Today, 2013. 16(12): p. 496-504.
B A
B
D
F E
C D
1 mm 2 mm
A ~ 1 mm
F
50
A novel discontinuous fibre alignment method – HiPerDiF (High Performance - Discontinuous Fibre) method
HaNa Yu*, Marco L. Longana, and Kevin D. Potter
ACCIS (Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science), University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
Abstract
Highly aligned discontinuous fibre reinforced composites can achieve high performances provided the aspect ratio is sufficiently high to support load transfer capability. Furthermore, complex structural shapes which cannot be easily fabricated using continuous fibres could be produced while retaining high performances. Discontinuous fibres provide ductility during moulding, but also offer the scope to create a ductile response by deformation and slippage at the discontinuities.
Several techniques have been tried in the past to orient fibres in a preferred direction while producing discontinuous fibre prepregs. Wet processing methods (PERME, MBB-VTF) have achieved some success with high alignment level [1, 2]. Fibre alignment is achieved by accelerating the carrier medium through a converging nozzle, forcing the fibres to follow the fluid streamlines. The high viscosity of liquid is essential for achieving good fibre alignment in conventional methods; however, it turned out to be the main factor limiting the productivity. As a novel way of solving the problems, a new method with a unique fibre orientation mechanism utilizing momentum change of a fibre suspension (in water) was proposed. The HiPerDiF method developed at the University of Bristol is a fast and continuous process producing highly aligned tow or tape type discontinuous fibre preforms. The new method can be used for hybridization with different fibre types and lengths, and offers the possibility to develop a recycling cycle [3].
This paper introduces the principle of this unique short fibre alignment method and describes the lab-scale discontinuous fibre impregnation rig for obtaining tape type prepregs with high productivity. In a preliminary test, aligned short carbon fibre/epoxy composites were successfully produced using 3 mm long fibres. The obtained tensile modulus and strength along the fibre direction of specimens with a fibre volume fraction of 55% were 115 GPa and 1509 MPa, respectively: significantly higher than those of aligned short fibre composites made by conventional methods [4]. Intermingled-carbon/glass hybrid short fibre composites were also manufactured by the HiPerDiF method and tested in uniaxial tension. Results are presented showing pseudo-ductile response of hybrid composites as a function of the carbon/glass volume ratio.
Acknowledgement: This work was funded under the EPSRC Programme Grant EP/I02946X/1 on High Performance Ductile Composite Technology in collaboration with Imperial College, London.
1. T.D. Papathanasiou, D.C. Guell. Flow-induced Alignment in Composite Materials. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., England (1997).
2. K.D. Potter. Deformation mechanisms of fibre reinforcements and their influence on the fabrication of complex structural parts. ICCM3- 3rd International Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, France (1980).
3. H. Yu, K. D. Potter and M. R. Wisnom. A novel manufacturing method of aligned short fibre composite. ECCM15-15th European Conference on Composite Materials, Venice, Italy (2012).
4. H. Yu, K. D. Potter and M. R. Wisnom. Aligned short fibre composites with high performance. ICCM19-19th International Conference on Composite Materials, Montreal, Canada (2013).
51
POSTER PRESENTATIONS
THEME:
INNOVATIVE PRODUCTION PROCESSES
52
Multi component templating approaches to polymorph selection, elusive form discovery and crystallisation
Lauren R.Agnew1,2*, L H.Thomas2, C.Wales3, L H,Zhao4 and Chick C. Wilson2
1 EPSRC Centre of Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY 3 School of Chemistry, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ
4 NiTech Solut Ltd, E Kilbride G75 0QF, Lanark, Scotland *Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The ESPRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC) aims ‘to accelerate the adoption of continuous manufacturing processes, … for the production of high-value chemical products to higher quality, at lower cost and more sustainably.’1 CMAC is a multi-disciplinary collaboration between seven UK universities, with substantial industrial partnership; core to its mission is the establishment of continuous crystallisation across a wide range of target compounds.
Many Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) have more than one polymorphic form, that is a different arrangement of the molecules within the crystal structure, with different physical properties including solubility, bioavailability and compressibility. Presented here is a novel concept for targeting the favourable polymorphic form. This “templated crystallisation” is rooted in the continuous crystallisation of multi-component systems. A template is a co-former, which forces the adoption of a particular polymorphic form of the target API, but is not itself present in the final product. The method has been demonstrated in molecular systems, including APIs, but the transfer of this templating approach into the continuous environment first requires its implementation in cooling crystallisation processes.
Initial investigations of polymorphic control, and the facile production of elusive solid forms, using this templating approach, focus on paracetamol, in particular focusing on selectivity between the two main polymorphic forms. Form I has a herringbone packing arrangement while form II shows parallel layers, giving the latter desired physical properties of increased solubility and improved compressibility. Recent work has demonstrated that templating can lead to favourable production of form II in 100% yield, using simple co-former templates, but to date only through evaporative crystallisation. 2 The work here focuses on obtaining form II through templating in a cooling crystallisation environment.
Other APIs under investigation via the multi-component templating approach include the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Mefenamic Acid. Mefenamic Acid has three polymorphic forms. The most stable form, Form I, displays low aqueous solubility and hence poor bioavailability in the body. Recent work has shown the possibility to template metastable Form III using the nucleobase adenine.3 The work presented here uses other nucleobases namely guanine, thymine and uracil to observe possible templating effects. Transfer of systems from evaporative to cooling crystallisation is carried out initially using a Polar Bear Plus crystallizer.
1. CMAC, Our Vision, http://www.cmac.ac.uk/index.php, Accessed 13/01/2014, 2014.
2. L. H. Thomas, C. Wales, L. H. Zhao and C. C. Wilson, Cryst. Growth Des., 2011, 11, 1450-1452.
3. S. SeethaLekshmi and T. N. G. Row, Cryst. Growth Des., 2012, 12, 4283-4289.
53
Tuning Evolutionary Multiobjective Optimization to Estimate Operating Conditions for Protein Purification Processes
R. Allmendinger*, S. Gerontas, N.J. Titchener-Hooker, and S.S. Farid
Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
* Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, London, Torrington Place, London WC1E 7JE, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
Estimation of operating conditions for chromatography steps involved in protein purification is an essential task to establish a manufacturing process that is both effective in terms of yield and capable of producing highly pure drugs. Typically, operating conditions are estimated for each of the chromatography steps independently using small-scale experiments guided by a standard DoE approach (e.g. a central composite circumscribed design) in combination with a response surface analysis. However, this methodology may be subject to several drawbacks: (i) it can be expensive and time-consuming for processes involving many chromatography steps, (ii) may discover operating conditions that require additional (expensive) unit operations to be included between the chromatography steps, and (iii) even lead to suboptimal configurations depending on the DoE approach adopted. To address these pitfalls, this study proposes to combine the chromatography steps (and unit operations in between) so as to mimic the actual purification process adopted in large scale, and then apply small-scale experiments guided by efficient evolutionary multiobjective optimization algorithms (EMOAs) to discover configurations for each of the chromatography steps that represent the best trade-off in terms of final yield and product purity. After formulating the task of operating condition estimation as a multiobjective problem, different state-of-the-art EMOAs are tuned and evaluated on test problems created from real-world data available in the literature. In particular, tuning of EMOAs was focused on accounting for noise in yield and purity measurements that may arise in small-scale experiments, a limited number of (expensive and time-consuming) experiments, constraints on the operating condition values arising due to the linkage between chromatography steps, and missing objectives values due to resourcing issues. The simulation results reveal that the best performing EMOAs are approaches that are driven by the hypervolume metric, or combine global multiobjective optimization with Gaussian process modeling (Kriging) of the search landscape. The approaches are able to detect optimal operating conditions in fewer experiments, whilst, similar to DoE, still being able to provide response surfaces spanned over the search space. Moreover, due to the nature of Gaussian processes, the level of uncertainty in yield and purity measurements for each feasible configuration in the search space is available too, facilitating the final decision making process.
54
Melt Conditioned Twin Roll Casting (MC-TRC) of Aluminium Alloys
N. S. Barekar*, S. Das and Z. Fan
The EPSRC Centre, LiME, BCAST, Brunel University, London, UB8 3PH, UK
Abstract
Twin-roll casting (TRC) is an established route to produce metallic sheets [1]. Despite enormous potential, the quality of the Al alloys sheets produced by the TRC process is limited by the formation of centreline segregation, which hampers the downstream processing, degrade the mechanical performance of the final rolled products, and hence prevent its application in a wide range of engineering sectors. At given casting conditions, the centreline segregation in conventionally twin-roll-cast strip increases as the solute content in the alloy (and hence freezing range) increases [2]. To improve the quality of the TRC strips, a new technology, melt conditioning twin roll casting (MC-TRC) has been developed. The process combines conventional twin roll casting (TRC) with high shear melt conditioning for in situ microstructural control. Enhanced nucleation by melt conditioning favours the advance of an equiaxed solidification front, which is in contrast to the advance of a columnar front in the conventional TRC process. It has been demonstrated that the MC-TRC process is capable of producing high quality Al-alloy strips with minimal centreline segregation.
Fig. 1. Macrostructures of (a) conventional TRC and (b) MC-TRC of Al-5Mg alloy strip (5 mm thick), both being cast under the same parameters and without grain refiner additions. Significant statement: Al-Mg alloy strips with equiaxed dendritic grain structures and reduced centre line segregation were successfully cast by melt conditioned twin roll casting (MC-TRC). Melt conditioning increases the range of alloys (solute content up to 7%) that can be twin roll cast without severe segregation.
[1] M. Ferry: Direct strip casting of metals and alloys – processing, microstructure and properties, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 2006.
[2] I. Jin, L. R. Morris, J. D. Hunt: J. Met., 34 (1982) 70–75.
(a) (b)
55
Thermal and Optical Properties of Gallium Lanthanum Sulphide
P. Bastock1*, K. Khan1, C. Craig1, J. Yao1, D. W. Hewak1
1 Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Abstract
A glass series of gallium lanthanum sulphide (GLS) has been studied in order to understand its thermal and optical properties and how this varies through compositional change. GLS is a fascinating glass material which transmits mid-infrared light and has many active and passive applications in this wavelength regime - and in other optical and electronic devices. It is important to understand how this glass changes, in terms of performance, through variation of its stoichiometry.
It has been documented that GLS compositions from around 48:52 to 82:18 (mol% Ga2S3 : mol% La2S3) lie within the glass-forming region of Ga2S3 - La2S3 [1]. Glass melts have been produced in-house and subsequently cut and polished into various thicknesses by specialist glass polishers Crystran Ltd. Glass samples are of various composition, ranging from 45:55 to 75:25 (mol% Ga2S3 : mol% La2S3). Thermal and optical properties of the glass series have been determined through the use of several characterisation techniques.
UV-Vis-NIR and FTIR spectroscopy has been used to determine the electronic and multiphonon edges of the glasses. As well as distinguishing the transparency window of the glass samples, absorption peaks could be found and linked to possible impurity sources. Raman spectroscopy, which was carried out before and after crystallisation of the glass samples, has determined what bonds are present in the glass matrix. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) has been used to confirm the composition of the samples and ellipsometry used to establish the refractive indices of each composition. Thermal analysis determined the characteristic temperatures (glass transition ,Tg, onset of crystallization, Tx, and onset of melting, Tm, coefficient of thermal expansion and onset of weight loss for each sample through the use of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermal mechanical analysis (TMA). Lastly, X-ray diffraction (XRD) has been carried out on the glass series to determine its molecular structure.
This comprehensive study of GLS summarises thermal and optical properties of the whole glass-forming region and condenses the key results and trends discovered.
1. Guittard, M. and J. Flahaut, Rare earth sulfide and oxysulfide glasses, in New frontiers in rare earth science and applications. 1985.
56
Stabilisation of Bio-ink Suspensions for Inkjet Printing
Matthew Benning1,2* and Kenny Dalgarno1,2
1 School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Newcastle University, UK 2 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical Devices, Newcastle University, UK
Abstract
The ability to formulate bioprinting inks such that suspensions of cells and other biological materials can be maintained without affecting biological response is crucial to producing robust printing strategies for tissue fabrication. A piezoelectrically actuated drop-on-demand printing system has been used to deposit electrostatically stabilised cells from a human osteosarcoma cell line (U2OS). Experiments investigated the effectiveness of a polyelectrolyte cell encapsulant to maintain cell dispersion within a bio-ink while maintaining significant cell viability.
Bioprinting is an emerging tool which has potential to play a significant role the fabrication of complex tissue structures. However, bio-ink cell suspensions are prone to settling and agglomeration1. Electrostatic stabilisation using cationic encapsulants is a method of stabilising pigments in common inkjet inks. Many of these coatings however, are cytotoxic and thus inappropriate for use in a bio-ink. A cationic polymer, Poly-L-Lysine (PLL) was known to be both cell compatible2 and an electrostatic stabiliser3, and as such was considered an excellent candidate as a bio-ink encapsulant. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effectiveness of PLL as a cell encapsulant, considering a range of coating thicknesses, and the influence of the coating on print efficacy.
Figure 3 U2OS Cells coated in PLL encapsulant, with a, b, and c increasing in coating thickness from 1 to 8 microns respectively.
Cells were coated with PLL, with the coating thickness ranging from approximately 1µm to 8µm, and their ability to release from the coatings studied over 7 days. After 7 days the cells encapsulated in thicker layers were unattached and surrounded by PLL debris. Cells coated at the lower concentrations attached to the well plate and the PLL residue was absent.
Printing of uncoated cells into 12-well plates showed aggregated colonies, from up to eight colonies in the first well to be printed, down to zero in later wells, with the drop in deposition rate attributed to cell agglomeration. Printing of the encapsulated cells showed well dispersed individual cells with most wells containing an even distribution, although debris was eventually seen in the orifice during printing, and when this occurred deposition rates also reduced.
Overall, the research has demonstrated that cationic encapsulation can be a valuable method to improve the printability of cells. Future work will focus on maintaining the effect over longer print periods.
1. J.Cameron et al (2013), Biomater 1: 224-230
2. A.Diaspro et al (2002), Langmuir 18: 5047-5050
3. J.Kang et al (2012), Langmuir 28: 16751-16760
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Laser Micro-Processing of Sapphire for Injection Moulding Process Investigation
S. Bigot1*, F. Lacan1, P. V. Petkov1, C. Chambers1
M. Babenko2, G. G. Castro2, J. Sweeney2, H. Ugail3 and B.Whiteside2
1Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, U
2 School of Engineering, Design and Technology, University of Bradford, UK 3 School of Computing, Informatics and Media, University of Bradford, UK
Abstract
The work presented in this paper contributed to a wider research objective [1] aiming at gaining a better understanding of the injection moulding process. More specifically, it contributed to the development of a new modelling approach combining experimental observation and mathematical modelling to characterise thermal contact resistance resulting from surfaces’ imperfections when two surfaces are brought in contact. To achieve detailed measurements of temperature fields associated with the contacting melt surface, this investigation used a sapphire window incorporated into an injection moulding tool allowing accurate data collection with a high speed infra-red (IR) camera [2]. It required the production of specifically tailored micro structures on the sapphire windows, some mimicking real tool surfaces and some with specific aspect ratio and related surface area.
Sapphire can be a difficult material to process and problems such as high tool wear and extreme heat arise when using conventional processing methods. Picosecond-laser technology appeared as an appealing alternative as it removes the need for tool-workpiece contact and, with a small heat affected zone, complex 3D micro structures can be produced. Material is removed in a "layer-by-layer fashion" using a machining strategy similar to a milling machine [3]. However, little prior research has been carried out on laser processing of sapphire, it was unclear how the material would react and what tolerances could be achieved. Thus, the main aim was to identify the optimal laser configuration for the creation of microstructures on sapphire by laser ablation. A picosecond pulsed laser was used to machine a number of microstructures onto a polished sapphire lens. These were arrays of 14 by 14 evenly spaced square pillars of 100µm width [1], and depths of 10μm, 20μm and 30μm
In order to identify the optimum processing parameters Design of Experiments (DOE) were implemented, using a screening DOE to identify the best input parameters’ ranges followed by an optimisation DOE. The microstructures were inspected using white-light interferometry and optical coordinate measurements. A number of typical laser-materials interactions were observed in the process and an optimum configuration of laser parameters (Number of laser passes: 4, Power: 37.5 mw, scanning Speed: 10mm/s and Hatching Distance: 4.5 µm) was found, achieving a high geometrical accuracy with a surface quality of Ra 417nm for a 12µm depth. Sapphire windows width different depth structures were subsequently used for injection moulding trials showing promising results, with significant differences in cooling rates, and work is ongoing to fully evaluate the influence of the micro structures on the microinjection moulding process.
1. G. Gonzalez Castro et al., “Thermal contact resistance in micromoulding”. Polymer Process Engineering '11, 2011, Bradford, UK.
2. B. R. Whiteside et al,.” Rheo-optical measurements in micromoulding”, Society of Plastics Engineers ANTEC, 2009, Chicago, pp 1803-1810
3. M. Bengtsson et al., “Picosecond lasers come of age for micromachining”, Industrial Laser Solutions for Manufacturing, Jan 2013, pp15-19
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Visualisation of Shielding Gas Flows during High Value Manufacture
I. Bitharas, V. Beyer and A.J. Moore
School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
Abstract
We have developed portable shadowgraphy and Schlieren systems in order to image density variations that arise in the shield gas flow during high value manufacturing operations, such as welding, additive manufacture and laser processing. These manufacturing processes use an inert shield gas to protect the molten and solidifying metal surfaces from the atmosphere. In carbon steels, nitrogen and oxygen pick-up can create undesirable non-metallic inclusions in the metal. In stainless steels, poor shielding can lead to discolouration and increased likelihood of corrosion. The optical systems have enabled the inspection of shield gas coverage under various process conditions. In this paper we describe the optical systems and present examples of their application in manufacturing.
The aim of one study1 in collaboration with BAE Systems and Strathclyde University was to establish the minimum flow rates at which weld coverage by the shield gas was lost in the presence of cross-drafts in metal gas arc welding (MGAW). The shield gas flow profile and coverage from a welding torch was visualised during the MGAW process at a range of shield gas flow rates (5 to 18 l/min) for different cross-draft speeds (from 0 to 8 mph). Additionally, the shield gas flow was visualised with reduced internal diameters of the nozzle to simulate spatter build-up (16 mm to 14 mm and 11 mm restricted diameters). The flow data were analysed quantitatively and compared to radiographic measurements of the welded samples to determine conditions for an acceptable weld quality.
The optical flow visualization established the minimum flow rates at which weld coverage was lost at different levels of side-draft. It was possible to predict the weld quality based on the ratio of the side-draft speed to the shield gas flow rate. Specifically, it was observed that there was no degradation in the weld quality at shield gas flow rates of 10 litres/min and above, for the worst side-draft conditions in a typical shipyard building hall. Shield gas flow reductions were identified as a consequence of the study, producing a more economical and environmentally-friendly welding process with no compromise to the final weld quality. Shield gas flow controllers pre-set at 12 litres/min have been fitted at one BAE Systems shipyard in the UK. A 50% reduction in shielding gas usage has been achieved against the actual previous usage figures, with the potential for further reductions if even lower flow rates are used. The carbon footprint of the welding process is improved directly through reduced CO2 usage, plus reduced energy is used in production and supply of the shield gas. The cost saving in shield gas usage at the BAE shipyard is estimated to be ~£300k per annum. Roll-out to other shipyards is planned.
1. V. Beyer, S.W. Campbell, G.M. Ramsey, T.J. Scanlon, A.M. Galloway, A.J. Moore and N.A. McPherson, “Systematic study of the effect of cross-drafts and nozzle diameter on shield gas coverage in MIG welding”, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 18(8) 652-660 (2013)
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Design Optimization Strategy for Multifunctional 3D Printing
D. Brackett*, A. Panesar, I. Ashcroft, R. Wildman, and R. Hague
Faculty of Engineering, University Park, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
Abstract
This presentation will cover work carried out as part of the multifunctional additive manufacturing (AM) design project of the EPSRC Centre of Innovative Manufacturing in Additive Manufacturing. The freedom of design aspect of AM is one of its key benefits and the enabling factor for multifunctional products. With conventional design systems still inadequate for the existing ‘passive’ AM, it is clear that the multifunctional AM components envisaged will require a completely new approach to design. Many factors need to be taken into account in designing such components, including the placement of functional components, the routing of electrical / optical connections, mechanical and functional performance, design for manufacture and the interaction of components and materials. There is, therefore a requirement for a general methodology to provide design methods for the complex requirements of the proposed multifunctional components; provide a method of handling the interactions between the various and potentially conflicting requirements of the individual design and determine an overall optimal solution; provide an interface with which engineers can efficiently design AM multifunctional components.
An optimisation based methodology for AM is proposed to tackle this problem; this couples topology optimisation with an automated placement and routing approach that enables determination of an efficient internal system configuration. This permits taking into account the effect of the incorporation of the internal system on the structural response of the part and therefore enables the overall optimization of the structure-system unit. Two example test cases are presented that were used to evaluate the proposed methods. The results from these demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the outlined coupled strategy. The capability of this method allows the exploitation of the manufacturing capability under development within the AM community to produce 3D internal systems within complex structures.
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Evolvable Assembly Systems
Otto Bakker, Jack C Chaplin*, Lavindra de Silva, David Sanderson, Emma Kelly, Svetan Ratchev
The Institute for Advanced Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Abstract
Adaptability and response to change in all aspects of manufacturing - from physical and intellectual structures that comprise the firm, to the physical production process and relationships with customers and suppliers - will be instrumental in commercial competitiveness and profitability in the next thirty years1. On the one hand there are the trends in Western economies for high-value low-volume manufacturing, an increasingly lower product life cycle, and the emerging of novel disruptive manufacturing systems and processes. On the other hand there is now the capability to establish cyber-physical production systems that rely on software, embedded sensors, processors and communication technologies. Resulting in what is thought of being the 4th Industrial Revolution, creating intelligent production systems that have both virtual and physical components. In this work we present, Evolvable Assembly Systems (EAS) as a total systems approach to enhancing a manufacturing environment’s ability to respond rapidly to changes in product, processes or market. EAS represents an important step in increasing UK manufacturing competitiveness by mitigating the high labour cost environment through increasing adoption of automation, by providing a system that allows for rapid system change in response to changing market pressures, and which is applicable to the entire spectrum of manufacturing systems and sectors, including legacy systems.
In collaboration with the project’s industrial partners, five core use-case categories were determined describing the requirements and challenges that EAS will meet. Integration is the ability to rapidly include processes into the EAS system, from revolutionary disruptive processes to workhorse legacy systems that may not possess standard communication interfaces; or how to reconfigure an existing system to meet new demands with a short ramp-up time. Part Tracking and Monitoring covers recording and leveraging the information generated by the system, including both operations performed on parts by the system, and in terms of overall system performance. Data Analysis and Learning includes use-cases related to the introspection of the system with the information gathered to better inform system changes. Adaptation is using the analysed data to plan changes to the production line in order to meet changes in the product, processes or market. Lastly, Augmented Workforce enhances human workers in the production line, and enables them to respond and operate within the rapidly changing system and its interfaces.
To satisfy the demands of the project’s industrial partners, an initial architecture has been drafted as a three-phase cyclic process with an initial precursor phase. The precursor phase zero is Definition, and covers defining the requirements of products, the capabilities of processes, and the pressures on the system from the market, in a common language that the rest of the EAS system can utilize. Phase one of the cycle is (Re)configuration, either the initial configuration of the system or the alteration of the system to respond to change. The use of plug-and-produce protocols and intelligent agent swarm technology will allow for rapid system reconfiguration with decentralized context-sensitive calibration, enabling the deployment or alteration of a production line with short ramp-up. The intelligent agent technology is also key in including legacy systems into the EAS system, significantly lowering the barrier to adoption of Industry 4.0 principals. Phase two is Operation, where the production line operates. During this phase, the intelligent agents are constantly collecting data on the parts and operations performed by the system resources to create a database of all operations performed on all parts, and also to monitor resource performance in terms of user-defined key performance indicators. The third and final phase is Adaptation. Adaptation can occur in response to external stimuli: a change in product, a change in the available resources (perhaps a resource has been procured, or perhaps a resource must go offline for maintenance), a change in product demand requiring rapid scaling up or down of production, or other business or market pressure. Adaptation can also occur in response to internal system pressures: if a resource is not performing as expected, or if the intelligent agents identify a potential avenue for improvement that has not been spotted by the user. Whichever the stimuli, the EAS system uses machine learning techniques to adapt and reconfigure to exploit or mitigate the change in a collaborative human-agent environment to ensure the system change provides optimum manufacturing performance in line with the firm’s priorities. The required system changes are then fed back to the (Re)configuration step for deployment.
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The aim of the presentation of this work is to report on our collaboration with our industrial partners in eliciting industrial requirements, the architecture design for the EAS project, and the planned industrial demonstrators that will showcase the capabilities and power of the EAS paradigm.
1. Foresight (2013). The Future of Manufacturing: A new era of opportunity and challenge for the UK. Project Report. The Government Office for Science, London
2. Platform Industrie 4.0 (2013) Securing the Future of German Manufacturing Industry: Recommendations for Implementing the Strategic Initiative INDUSTRIE 4.0 - Final report of the Industrie 4.0 Working Group. Office of the Industry-Science Research Alliance. Berlin.
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Advanced manufacture by volume liquid printing processes
Tim C Claypole, David T Gethin and P Rhodri Williams
Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating Swansea University
Abstract
Over the development of the modern press by Guttenberg in 1440, printing has developed into an advanced, precision volume manufacturing process capable of selective application of multiple materials. When operated at maximum capacity, current press technology can print an area equivalent to that of a football pitch in under 90s. Printing is an underpinning manufacturing process that pervades almost all sectors - packaging, security, publication, fabrics, ceramics, product decoration, polymer electronics, bio sensors etc. It is one of the World’s largest industries, yet it has developed essentially as a craft where the skill of the graphics printer is to account for the effect of the many variables that affect image quality captured through dots of different size that blend to give the impression of a continuous image. Printing processes developed for the graphics market have the potential for the additive patterning of functional materials over large areas at speed where the challenge is to do so without defect, with appropriate resolution on a wide range of substrates. When combined with graphics this will need to be done at high speeds to assure press productivity.
For the last 25 years with the support from EPSRC, TSB, EU and Welsh Government, the Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating has been working to establish the fundamental science for all volume printing process. This will not only improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of a major industry, but is essential for printing to enable the UK to benefit from this major disruptive manufacturing process for printable functional devices and biomaterials. An objective analysis of the state of the art of the main volume printing processes will be presented, highlighting their potential, current limitations and gaps in the underpinning science for cost effective micro manufacture of functional devices on flexible substrates.
The printing ink itself is a complex multi phase fluid with a mix of materials that can comprise long chain polymers, particles, and their combination. The particulate are increasingly nano particles. These are used for purposes such as allowing low sintering temperature for metallic or to facilitate sensitivity in the case of biosensing. The rheology of the ink, in particular its elastic and extensional properties, which combine with its non Newtonian behaviour are important. These determine the quality of the final stage of image transfer when the ink film splits from the image carrier to the substrate.
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Additive Manufacturing for metals: Redesign of a planetary transmission
Adrián Cubillo1, Manuel Esperón-Miguez2, and Suresh Perinpanayagam3
1, 2, 3IVHM Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom
*Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Additive Manufacturing (AM) has received a lot of attention. General benefits that this technology can provide have already been highlighted: faster product development, reduction in process steps, less equipment required [1]. The aerospace industry has identified the key challenges of AM: repeatability of the process, equivalent fatigue and static properties of the materials, improved surface quality and necessity of standards [2].
This article investigates the opportunities and limitations of using AM in rotating machinery, focusing on Selective Laser Melting (SLM). A planetary transmission is used as a case study in which the components are redesigned to make the most out of AM and to accounting for the constrains of the technology. The transmission is part of an IDG (Integrated Drive Generator), which generates the AC power of the aircraft.
This paper will help to understand most of the opportunities and limitations of AM from a practical point of view and it presents an overview of the process of redesigning a component in order to maximize the benefits of AM. The case study shows that the main opportunities include: simpler processes for manufacturing complex geometries that would require several steps using traditional processes, less raw material required to manufacture a component, an optimized design using geometries not allowed by traditional methods, the use of AM as a repair technique, shorter development time and more efficient supply chain thanks to the reduced stock of final parts. However, AM also presents some limitations such as poorer tolerances and surface quality, limited understanding of the fatigue behaviour and lack of standards and guidelines for parts produced by AM.
This study focuses on a planetary transmission (Figure 1) in which the components have been designed to be manufactured using both AM and traditional methods. It shows how the number of total parts can be reduced, the changes necessary to adapt a part for AM, how to deal with areas that need to be post-machined (Figure 2) and what kind of parts are suitable for AM.
Figure 4 - Planetary transmission of an IDG without crown gear
Figure 5 - Carrier shaft of the transmission (Traditional- right, AM - left).Red areas: post-machined
[1] Gibson, I., Rosen, D.W. and Stucker, B., (2010), Additive manufacturing technologies: Rapid prototyping to direct digital manufacturing, Springer US.
[2] Frazier, W. E. (2010), "Direct digital manufacturing of metallic components: Vision and roadmap", 21st Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference, SFF 2010, 9 August 2010 through 11 August 2010, Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin (freeform), pp. 717.
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Melt Conditioned Twin Roll Casting (MC-TRC) of Magnesium Alloys
Sanjeev Das and Zhongyun Fan
The EPSRC Centre - LiME, BCAST, Brunel University, UB8 3PH, UK [email protected]
Abstract
Twin roll casting has been demonstrated to be a process capable of producing Mg sheets by eliminating several processing steps used in conventional sheet making process at significantly reduced cost. However, the quality of the sheets produced by the TRC process is often inadequate due to the formation of coarse columnar dendritic grains and centreline segregation during solidification. In the present work, melt conditioning (MC) has been employed prior to TRC in order to improve the quality of the sheets by altering the solidification mechanism. For comparison, these strips were also produced through conventional TRC process. A columnar dendritic structure with centreline segregation was observed in the TRC samples, while the MC-TRC samples revealed a fine and equiaxed grain structure without centreline segregation. The formation of the fine and equiaxed microstructure throughout the entire strip thickness of the MC-TRC strip can be attributed to the dispersion of fine oxide particles, which are potential sites for nucleation during solidification.
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Laser Texturing for High Friction Applications
A. Dunn1*, K.L. Wlodarczyk1, J.D. Shephard1 and D.P. Hand1
1 Institute of Photonics and Quantum Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland *[email protected]
Abstract
Surface texturing is a common application for lasers and a significant amount of research is currently taking place in this field due to the industrial implications of improvements to the surface properties of engineering materials. There are several techniques which can be used for surface texturing including chemical treatment1, electric discharge2, sand blasting3 and laser processing. Lasers have many properties which are advantageous for use in surface engineering such as their flexibility, accuracy, speed as well as the negligible effect the processes have on the properties of the bulk material. One of the most studied applications for laser texturing is the reduction of friction, both static and kinetic. This application is primarily based on the generation of indentations in the material surface, which lasers can create quickly and reliably, to store lubrication. The indentations can therefore act as micro-hydrodynamic bearings4, lubricant reservoirs or as traps for wear debris5, 6 depending on the lubrication regime.
Despite the research in the field of laser texturing for friction applications, little has been reported with regards to actively increasing the friction coefficient of a surface. Applications for such surfaces do exist, however, one of which has been highlighted by MAN Diesel & Turbo (MDT), who require a high friction coefficient for a specific component in their engine – specifically a static friction coefficient of µs>0.6 independent of load direction. In order to achieve this, a wide variety of surface textures have been generated using a pulsed SPI fibre laser to generate a hexagonal array of craters on the surface of steel samples. These samples have then been analysed (optically and hardness tested) as well as friction tested using a custom friction testing set-up. Depending on the processing parameters chosen (including pulse energy, repetition rate, pulse separation and even sample material), friction coefficients of µs>0.8 are achievable using laser texturing, which is a significant increase over the untextured steel (µs~0.22). This large increase in friction coefficient has been attributed to both an increase in the surface hardness as well as an increase in the surface roughness as a result of the laser texturing process.
1. Elsaka SE. Influence of chemical surface treatments on adhesion of fiber posts to composite resin core materials. Dental materials : official publication of the Academy of Dental Materials. 2013;29:550-8.
2. Moshkovith A, Perfiliev V, Gindin D, Parkansky N, Boxman R, Rapoport L. Surface texturing using pulsed air arc treatment. Wear. 2007;263:1467-9.
3. Beckford S, Langston N, Zou M, Wei R. Fabrication of durable hydrophobic surfaces through surface texturing. Applied Surface Science. 2011;257:5688-93.
4. Podgornik B, Vilhena LM, Sedlaček M, Rek Z, Žun I. Effectiveness and design of surface texturing for different lubrication regimes. Meccanica. 2012;47:1613-22.
5. Etsion I. State of the Art in Laser Surface Texturing. Journal of Tribology. 2005;127:248.
6. Tang W, Zhou Y, Zhu H, Yang H. The effect of surface texturing on reducing the friction and wear of steel under lubricated sliding contact. Applied Surface Science. 2013;273:199-204.
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Wavelength Scanning Interferometry for PV Production In-line Metrology
*M. Elrawemi1, L. Blunt1, H. Muhamedsalih1, L. Fleming1 and F. Gao1
*EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Advanced Metrology, University of Huddersfield, HD1 3DH, UK. Tel: [01484] 473536. E-mail: [email protected].
Abstract
This paper reports on the recent work carried out as part of the EU funded NanoMend project. The project aims to develop integrated process inspection, cleaning, repair and associated metrology systems for the manufacture of large area (450 mm wide), nano-scale thin films of CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide CuInxGa1-xSe2) based flexible PV substrates.
CIGS thin-film PV modules have created increased interest due to their unlocked potential for high efficiency and low manufacturing costs. However, much effort is required to overcome some obstacles related to the complexity of this technology and its manufacturing process. CIGS thin film solar production requires highly reliable quality control systems during the different production lines. Manufacturers today face a number of technological challenges; micro- and nano-scale defects can appear at any stage of production, resulting in reduced yield and efficiency, as well as reduced product longevity and performance. To date in process metrology of large area substrates has been extremely difficult. The influence of the manufacturing environment, presence of unwanted mechanical vibration especially when measuring flexible thin layers have made embedding measurement within the context of R2R shop floor systems as shown in Figure 1, a limited factor for the manufacturer. Overcoming this limitation by introducing in-line measurement method can effectively improve manufacturing throughput and make cost reductions.
Figure 1: R2R demonstrator / re-winder
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This research paper reports on the deployment of in-line interferometric optical technique based on wavelength scanning interferometry (WSI), for detecting PV barriers defects. The instrument has built-in environmental vibration compensation, providing areal measurement at high speed of less than a second per field of view. The technique is being deployed on a demonstrator system at a Roll2Roll production facility as shown in Figure 2. The results show the capability of the WSI to be used as a quality assurance tool in PV production lines, where the results compare favourably with off-line metrology techniques.
Figure 2: WSI deployed in R2R facility
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Laser-assisted transfer for rapid additive micro-fabrication of electronic devices
M. Feinaeugle*, B. Mills, D. J. Heath, C. L. Sones and R. W. Eason
1Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
*Mailing Address: [email protected]
Abstract
Laser-based micro-fabrication techniques can be divided into the two broad categories of subtractive and additive processing. Subtractive embraces the well-established areas of ablation, drilling, cutting and trimming, where the substrate material is post-processed into the desired final form or function. Additive describes a manufacturing process that most recently has captured the news in terms of 3-d printing, where materials and structures are assembled from scratch to form complex 3-d objects. While most additive 3-d printing methods are purely aimed at fabrication of structures, the ability to deposit material on the micron-scale enables the creation of functional, e.g. electronic or photonic, devices [1].
Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) is a method for the transfer of functional thin film materials with sub-micron to few millimetre feature sizes [2,3]. It has a unique advantage as the materials can be optimised beforehand in terms of their electrical, mechanical or optical properties. LIFT allows the intact transfer of solid, viscous or matrix-embedded films in an additive fashion. As a direct-write method, no lithography or post-processing is required and does not add complexity to existing laser machining systems, thus LIFT can be applied for the rapid and inexpensive fabrication or repair of electronic devices. While the technique is not limited to a specific range of materials, only a few examples show transfer of inorganic semiconductors. So far, LIFT demonstration of materials such as silicon [4,5] have undergone melting, and hence a phase transition process during the transfer which may not be desirable, compromising or reducing the efficiency of a resulting device.
Here, we present our first results on the intact transfer of solid thermoelectric semiconductor materials on a millimetre scale via nanosecond excimer laser-based LIFT. We have studied the transfer and its effect on the phase and physical properties of the printed materials and present a working thermoelectric generator as an example of such a device. Furthermore, results from initial experiments to transfer silicon onto polymeric substrates in an intact state via a Ti:sapphire femtosecond laser are also shown, which illustrate the utility of LIFT for printing micron-scale semiconductor features in the context of flexible electronic applications.
1. Photonics Revolutionising our World, http://photonicsuk.org, Date accessed: 28.02.2014
2. Arnold, C.B., Serra, P. & Piqué, A., 2007. Laser Direct-Write Techniques for Printing of Complex Materials. MRS Bulletin, 32(1), pp.23–32
3. Banks, D.P. et al., 2006. Nanodroplets deposited in microarrays by femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser-induced forward transfer. Applied Physics Letters, 89(19), p.193107
4. Zywietz, U. et al., 2014. Laser printing of silicon nanoparticles with resonant optical electric and magnetic responses. Nature communications, 5, p.3402
5. Toet, D. et al., 2000. Experimental and numerical investigations of a hydrogen-assisted laser-induced materials transfer procedure. Journal of Applied Physics, 87(7), pp.3537–3546
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Laser Welding of Thcik Section Ferritic Steels for Pontential Civil Nuclear Power Generation Component Manufacture
Jiecai Feng*, Wei Guo, John Francis, Neil Irvine and Lin Li
Laser Processing Research Centre, School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, The University of
Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
*Corresponding author, Email: [email protected]
Abstract
With high welding speed and low heat input, multi-pass narrow gap laser welding is an effective and low distortion welding process for thick-section components [1-4]. This study was aim to create a high quality and high stability laser based welding process for 30~130 mm thick SA508 steels, which were usually used for reactor pressurizers and steam generators. Thus, with a 16 kW fibre laser, multi-pass narrow gap laser based welding was developed to join 30 mm thick-section steel with square groove.
The results showed that excellent welded joint was achieved by multi-pass narrow gap laser root pass and filling pass welding. The results also showed that when the root face was up to 6 mm, cracks were found in the welded joint by autogenously laser root pass welding, as shown in Fig. 1(a). When the root face was lower than 2 mm, welded joint without cracks was achieved by autogenously laser root pass welding, as shown in Fig. 1(b). However, underfillings were found in the welded joint with root face of 2 mm due to the effect of the surface tension of the weld pool. The result indicate that with increasing the welding velocity, more cracks were found in the welded joint because of faster cooling rate. Additionally, with increasing the laser power, more cracks were found in the welded joint due to higher residual stress (Fig. 2). The cracks could be prevented by preheating in the autogenously laser root pass welding with lower cooling rate and residual stress, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 1 Weld with defects: (a) crack, (b) underfilling.
Fig. 2 Effects of laser power on the cracks: Fig. 3 Weld with preheating.
(a) P=6 kW, (b) P=7 kW, (c) P=8 kW, (d) P=9 kW, (e) P=13 kW.
[1] L. Jones, P. Aubert, V. Avilov, et al. Towards advanced welding methods for the ITER vacuum vessel sectors. Fusion engineering and design, 2003, 69(1): 215-20.
[2] X. Zhang, E. Ashida, S. Tarasawa, et al. Welding of thick stainless steel plates up to 50 mm with high brightness lasers. Journal of Laser Applications, 2011, 23(2): 022002.
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[3] Y. Yu, S. Yang, Y. Yin, et al. Multi-pass laser welding of thick plate with filler wire by using a narrow gap joint configuration. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 2013, 27(7): 2125-31.
[4] Elmesalamy, L. Li, J. Francis, et al. Understanding the process parameter interactions in multiple-pass ultra-narrow-gap laser welding of thick-section stainless steels. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 2013, 68(1-4): 1-17.
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A Rapid Automated Ballbar Testing Method to Verify the Kinematic Performance of Rotary Axes in 5-Axis Machine Tools
J M Flynn1*, V Dhokia1 and S T Newman1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, U.K.
*Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The use of 5-axis machine tools (5A-MTs) in the manufacture of complex three-dimensional parts is now commonplace across UK industry, from large companies to SMEs. Due to the transient nature of machine tool health, companies are seeking rapid methods to verify the kinematic accuracy of 5A-MTs throughout their operational life.
This research presents a method to verify the position and orientation of rotary axes in 5A-MTs. The proposed method utilises a commercially available ballbar to measure the distance between a tool-cup held in the machine’s spindle, and a centre-pivot fixed to the machine table (Fig. 1). The centre-pivot follows a circular motion by rotating a single rotary axis, which is then traced by the spindle to maintain a constant ballbar alignment with respect to the axis of rotation. The rotary axis is characterised by its plane of rotation, represented by a unit vector, ̂, and an axial point attached to the plane (Fig 2.). Through the use of different ballbar alignments, it is possible to identify the location and orientation of plane rotation for each of the two rotary axes.
Using the proposed method, two orientation and two linear offset errors can be found for each of the two rotary axes. Figure 2 shows the effects of these on a single rotary axis. After detection, these error sources are later removed through compensation, greatly improving machine tool positioning capability, which is demonstrated on a commercial 5A-MT. At present, this research considers error sources that are independent of the rotary axis position. The consideration of error sources that vary as a function of rotary axis position are part of the future work. Measurement uncertainty and an analysis of the effects of set-up error shall also be evaluated in future work.
Significance Statement
Previously, verifying the two rotary axes of a 5A-MT required at least two unique centre-pivot positions, with a manual transition between consecutive configurations. The novelty and significance of this research exists in the use of a single `off-axis’ centre-pivot location to identify the kinematic error sources within two rotary axes i.e. a single set-up (Fig. 1). The use of a single set-up allows the verification process to be automated and undertaken as part of a regular verification routine. Hence, significant reductions in machine tool down-time during verification may be achieved, and the need for operator intervention and expertise reduced.
Figure 1. Example testing set-up showing ballbar mounted in the machine tool
Figure 2. A misaligned axis of rotation and the plane characterising its rotary motion
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Mechanism of High-frequency Vibration Assisted Deep Hole Drilling and Boring
Z. Geng1*, S. Dawson2, and N. M. Irvine3
1 The University of Sheffield Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK
2 The University of Sheffield Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, Rotherham S60 5WG, UK 3Dalton Nuclear Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
* The University of Sheffield Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Wallis Way, Catcliffe, Rotherham S60 5TZ, UK, [email protected].
Abstract
Deep hole drilling, where hole depths can be up to 500 times the hole diameter, has particular relevance to the manufacture of control-rod drive mechanisms for nuclear applications. Beyond the extremely low machining stability mainly caused by the time-varying dynamic behaviour of long slender cutting-tool structures [1-2], the treatment of long continuous chips or swarf generated from cutting the ductile metallic materials used in the nuclear industry, such as the austenitic stainless steels, becomes another key machining problem. Long chips will tangle and potentially cause a blockage in the drill-tube, leading to chip congestion and then cutting-tool failure.
Supported by the UK EPSRC New Nuclear Manufacturing (NNUMAN) programme [1], the Nuclear Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre is delivering a systematic investigation into high-frequency vibration assisted machining (VAM) methodology for deep hole drilling and boring, with a main target of successfully breaking the long continuous chips into intermittent broken ones and thus improving the reliability and efficiency of the deep hole drilling and boring processes. As an update of the project work carried out to date, this paper presents some relevant analyses on the working mechanism of VAM for ductile material machining [3-4], including instrumentation, concepts and designing, simulation and parameter optimization of the VAM system for deep hole drilling and boring. A review of data, evidences and conclusions to date is summarised for the investigation work.
1. Z. Geng, S. Dawson and K. Ridgway: Time-varying spiralling re-optimization and high-frequency vibration assistance for deep hole drilling and boring. EPSRC NNUMAN Work Package Proposal on Research Theme 2.3 – Assisted Machining, 2013.
2. Z. Geng, S. Dawson and K. Ridgway: Time-varying spiralling vibration re-optimization for deep hole drilling and boring. The 4th International Conference on Dynamics, Vibration and Control, Shanghai, August 2014.
3. U. Heisel, J. Wallasschek, R. Eisseler and C. Potthast: Ultrasonic deep hole drilling in electrolytic copper ECu-57. CIRP Annals – Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 57(2008), pp. 53-56.
4. D. E. Brehl and T. A. Dow: Review of vibration-assisted machining. Precision Engineering, Vol. 32 (2008), pp. 153-172.
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Systems Engineering in Continuous Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
Dimitrios I. Gerogiorgis
Institute for Materials & Processes (IMP), School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, EH9 3JL, UK
The King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 EJL, Scotland, UK ( [email protected] )
Abstract
Continuous Pharmaceutical Manufacturing (CPM) is a new production paradigm with a strong potential to improve process quality and flexibility while also suppressing R&D and operating costs, thus fostering competitiveness greatly.1 Novel pharmaceutical production lines can thus be constructed if continuous organic synthesis routes are available, via Quality by Design (QbD) synthesis, systematic model-based optimisation and use of Process Analytical Technology (PAT). Microreactor and microseparator engineering appears particularly advantageous from a design viewpoint in this high-value and often low-capacity context,2 both at pilot-plant as well at full-production scale; it can also be combined with several proven continuous downstream formulation technologies, facilitating the reduction of total organic waste emission and environmental footprint. Full-scale prototype CPM lines have been constructed, and published technoeconomic evaluations are clearly encouraging. We will present recent case studies of conceptual CPM process design for two widely marketed Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs),3 detailing the relative economic potential of projected CPM production lines in comparison to established batch manufacturing. 4
Another idea is to use Interval Analysis (IA)5 for rapid screening of process potential. The majority of (mildly endothermic or exothermic) CPM processes considered in an R&D pipeline can be studied via their plantwide mass and molar balances: despite the fact that kinetic rate expressions are nonlinear in terms of molar component flows, the introduction of reaction extents and/or fractional conversions in such a mathematical formulation renders a linear (in the output variables) model; this can then be used to obtain a square form, after analyzing the degrees of freedom and considering all known process design specifications. This compact formulation is extremely useful in IA implementations of linear CPM models, towards the rapid screening of technical feasibility and economic viability of several process alternatives and/or variations: thus, CPU-intensive plantwide simulations are effectively avoided. For uncertain yet reliably bounded process parameters with a clear effect on a CPM flowsheet (e.g. fractional conversions which are defined in [0,1] by default, flow/separation split ratios, etc.) solving a square linear CPM model can yield an envelope of attainable compositions/flowrates.6 The use of a linear IA formulation is particularly advantageous over repetitive steady-state simulation for specific parameter value combinations (isolated points in a multidimensional parameter space), avoiding prohibitively numerous runs to populate the feasible solution domain.
1. Plumb, K., Continuous processing in the pharmaceutical industry – Changing the mind set, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 83(A6): 730-738 (2005).
2. Roberge, D.M., Zimmermann, B., Rainone, F. et al., Microreactor technology and continuous processes in the fine chemical and pharmaceutical industry: Is the revolution underway?. Org. Proc. Res. Dev. 12(5): 905-910 (2008).
3. Gerogiorgis, D.I., Barton, P.I., Steady state optimization of a continuous pharmaceutical process. Computer-Aided Chemical Engineering 27(1): 927-932 (2009).
4. Schaber, S., Gerogiorgis, D.I., Ramachandran, R. et al., Economic analysis of integrated continuous and batch pharmaceutical manufacturing: A case study, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50(17): 10083-10092 (2011).
5. Neumaier, A., Interval Methods for Systems of Equations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (1990).
6. Rump, S.M., INTLAB – INTerval LABoratory, in: Csendes, T. (editor) Developments in Reliable Computing, pp. 77-104, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1999).
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Development of Novel Manufacturing Techniques Utilising Phosphate-Based Glasses for Biomedical Applications
M. Gimeno-Fabra, F. Barrera Betanzos, B. Stuart, J. I. Segal, I. Ahmed and D. M. Grant
Department of Materials, Mechanics and Structures, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Abstract
The two projects highlighted are part of the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical Devices.
Project 1: Manufacture of Phosphate-Glass Fibre Reinforced Composites as Fracture Fixation Devices
Although metallic implants have shown success when used for internal fixation of bones, metals suffer from long-term biocompatibility issues such as inflammatory cascades and bone atrophy secondary to stress shielding coupled with the possible need for removal after bone healing (1). Therefore, fabrication of implants with bone matching properties, capable of providing immediate fracture stabilisation whilst gradually transferring load to the healing tissue, would be highly beneficial.
This study will focus on the manufacture of bioresorbable polylactic acid phosphate glass fibre (PLA/PGF) reinforced composites utilising fabrication methods such as extrusion and injection moulding. It is expected that downstream modifications will be introduced to suit both short and long fibre processing. Initial results from laminate stacked composites have confirmed the reinforcing effect of PGF in PLA. In the case of the 0.25 fibre volume fraction composites, the average flexural strength values have exceeded 200 MPa with flexural modulus of 11.33 GPa.
Project 2: Novel Coatings Utilising Bioresorbable Phosphate Glasses
Phosphate-based glasses have the ability to fully resorb in aqueous solution and are currently being explored in applications expanding to coatings for metal bone fixation devices (2). This project aims to utilise RF magnetron sputtering to manufacture thin films of ion doped phosphate glasses by understanding the relationship between the nature of sputtering targets and the generated substrate’s composition for a given set of sputtering parameters.
When bombarded with charged argon particles, atoms are preferentially ejected from the glass structure (3); This relative sputtering yield is being investigated. The as-produced thin films are resorbable and potentially bioactive, with applications as degradable coatings for implant devices, providing slow release of active components for improved osseointegration. Thin film quaternary phosphate glasses have been applied at low deposition rates between 1-5 nm min-1. With careful consideration of the target’s composition and the sputtering parameters, accurate predictions of the composition and thickness of the resulting thin films can be drawn.
1. Ahmed, I., Jones, I. A., Parsons, A. J., Bernard, J., Farmer, J., Scotchford, C. A., Walker, G. S and Rudd, C. D. Composites for bone repair: phosphate glass fibre reinforced PLA with varying fibre architecture, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine 22 (8) (2011) 1825-1834.
2. Knowles JC. Phosphate based glasses for biomedical applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry. 2003;13(10):2395-401.
3. Stan GE, Marcov DA, Pasuk I, Miculescu F, Pina S, Tulyaganov DU, et al. Bioactive glass thin films deposited by magnetron sputtering technique: The role of working pressure. Applied Surface Science. 2010 Sep 15;256(23):7102-10. PubMed PMID: WOS:000279592200029. English.
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Adaptive bioprocessing: Tailored processing for feedstock variability
J. L. Pilkington1, J. Twycross2 and R. L. Gomes1*
1 Manufacturing and Process Technologies Research Division, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK 2Intelligent Modelling and Analysis Research Group, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
*B15, Coates Building, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD [email protected]
Abstract
The field of bioprocessing, including biomanufacturing, utilises biological materials either as process feedstocks or as catalysts in the manufacture of valuable products, continue to expand rapidly. Whilst there are often stringent targets on the quality of products from these industries, the inherent variability exhibited in biological materials adds an extra layer of complexity over traditional manufacturing. Therefore, optimised conditions in one batch process may prove to be highly inefficient when applied to other batches, resulting in lost value. The focus of this research is to utilise computational intelligence as a tool to tailor process conditions based on feedstock quality and characteristics, ensuring a process that delivers on product specification whilst being responsive to varying feedstock characteristics.
Artemisinin, extracted from A. annua and the critical precursor to all effective anti-malarial treatments, has been selected as a case study to develop an adaptive bioprocessing model. Working with industrial manufacturers, initial research focussed on developing affordable and portable analytical techniques1 that allowed for appraisal of extraction efficiency in future studies. Building on the analytical framework, design of experiments (DoE) was utilised to examine how a single biomass batch performed under a range of extraction conditions encompassing temperature, contact duration and the ratio of biomass to the extraction solvent. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was then developed for the experimental data, which elucidated a significant co-solvency effect between several compounds in the extract mixture2. Specifically, the target compound – artemisinin – demonstrated solubility in the extract mixture that was up to an order of magnitude greater than what could be obtained in the extraction solvent alone. This supports the hypothesis that the main driving force for extraction of artemisinin is the presence of other compounds in the leaf that are extracted prior to artemisinin3.
The current focus of research involves the extrapolation and expansion of the initial DoE approach to encompass multiple biomass batches from different locations, which demonstrate different physical and chemical properties and, as a consequence, different recoveries of target compounds at each extraction condition. By defining biomass batch characteristics prior to extraction, computational intelligence is applied to predict behaviour across all potential operating conditions. In this way, the optimal conditions for the recovery and purity of target compounds in the extract mixture can be determined, thereby maximising efficiency and minimising waste.
1. Pilkington, J. L., Preston, C. and Gomes, R. L. (2012) J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 70, 136-142
2. Pilkington, J. L., Preston, C. and Gomes, R. L. (2014) Ind. Crop. Prod., 58, 15-24.
3. Lapkin, A. A., Peters, M., Greiner, L., Chemat, S., Leonhard, K., Liauw, M. A. and Leitner, W. (2010) Green. Chem., 12, 241-251.
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Characterisation and development of the incremental shear forming process for nickel-based aerospace structures
Marine Guillot1, Paul Blackwell1, Andrzej Rosochowski1, Elizabeth Rowles2
1 – Design, Manufacturing and Engineering Management, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow 2 – Rolls-Royce plc, PO Box 31, Derby, DE24 8BJ.
Abstract
Shear forming is typically used to manufacture conical parts using plate material as a starting pre-form. Rollers shear the pre-form onto a mandrel, resulting in a reduction of the starting wall thickness. The benefits can be described in terms of material cost savings, enhanced product characteristics, surface finish quality, reduced production costs and consistency in geometric control. The process is not commonly used within aerospace components. However, its potential application is a wide range of conical structures used in gas turbine engines.
Initially, a fundamental understanding of the shear forming process and the impact of key processing parameters is of focus through this research, using 304L stainless steel. The primary research will focus on Inconel 718, for which there is limited current understanding on the boundaries of the process and insufficient material databases. A family of pre-form and tooling approaches, structured design of experiments and aerospace relevant metallurgical and mechanical testing protocols will be used to fill this gap. The research will seek to underpin a Rolls-Royce strategy for future adoption of near-net shape forming technologies and is being undertaken within the Advanced Forming Research Centre. This research will contribute to the global development of knowledge in cold forming processes.
Pictures of the shear forming process and the final conical parts obtained, AFRC (Advanced Forming Research
Centre), Glasgow, 2014
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Spray Drying of Carbamazepine to Gain Specific Polymorphic Form
Rebecca Halliwell1* Naomi Briggs2, Jaclyn Dunn2, Rajni Miglani Bhardwaj2 and Alastair Florence2
1 EPSRC and the Doctoral Training Centre in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (SIPBS, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.)
2 EPSRC and Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (SIPBS, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K.) [email protected]
Abstract
The aim of this work is to validate and scale-up the spray drying technique to produce uniform carbamazepine (CBZ) particles of an uncommon polymorphic form to gain information on solubility. Previous literature has found that spray drying can influence the polymorphic form of the pharmaceutical compound Carbamazepine at a small scale [1]. Spray drying is traditionally secondary formulation technique that will “transform a feed from a fluid state into a dried particulate form by spraying the feed into a gaseous drying medium” [2]. CBZ is an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) that is used in the treatment of epilepsy and trigeminal neuralgia as an anticonvulsant [3, 4]. However, one of the main disadvantages of CBZ is that it has very low water solubility (<200µg/ml) [3] and therefore belongs to class II of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) [5] that classes compounds of dissolution rate-limited bioavailability. Carbamazepine has five known polymorphic forms of which form III is the most thermodynamically stable at room temperature [6]. Form IV has previously been made by using the Büchi B-191 Mini Spray Dryer [1]. The Büchi B-290 Mini Spray Dryer was used for this work and this was found to successfully produce a powder of CBZ form IV. This result was substantiated through the comparison of an XRPD of CBZ from IV to single crystal reference patterns of all polymorphic forms of CBZ. Furthermore, this enabled form IV to undergo particle characterisations. The techniques used for this were Raman, DSC and SEM. To gain solubility data for carbamazepine form IV the systems that will be used are the Avantium Crystal 16 and Crystalline. These two systems use turbidity measurements to gain clear and cloud points of a compound in solution thus allowing solubility data to be investigated. The solubility results from these two systems produced a curve that follows a similar but not clearly defined trend that requires further investigations to provide a clear determination of CBZ form IV solubility.
1. K. Kipouros, K. Kachrimanis, I. Nikolakakis, S. Malamataris, Analytica Chimica Acta, 2005, 550, 191-198
2. K. Cal, K. Sollohub, Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2010, 99, 2, 575-586
3. L.S. Koester, J.B. Bertuol, K.R. Groch, C.R. Xavier, R. Moellerke, P. Mayorga, T. Dalla Costa, V.L. Bassani, European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2004, 22, 201-207
4. R.M. Martins, S. Siqueira, L.A. Tacon, L.A.P, Freitas, Powder Technology, 2012, 215-216, 156-165
5. J.E. Patterson, M.B. James, A.H. Forster and T. Rades, Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, 2008, 34, 95-106
6. A. Getsoian, R.M. Lodaya, A.C. Blackburn, International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 2008, 348, 3-9
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Centrifugal field-flow fractionation of microparticles in a constantly fluctuating g-field
Peter Hewitson1*, Robin Verberne2, Jonathan Huddleston1, Ian Sutherland1 and Svetlana
Ignatova1
1 Brunel Institute for Bioengineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
2 Engineering Physics Department, Fontys University of Applied Sciences, Eindhoven, The Netherlands *[email protected]
Abstract
Manufacturing industries, including pharmaceuticals, nanotechnology and industrial biotechnology companies, require fractionation of particles to produce mono-disperse distributions for the production of high value products.
A range of methodologies are being developed for particle fractionation at sizes below 100 microns using commercially available flow through counter-current chromatography instruments (Dynamic Extractions Ltd, Slough) used in a field-flow fractionation (FFF) mode with a single phase solution as the mobile phase. A fluctuating centrifugal “g” field, of up to 500g at the outlet of the column, acting perpendicular to the flow stream forces the particles towards the wall of the column based on their size and density difference relative to that of the mobile phase. Control of the mobile phase flow rate allows elution of particles with narrow size distribution while the larger particles are retained in the column.
The controlled elution of particles is achieved via mobile phase flow rate and applied centrifugal g-field level gradients to maximise throughput and narrow the particle size distribution using a model system of calcium carbonate crystals in a salt buffer. Alternative sample injection strategies and concentration profiles were investigated to optimise sample loading.
The cross sectional profile of standard columns is circular. Different aspect ratios of rectangular section tubing were investigated. A dimensional aspect ratio above three was compared with a standard hydrodynamic multi-layer column with 1.6 mm bore and the same cross-sectional area. These results show that improvements in fractionation can be achieved with this new column design.
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Estimating the cost of No-fault found
Syed Hussain, John Erkoyuncu, Samir Khan*, Rajkumar Roy
EPSRC Centre for Through-life Engineering Services Cranfield University, UK
*Email: [email protected]
Abstract
At any test level, a fault may be recognised and localised as belonging to an individual piece of equipment which, when re-tested, at a subsequent level, the recognition/ localisation of the reported fault may be unsuccessful. This refers to the issue of No-fault found (NFF). The impact of NFF will range from mere nuisances, to increased financial costs through to risking safety. Information regarding financial costs of NFF within many industries in particular the aerospace industry, is difficult to obtain with very little information in the public domain. Depending on particular fault distributions you can develop degradation characteristics for a system. This means that the NFF phenomena is highly prone to uncertainty and requires a probabilistic approach to estimate its impact.
The root cause and influencing drivers toward NFF form a complex coupling between electronic, mechanical, software interactions mixed with organisational, procedural and human errors. This project aims to take a systems based approach to understand this coupling in order to provide cost related estimates to address strategic industrial problems. The project aims to develop dynamic time based simulation approaches that can be applied (e.g. agent based, discrete event, and systems dynamics) to represent the cost of NFF across the supply chain. The research will explore the cost of identifying, and resolving NFF and it will also build mechanisms to introduce uncertainty around the cost of ownership (e.g. does the warranty cover the NFF issue?).
The significance of this work is to estimate the overall NFF costs within an organisation. This is done by using agent-based modelling software called AnyLogic, where the characteristics and behaviours of NFF components are factored into the agents.
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A novel grain refiner for magnesium alloys
Utsavi Joshi1*, N Hari Babu1
1 BCAST, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK BCAST, Brunel University, Middlesex, Uxbridge UB8 3PH., [email protected]
Abstract
Magnesium alloys have shown great potential in structural applications due to their many appreciated properties. The efforts by automotive sector to reduce fuel consumption and vehicle emissions have increased the demand for light weight magnesium alloys as a structural material. Apart from the automotive sector, magnesium alloys have also attracted applications in the electrical and aerospace industries. However, these applications are limited partially due to the difficulty to control the microstructure of Mg alloys [1]. The associated investigations are therefore of high interest to the researchers and designers. Grain refinement will help to achieve superior mechanical properties and extend the applications of Mg alloys [2].
A significant amount of research has been focussed on grain refinement of magnesium alloys but there is still a requirement to identify an economical and feasible commercial grain refiner for aluminium containing magnesium alloys. Our research work has managed to identify a variety of potential novel grain refiner (NGR) compounds which can refine the grain structure of these magnesium alloys. AM50 Mg alloy has shown a reduction in grain size from 900 µm to 180 µm while, the grain size of AZ91D Mg alloy reduced from 420µm to 180 µm. A wedge-shaped copper mould was used to achieve continuous variation in cooling rates. AZ31 Mg alloy was subjected to a set of specially designed experiments conducted with the static-mould direct chill (DC) simulator, which shows conversion of columnar grains to fine equiaxed grains. A series of tensile test data was also produced to inspect the mechanical properties.
1. L.Lu, A.K. Dahle, D.H. StHohn, ‘Heterogeneous nucleation of Mg-Al alloys’, Scripta Materialia 54 (2006) 2197-2201
2. Zhang, M-X. et al, ‘Crystallography of grain refinement in Mg-Al based alloys’, Acta Materialia 53 (2005) 3261-3270
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Effective Feedback from Problems Discovered in the Use Phase of Complex Engineering Systems
Rohit Kavade, Samir Khan*, Piotr Sidor, Andy Shaw
EPSRC Centre for Through-life Engineering Services Cranfield University, UK
*Email: [email protected]
Abstract
In the automotive industry, No Fault Found (NFF) is a phenomenon where a part, after being diagnosed as faulty and replaced by dealers, was sent back to its manufacturer, OEM or suppliers where during testing no fault can be found. A high NFF rate can greatly increase warranty cost which reduces the profitability of vehicle service and hence damages the OEMs’ brand image and customer satisfaction. In recent years, with the increasing in-vehicle complexity led by strong growth of distributed electronics and embedded software, NFF becomes a greater challenge for the industry.
When these problems occur during system operation, there is a need to inform the operator effectively of what immediate action is needed or advised. There is also a need to effectively capture the problem symptoms, perform an effective diagnosis and store and/or transmit this valuable information back to the OEM design and manufacturing functions in order to improve the next generation of complex engineering products and their associated support services. Through case study investigations with the sponsoring company, Jaguar Land Rover and others, this project investigates the best practices in this important field, and define an optimum process model for effective operator/user interfaces and subsequent diagnosis of root causes of problems. Based on the results from the field survey, literature exploration and technical interviews, NFF causes have been collected and categorized into two areas, namely technical NFF with complexity-driven issues being its major causes and non-technical NFF with various human factors being its major causes. Furthermore, a NFF logic architecture is proposed in SysML to mitigate the NFF problem.
The significance of this work is to 1) capture an understanding of the vehicle lifecycle management in dealing with NFF, and 2) help in strategic investments to solve complexity-driven issues in product development and service problems.
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A Controlled Atmosphere System for synthesis of High Purity Infrared Materials
K. Khan*, E. Weatherby1, C. Craig1, P. Bastock1, J. Yao1, V. Mittal1, S. Ganapathy1 and
D.Hewak1
1 Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Abstract
The authors report on the recent progress in making high purity infrared materials, namely chalcogenides. A system completely fabricated in-house to make these functional materials is presented. With state of the art and novel components, we show the initial capability of this system to manufacture high purity materials. The focus in this case is on an emerging glass material, gallium lanthanum sulphide (GLS) which has potential for use in both active and passive infrared applications as well as numerous other non-optical devices[1, 2]. Chalcogenide glass is traditionally prepared by melt-quenching in a sealed ampoule[3] and have a wide application scope[4, 5].
The process we have developed for GLS utilizes a controlled flowing argon atmosphere with various additional active gasses, to facilitate purification. This procedural control is essential to aid purification and allow reactive chemistry in order to achieve improved transmission properties. The design of the system is presented which is a prototype that allows flexibility to make in-house improvement in a safe laboratory based environment while using state of the art instrumentation and purification components found in industry.
In this work, the impurity analysis, optical and other key properties which are important for developing a high purity glass melting system are presented and discussed. Various techniques such as glow discharge mass spectroscopy (GDMS), x-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman, ultraviolet-visible-fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (UV-VIS-FTIR) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) are used to make links between the improvements within our system to meet target applications. We also show using these techniques that commercial systems provide materials that are substandard and restricts progress in such a high impact research area. This study allows us to make a system that can generate high purity raw materials and synthesize them into higher purity products than available commercially.
This system can be easily commercialized to produce high purity bulk materials required for the infrared applications market.
Keywords: glass, chalcogenide, infrared, optical fibre, amorphous, high purity, low loss
1. West, Y., et al., Gallium lanthanum sulphide fibers for infrared transmission. Fiber & Integrated Optics, 2000. 19(3): p. 229-250.
2. Schweizer, T., et al., Spectroscopy of potential mid-infrared laser transitions in gallium lanthanum sulphide glass. Journal of luminescence, 1997. 72: p. 419-421.
3. Snopatin, G., et al., High-purity chalcogenide glasses for fiber optics. Inorganic Materials, 2009. 45(13): p. 1439-1460.
4. Eggleton, B.J., Chalcogenide photonics: fabrication, devices and applications Introduction. Optics express, 2010. 18(25): p. 26632-26634.
5. Eggleton, B.J., B. Luther-Davies, and K. Richardson, Chalcogenide photonics. Nature Photonics, 2011. 5(3): p. 141-148.
Acknowledgement:
EPSRC Centre for Innovative Mannufacturing in Photonics
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Design, Development and Application of A New Tow Steering Technology: Continuous Tow Shearing
Byung Chul Kim1*, Paul M Weaver1, and Kevin Potter1
1 ACCIS (Advanced Composites Centre for Innovative and Science), University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
Abstract
The automated fibre placement (AFP) process is a cutting-edge technology to manufacture complex composite aerospace structures, which was first developed in the early 1980s. This technique lays down a set of pre-impregnated carbon fibre materials (tows) called ‘slit-tape’ or ‘towpreg’ following designed paths on a 3D surface. Due to the dramatic evolution of robotic control technology, current AFP machines have been developed to provide high productivity by laying up to 32 individual 3.175 mm, 6.27 mm and 12.7 mm wide slit-tapes simultaneously at a maximum linear speed of 1 m/s [1]. In spite of increasing demands from the aerospace industry, the process-induced defects in tow steering process are major problems that need to be solved so as to guarantee the structural reliability [2].
Tow steering capability of the AFP machines is essential for manufacturing composite structures comprising doubly curved surfaces or developable surfaces with tailored fibre trajectories. However, since it was originally developed to lay up straight fibres, its steering capability and quality are highly dependent on the in-plane bending characteristic of the tow materials used. As a result, the process-induced defects such as local fibre buckling, tow gaps and overlaps are produced inevitably during the tow steering process, which deteriorate the structural performance of the composite product. It is a fundamental problem of all existing AFP machines that the steering capability is fully coupled with the defect generation.
As a novel alternative to the conventional AFP process, the continuous tow shearing (CTS) technology, utilising the ability to shear dry tows, has recently been developed to minimise the defects and enhance the steering capability of the AFP [3, 4]. Its unique head mechanism can steer the tow path by instantly producing a partially-impregnated tow with high shear flexibility and shearing the tow without local fibre buckling. This breakthrough design was derived by re-examining the fundamental mechanism of the conventional AFP technology and breaking the coupling between its conflicting functional requirements.
In this work, the design and development process of the CTS technology are reviewed, and finally its application to a variable stiffness composite (variable angle tow) panel is demonstrated.
1. Lukaszewicz DHJA, Ward C, Potter K. The engineering aspects of automated prepreg layup: History, present and future. Compos Part B 2011;43:997-1009.
2. Tatting BF, Gürdal Z. Automated finite element analysis of elastically-tailored plates. NASA contractor report no. NASA/CR-2003-212679; 2003.
3. Kim BC, Potter K, Weaver PM. Continuous tow shearing for manufacturing variable angle tow composites. Composites Part A 2012;43:1347–56.
4. Kim BC, Weaver PM, Potter K. Manufacturing characteristics of the continuous tow shearing method for manufacturing of variable angle tow composites. Composites Part A 2014;61:141-51.
84
Future manufacturing Strategies based on Flow chemistry and Process Intensification
Dr. D. Kirschneck1*
1 Microinnova Engineering GmbH (Allerheiligen bei Wildon, Austria)
*Europapark 1, 8412 Allerheiligen bei Wildon, [email protected]
Abstract
Process development, improvement and production of the process industries are facing many challenges. One of the most promising answers to the complex requirements for enhanced efficiency in terms of synthesis methods, manufacturing processes, economic success and social and environmental responsibility is the combined use of continuous flow chemistry, micro reactor and intensification technology.
The largest benefits of flow-chemistry are greatly reduced operating efforts (exchange, cleaning, etc.), improved safety, as well as improved options for measurement and control technology. Limited flexibility has longtime been the main objection. Today, modular systems based on refined functional units are the solution to this problem. On the one hand, production areas with frequently changing requirements (pilot, kilo-lab) can be converted easily. Here, besides scoping the actual task, scalability is systemically always taken into consideration. On the other hand, process improvements and changes can be implemented quickly in large-scale production plants.
In micro reactor technology processes and synthesis under extreme temperature and pressure ranges (from -80 ° C to 900 ° C and up to 300 bar) are much easier to handle and to perform economically. To some extent these extreme environments can be replaced by moderate ones because of the use of micro-structured equipment featuring altered milieu. This is leading to further safety-related, environmental and economic benefits.
The aim of process intensification is the drastic increase in the efficiency of chemical processes. Process intensification leads to a shorter reaction time and higher yield of the chemical synthesis. Important approaches to process intensification are to reduce the number of process steps, acceleration of heat and mass transport, the use of micro process engineering, non-classical forms of energy supply (such as microwave, ultrasound) and new methods in the configuration and design of functional units in systematic modular plants forms the current challenge for the engineering services to the chemical-pharmaceutical industry. The selection of appropriate equipment from a growing pool of high-performance tools, their optimal interaction, the integration of adequate measurement and control systems and ultimately the compatibility of various functional units in total, expandable systems have to be ensured.
Therefore knowledge of the chemical processes and their molecular physical suggestibility, process technical feasibility, constructability of technical machinery and equipment and the technical solutions for measurement and control is required equally. Experience and know-how complete the profile. How the competences between the project partners (e.g. pharmaceutical company - engineering partner) are distributed depends on the particular structure of the companies; Overlap is welcome and usually shortens the duration time of the project.
The discourse outlines the context between economic considerations, safety reasons or specific process requirements ("Drivers") and the selection of appropriate solution methods ("Tools"). The significant process improvements made possible by the combined use of flow, micro reactor technology and process intensification are described. It will show the engineering options of chemical plants which are making those improvements accessible and at the same time are straight scale-able from lab to pilot and production scale.
By reference to the design of flow miniplants, modular multi-purpose plants and dedicated plants, it will be shown how systematic modularity is implemented technically into development and production plants. Besides the realization of inter-module flexibility the idea of “designed spaces” for on-module flexibility will be amplified.
Examples of carried out projects will underscore the economic aspects of the switch-over from traditional batch to continuous production.
85
Microstructure Evolution in Melt Conditioned Direct Chill (MC-DC) Casting of Fe–Rich Aluminium Alloy
H. R. Kotadia*, J. B. Patel, H-Tian Li, F. Gao and Z. Fan
The EPSRC Centre, LiME, BCAST, Brunel University, London, UB8 3PH, UK
Abstract
In order to fabricate high quality aluminium products, it is first essential to produce high quality billets/slabs. One of the key objectives associated with casting processes is to be able to control the as-cast structure. A novel direct chill (DC) casting process, the melt conditioned direct chill (MC-DC) casting process, has been developed for production of high quality aluminium billets. In the MC-DC casting process, a high shear device is submerged in the sump of the DC mould to provide intensive melt shearing, which in turn, disperses potential nucleation particles, creates a macroscopic melt flow to uniformly distribute the dispersed particles, and maintains a uniform temperature and chemical composition throughout the melt in the sump. The effect of intensive shearing on the complex microstructure evolution observed after MC-DC is explained on the basis of nucleation and growth behaviour. Complete suppression of typical columnar grain growth and significant equiaxed grain refinement is observed. The solidification mechanisms responsible for the significant grain refinement by intensive shearing and the morphological evolution of Mg2Si and Fe–containing intermetallic phases are discussed.
Fig. 1 Optical micrographs of the Al-3Si-2Mg-0.5Mn-1Fe alloy billets solidified with and without shearing during DC casting: (a), (d), illustrating the overall change in grain structure (anodized samples), (b), (e) overall un-etched microstructure, and (c), (f) showing the morphological change of the Fe–containing intermetallics and distribution of the Mg2Si phase.
Significant statement: Formation of coarse dendritic α–Al grains is completely suppressed and significantly refined grains are promoted under intensive melt shearing. The strong fluid flow generated by the intensive shearing and the dispersion of oxide particles with increased potency for nucleation is believed to suppress the formation of large intermetallic particles and results in significant size reduction and morphological change to facilitate the enhancement of mechanical properties.
[1] Z. Fan, Y. B. Zuo, B. Jiang. Apparatus and method for liquid metals treatment, International Patent Application No. PCT/GB2011/051744
[2] H. R. Kotadia, J. B. Patel, H-Tian Li, F. Gao, Z. Fan, submitted to the AMI Light Metals Conference, South Africa, 2014
86
Position Based Control of an Industrial Robot for Real-time Path Tracking
R.P.Manorathna, P.Phairatt, P.Ogun, S.Marimuthu, M.R.Jackson
EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing and Intelligent Automation, Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Path tracking using vision sensors has been a widely discussed topic over the recent years. Welding and sealant application has been the leading applications of path tracking. Over the years two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) methods have been used with industrial robots to achieve path tracking. Among the applications, 3D vision sensors are mostly used to track 3D complex paths whereas 2D vision sensors are used to follow simple 2D paths. Over the last few decades number of attempts has been made to integrate a 2D camera on to an industrial robot but, the implemented methods do not provide enough information on the robustness of the algorithms under various conditions such as variable illumination. Moreover, most of the previous work does not provide enough information about the system response time.
Figure 1: Robot in operation
The work carried out in this research includes development of a simple path tracking algorithm using LabView and its vision acquisition software package. A position-based control system was implemented on a KUKA KR16 industrial robot to follow a 2D path in real-time (Figure 1). Experiments were carried out to verify the performance of the system under variable illumination conditions. Results show that the system is able to recognise a 2D point within a time interval of 20 ms. Overall cycle time is less than 200 ms. Despite the complexity of the path being recognised, both the overall accuracy and success rate of the system are close to 95 %. Gap sensing was carried out and the results show ± 0.5 mm accuracy in measurements under controlled lighting conditions. Under variable illumination conditions, the tracking accuracy is affected and results ± 1.5 mm. The developed system proved to be simple, reliable and accurate under controlled lighting conditions and allows faster and automatic tracking of 2D paths.
87
The Light Controlled Factory
Paul G. Maropoulos1*, Patrick S. Keogh1, Glen Mullineux1, William J. Wadsworth2 Jonathan C. Knight2, Jonathan M. Huntley3, Stuart Robson4, Jan Boem4
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK
2 Department of Physics, University of Bath, Bath, UK 3School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK,
4Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, UCL, London, UK
Abstract
Industry requires the development of next generation of factories for the assembly, integration and text of high value, complex products. The vision for the next generation "Light Controlled Factory" is for the widespread adoption and interlinked deployment of novel, measurement-based techniques, to provide machines and parts with aspects of temporal, spatial and dimensional self-awareness, enabling superior machine control and parts verification. The research described herein is developing the overall theoretical framework of the Light Controlled Factory and the scientific and technological challenges that are addressed include:
(a) Future factories require product specific automation of assembly, integrating novel material removal and deposition processes whilst ensuring assembly integrity and high process yield. The key technological enabler is the integration of process control with high frequency and accuracy measurement data to control the position and orientation of parts via measurement enabled assembly automation.
(b) In large-scale manufacture, the effect of gravitational deflection and the impact of the environmental thermal gradient on large components and tooling structures can be significant and larger than the assembly tolerances. In such cases the dominant dimensional uncertainty source is often the effect of the environment on the parts and the structure of assembly equipment. Currently, industry has no robust mechanisms for controlling the impact of environmental uncertainty sources on parts and machines, with major consequences in terms of product verification. A novel, hybrid - computational model based and physical measurement - methodology is being developed by the research to manage the uncertainty in the overall structural compliance of complex assemblies. The technique involves the integration of dimensional and thermal measurements and the fusion of measurement data with a computational modelling environment.
(c) In order to verify parts and assemblies and control in real time heterogeneous processes within the factories of the future, it is essential to develop novel metrology networks that are scalable, affordable and can be used to create measurement-enabled production processes of superior process capability. The research is developing a novel, ubiquitous 7D (6DOF and time) measurement environment for the entire factory space, comprising networked large volume measurement systems, integrated with localised and embedded metrology to provide graduated positional accuracy from 10 µm to 500 µm, in shop floors. Key research challenges include; the real time fusion of measurement and uncertainty data from multiple systems, the mitigation of environmental effects through local and large volume measurement, and the definition of generic network design principles underpinned by algorithms for measurement uncertainty.
The research presented includes methods for integrating measurement with process control and techniques for integrating dimensional and thermal measurement for large tool integrity verification. Measurement uncertainly models have been created together with optimisation methods for multiple system deployment in factories.
88
Novel formulations produced by Hot-Melt Extrusion (HME)
L. Martinez-Marcos1*, D.A. Lamprou2, G.W. Halbert3
1 Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC), University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK 2 Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
3 Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Hot Melt Extrusion (HME) comprises a novel continuous process to produce amorphous solid dispersions and therefore, enhance the oral bioavailability of Class II drugs within the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS).
Amorphous solid dispersions of Albendazole (ABZ) in concentrations of 1%, 5% and 10% w/w in Polyvinylpyrrolidone K12 (PVP K12) were produced by HME, as a novel manufacturing process compared to traditional methods previously applied [1]. Further formulations comprising (10% w/w) Paracetamol (PMOL) were also processed by HME using two different polymers, Eudragit® RL PO and Polyvinylpyrrolidone K12 (PVP K12).
Later characterisation of the raw materials, physical mixtures (PM) and the extrudates were carried out by DSC and XRPD analysis to assess the final state of the product. Dissolution studies simulating the different pH values through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract were also performed for all extrudates. Differences regarding the increase in drug dissolution rate and formulation performance were observed for ABZ formulations due to higher drug loadings and intrinsic polymer properties [2]. Characterisation studies of an amorphous solid dispersion produced using a Thermo Scientific® Process 11 twin-screw extruder are depicted in Figure 1.
1a 1b
Fig. 1. (1a) XRPD pattern of (5%) ABZ – PVPK12 extrudate, (1b) GI dissolution profile comparison of (5%) ABZ – PVPK12 extrudate and pure ABZ
1. S. Torrado, S. Torrado, J.J. Torrado and R. Cadorniga, “Preparation, dissolution and characterization of albendazole solid dispersions” Int. J. Pharm., 140 (1996) 247-250.
2. J. Brouwers, M.E. Brewster and P. Augustijns, “Supersaturating drug delivery systems: the answer to solubility-limited oral bioavailability?” J. Pharm. Sci., 98(8) (2009) 2549-72.
89
Surface integrity in dry milling of 304L steel: a Design of Experiments approach
A. Maurottoa*, D. Tsivoulasb, M.G. Burkeb
a Nuclear AMRC, The University of Sheffield, Advanced Manufacturing Park, Rotherham, S60 5WG, UK
b Materials Performance Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK * Corresponding author. Tel.: +447908996086; fax: +441142229900. E-mail address: [email protected].
Abstract:
Austenitic steels represent a significant portion of the metallic components employed in the nuclear industry. In this paper, a detailed machining study of Type 304L steel in dry milling was performed with the aim of characterising the response of the components’ surface quality and micro-structure to variations of the cutting speed, depth-of-cut, and feed-per-tooth. Surface roughness parameters were optically evaluated and X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress measurements were employed to measure the extent of machining abuse on the surface. In addition, deformation in the sub-surface layer was examined via scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Experimental surface roughness and surface residual stress were used to test a statistical model developed to optimise the selection of the process parameters. Preliminary results showed the effects of machining parameters on residual stress and near-surface deformation levels in finished components. The ultimate aim of this work is to illustrate the availability of cost-effective manufacturing techniques to the nuclear industry, alongside meeting the high standards of the required properties.
90
Laser Welding of Steel to Aluminium: Thermal Modelling and Joint Strength Analysis
Sonia Meco1*, Daniel Cozzolino1, Supriyo Ganguly1, Stewart Williams1 and
Norman McPherson2
1 Cranfield University (Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Bedford, United Kingdom)
2 BAE Systems Maritime - Naval Ships (Glasgow, United Kingdom) *[email protected]
Abstract
The integrity of dissimilar joints of steel and aluminium is compromised by the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds (IMCs) due to the reaction between iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) during the welding process.
The IMC layer is usually composed of Fe2Al5 and FeAl3 and the hardest IMC can be as high as 1200 HV [1]. This shows the necessity of limiting the IMC layer thickness to a minimum to retain the joint integrity.
Several joining processes have been used in the study of this subject aiming to maximize the mechanical strength of the joints. However, laser welding differs from the other fusion processes because it permits good control of the energy transferred to the material which is important to minimize the reaction between Fe and Al.
The aim of this work is to show the factors on which the mechanical strength of such dissimilar joints are dependant and how the strength can be maximised by optimising the laser fundamental material interaction parameters (specific point energy, power density and interaction time) [2].
Lap welds were produced between steel (top plate) and aluminium using a 8 kW continuous wave fibre laser operated in conduction mode. Different levels of energy were applied either by using different power densities or interaction times. To minimize the diffusion between Fe and Al, joints were produced by wetting solid steel with liquid aluminium [3]. This was done by controlling the transient thermal cycle by conduction mode laser operation. Tensile-shear strength tests were conducted on lap-welded specimens.
A FEM thermal model was developed to predict the time-temperature profile at the Fe-Al interface, where the intermetallic layer is formed. This allowed a direct correlation of transient thermal cycles to the fundamental material interaction parameters used (specific point energy, power density and interaction time) and the intermetallic layer thickness.
The results indicated that the mechanical strength of the joints can be optimised by controlling the IMC layer thickness and increasing the bonding area between the steel and the aluminium plates. Power density needs to be over a threshold value where although intermetallic growth will increase, the strength will be better due to increased wetting. Increase in interaction time, with power density over the threshold, will have negative effect on the bond strength. This indicates that there is an optimum laser processing condition for which the mechanical strength of such joints can be maximized.
[1] F. O. Olsen, “Hybrid Laser Arc Welding,” in in Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding, 1st ed., CRC Press, 2009, pp. 270–295.
[2] E. Assuncao, S. Williams, and D. Yapp, “Interaction time and beam diameter effects on the conduction mode limit,” Opt. Lasers Eng., vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 823–828, Jun. 2012.
[3] S. Meco, G. Pardal, S. Ganguly, R. M. Miranda, L. Quintino, and S. Williams, “Overlap conduction laser welding of aluminium to steel,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 67, no. 1–4, pp. 647–654, Sep. 2012.
91
Arthroscopic delivery of bio-active materials: a preliminary study
Javier Munguía1** and Kenny Dalgarno1
1 School of Mechanical & Systems Engineering. Newcastle University, UK
Abstract
The capacity of 3D Printing, or Additive Manufacturing (AM) for creating biocompatible tissue repair constructs has been demonstrated (1-3), however few studies have considered the potential for in-situ delivery of bioactive materials for the regeneration of chondral and ostheochondral defects. This work describes the principles of a novel arthroscopic–based material delivery system for the in-situ fabrication of bioactive implants adopting some of the principles of 3D printing.
Method.
A system was designed consisting on a peristaltic pump (0.001 to 3400 mL/min Flow-rate), silicone tubing (3mm internal diameter), and various light sources (single LED-UV, single Blue-LED, 12-LED torch) with the aim of depositing a controlled amount of fluid to be polymerized layer by later. Specimens were produced with different layer thicknesses (0.5mm, 0.75, 0.9mm) using off the shelf acrylate-based photo curable resin (wavelength 420 -480) to measure the system’s capacity for delivering layered materials in a controlled manner.
Results.
High repeatability was achieved on cylindrical shape constructs with a regular cross section and the curing process was rapid enough to solidify layers with exposure times below 20 seconds; however the UV curing mechanism exhibited its dependence on parameters such as light exposure time, distance from source and layer thickness as some uncured residues were trapped between layers for the 0.9mm thickness parts.
A similar approach is being adopted for the polymerization of biomaterials such as HEMA with different concentrations of activator and photo initiator (Camphorquinone-CQ) in order to synchronize: flow/ polymerization rate and curing light and wavelength intensity.
1. Cohen et. al. Biofabrication, 2010.
2. Sittinger et. al. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 2004..
3. Hockaday et. al., Biofabrication, 2012
92
Microwave processing of Encapsulants in Microelectronic Packaging using an Open-Ended Single Mode Resonant Microwave Applicator
S.K. Pavuluri 1*, M. P. Y. Desmulliez1, K. Johnston 2, and V. Arrighi2
1 MIcrosystems Engineering Centre (MISEC), School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, Scotland, United Kingdom
2 School of Engineering & Physical Sciences; Chemistry Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, Scotland, United Kingdom
Abstract
The authors have designed, manufactured and tested a novel microwave based processing method, which has an advantage of volumetric heating with reduced processing times and increased energy efficiency. In comparison to commercially available microwave oven systems, the open ended single mode microwave applicator developed can be directly implemented into a production line and produces much efficient, uniform and controlled heating for the materials. The complete system is able to conduct fully automated pick – place – dispense and cure operations. The modularity of the system allows a quick adoption to different packaging processes. The basic design of the open-ended single mode resonant applicator creates a resonance within the dielectric block, whilst the fields in the air filled section are below cut-off and therefore evanescent [1-2]. A sample of lossy material, placed in these evanescent fields, will experience ohmic heating if sufficient power is supplied. Thus the open-ended cavity becomes an open-oven. Excitation of the fields within the cavity volume is procured leading to efficient excitation of the desired mode. The authors have developed a unique microwave applicator with highly efficient, controllable and uniform heating properties that are absent in most of the present microwave applicators.
The construction of various prototypes of open-ended single mode resonant applicator that can be mounted into a standard pick and place machine will be presented in the conference. A novel microwave applicator is fed with appropriate microwave generator, automatic feed control system, standard RF components, temperature sensor, data interfaces, and a computer with a Labview™ program which will be outlined at the conference. Initial experiments have resulted in uniform curing of the lossy encapsulants with this oven with typical cure intervals of 270 seconds with a ramp rate of 1oC/s and a hold period of 2 minutes. Differential scanning calorimeter based measurement indicates nearly 100% degree of cure. Experimental curing investigations that compare the encapsulant materials cured by a convectional oven furnace and by open ended microwave oven for various temperature profiles will also be presented. The investigations include Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transformed Infrared (FT-IR) spectrometer for the degree of cure, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) for characterisation of the mechanical properties of the cured material, highly accelerated life test (HALT). and highly accelerated stress tests (HAST) for stress and reliability analysis. The application of this curing technology to QFN (quad-flat no-leads) packaging, widely used in surface-mount technology, is being presented.
1. Pavuluri, S.K. et al, "Encapsulation of Microelectronic Components Using Open-Ended Microwave Oven," Components, Packaging and Manufacturing Technology, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.5, pp.799,806, May 2012
2. Sinclair, K. I. et al, "Optimization of an Open-Ended Microwave Oven for Microelectronics Packaging," IEEE Trans. MTT, vol. 56, pp. 2635-2641, 2008.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge funding and support from the European Union Framework 7 programme (FP7-SME-2007-2), contract number 218350, support from the RTD (Research and technology development) our academic partners, and additional support from Kepar Electronica S.A., Camero di Commercio Industria, Artigianato e Agricoltura di Milano, Mikrosystemtechnik Baden-Württemberg e.V., the National Microelectronics Institute, ACI-Ecotec GmbH & Co. KG, Ribler GmbH, ARIES, SEHO Systems GnbH, RF Com Ltd. and Freshfield Microwave Systems Ltd
93
Continuous Spherical Crystallisation of Pharmaceuticals
F. Perciballi*, Huaiyu Yang, and A. J. Florence
EPSRC and Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK)
Abstract
The majority of pharmaceutical processes contain a crystallisation stage in order to purify and isolate the active ingredient. This also provides an opportunity to modify particle attributes that control the performance in key downstream formulation and product processing stages. Spherical crystallisation is a promising particle design technique, in which crystallisation and agglomeration occur simultaneously for the production of compacted spherical crystals that can have improved attributes such as flow and compaction properties.
The spherical crystallisation technique has advantages on tailoring product attributes and increasing oral bioavailability for poorly soluble drugs. Moreover spherical crystals can lead to the application of direct tableting where the granulation step is removed and consequently contributes to save time and money. The three spherical crystallisation mechanisms have been described in the literature including spherical agglomeration (SA), ammonia diffusion system (ADS) and quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion (QESD). Agglomeration is produced by the adhesion of small crystals to form bigger particles, which is predominant in the first two mechanisms [1]. Quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion is the mechanism that produces agglomerates in droplets of an immiscible dispersed phase [2].
In this work spherical agglomerates of ibuprofen were obtained in a two-solvent system during a cooling crystallisation. The formation of agglomerates and mechanism of quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion were investigated.
Fig. 1: Image sequence showing crystallization of ibuprofen from droplets arising due to presence of solvent
mixture.
1. Y. Kawashima, M. Imai, H. Takeuchi, H. Yamamoto, K. Kamiya, T. Hino, Powder technology 2003, 130, 283-289.
2. A.I. Toldy, A. Z. M. Badruddoza, L. Zheng, T. A. Hatton, R. Gunawan, R. Rajagopalan, S. A. Khan, Cryst. Growth Des. 2012, 12, 3977 – 3982.
94
Optimizing manual processes with a view to automation of composites manufacture
Dominic Bloom, Dennis Crowley, Michael Elkington, Helene Jones, Matthew Such, Dr.
Carwyn Ward, Prof. Kevin Potter
All: Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol. UK
Abstract
One of the most successful of all advanced composites designs has been the honeycomb cored sandwich panel. This combines thin skins of continuous carbon fibre composite with a spacer or core material to deliver very light weight, very stiff panels. These panels are ubiquitous in aircraft, both in the wing and tail surfaces and for all the panelling within the cabin. Each aircraft will have hundreds of sandwich panels, with each external panel having a different geometry, requiring its own tooling and manufacturing procedure. These panels have been the standard solution for more than 30 years and have hardly changed in their design over that period. Unfortunately, the panels are very expensive to manufacture, largely because the manufacturing process is almost entirely manual and rather variable, so that right first time yields can be low. This has led to a lot of the production moving overseas. Several attempts have been made to automate the manufacturing processes by the use of robotic manipulators, but little or no progress has been made. Our interest is also in automating the process, but we have taken the view that we first need to study the manual processes in depth to understand why they have proven to be so difficult to automate. The work reported here appears to be the first serious work on manual lay-up in the advanced composites industry, despite this still being the most commonly used process.
We started by a detailed examination of how experienced operators manipulated the materials onto the tool geometry and extracted a set of grips and techniques that we could use to describe the processes. In parallel we looked at the relationships between the tool geometry and the material type used, and the time taken to achieve a high quality lay-up; offering the potential to cut lay-up time by at least 50% by making simple changes. Novel approaches to lay-up by manipulating the plies off the tool offer a very significant additional saving in manufacturing time. Combining previous work on a novel approach to simulating the drape of composite reinforcements (Virtual Fabric Placement) with a gaming platform and image projector has allowed the development of an augmented lay-up approach that can both guide the operator and verify their work. The last element of the optimisation package has been the exploration of the design space for the operator-made lamination aids (generally known as “dibbers”) that are routinely used in composites manufacture to ensure that the material conforms well to the tool features. This has allowed us to design a multi-purpose lamination aid that combines all the various requirements into a single aid, supporting 7 of the techniques used in lay-up over 6 of the geometrical features found across a range of panels; once more speeding up the process and making it more reliable. These developments taken together offer a significant improvement in manufacturing efficiency and a route to much more rapid and effective training of operators. We are also designing on-line tools to capture quality related information and validated acceptance criteria to ensure that we can deliver on the targets of improved quality at reduced cost through an optimized manual manufacturing process.
Ultimately, automation remains an aim, as does incorporating all the knowledge that we have gathered into a best practice Design for Manufacture framework, in addition to further development of the gestural control and gaming interfaces for helping to tighten the design/manufacture interface using telepresence solutions. However, the success of this work can impact on production costs in the shorter term – although by reducing costs it does make the targets for automation even more challenging.
95
Periodic Flow Crystallisation of Glycine and Paracetamol Using MSMPR
Crystallization of Fast and Slow Growing Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in a Periodically Operated MSMPR Crystallizer
Keddon A Powell1*, Ali Saleemi1, Chris D. Rielly1 and Zoltan K. Nagy1,2
1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK
2 School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. 47907, USA *[email protected]
Abstract
Periodic flow crystallisation is a novel concept where-by periodic, but controlled disruptions are applied to the inlet and outlet flow of a mixed suspension mixed product removal (MSMPR) crystalliser to increase the mean
residence time and control crystal product attributes. An integrated array of PAT tools, based on ATR-UV/vis, FBRM, PVM and Raman, and an in-house developed crystallisation process informatics system (CryPRINS) software tool were used to monitor the periodic flow crystallisation of the active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) glycine (GLY) and paracetamol (PCM) in the multi-stage MSMPR. This work also introduces the concept of “state of controlled operation” instead of “steady-state operation” as a state that can characterise continuous (or periodic) operation. State of controlled operation is defined as a state of a system which maintains itself despite transient effects caused by controlled or uncontrolled disruptions. The MSMPR was operated periodically for up to 11 residence times (RT) without any blockage or encrustation issues. Feed to the MSMPR was saturated at 20 oC and seeded with 2.5% seed at 19 oC in both operations. A state of controlled operation was achieved after the 4th and 8th RT for PCM and GLY respectively. The experimental yields of the seeded crystallisations as determined from concentration measurements and mass balance analyses were 78 % and 81 % for PCM and GLY respectively. Analysis of FBRM crystal size data, that is, the mean square weighted chord length (MSWCL) statistic showed that for PCM crystallisation, the product crystals were smaller (55 µm) relative to the starting seed material used (67 µm). This is due to secondary nucleation dominating the crystallisation process under the selected operating conditions, an indication that PCM is a slow growing API. In contrast, crystallisation of glycine in the periodically operated MSMPR gave product crystals of larger mean size (94 µm) compared to the seed material used (62 µm). This is an indication that growth is the dominant crystallisation mechanism and that GLY is a fast growing API. The results indicate that the growth and nucleation rates of the model compounds selected have a significant effect on the crystal product properties (size and distribution) obtained from the periodically operated MSMPR. It has also been demonstrated that the combined use of PAT tools and information systems can indicate when the periodic flow crystallisation process reaches a state of controlled operation, and provides a better understanding of the conditions and operating procedures that influence the periodic operation. Figure 1 shows the in situ PVM and off-line microscope images of PCM and GLY product crystals obtained from the periodically operated MSMPR.
Figure 1. PVM and microscope images of PCM (left) and GLY (right) product crystals obtained from the periodically operated MSMPR.
96
Novel open tubular continuous crystalliser: design and evaluation
Karen Robertson1 and Chick C Wilson1
1 Department of Chemistry, EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation at the University of Bath, Bath, UK
Abstract
The ability to continuously manufacture products can be of huge benefit to industry as it can reduce waste and capital expenditure. Continuous crystallisation has received tepid interest for many years but has come to the fore recently as it holds the potential for a radical transformation in the way crystalline products are manufactured, leading to the development method being embraced by major industries such as pharmaceuticals. In addition to the financial benefits offered by continuous crystallisation over conventional batch methods, a higher level of control over the crystallisation process can also be achieved – allowing improved, more consistent particle attributes to be obtained in the crystallisation process. This control is in part a consequence of the smaller volumes involved in continuous crystallisation, which also has the advantage of reducing any hazards associated with the materials being processed. By using smaller volumes, the mixing efficacy is inherently increased which reduces any disparity between local environments, thereby allowing kinetics to dictate the nature of the products. The EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC1) in the UK is a collaborative national initiative to further the knowledge base and understanding of all aspects relating to continuous crystallisation and its use in the manufacturing of crystalline particulate products.
In this work we present the design and construction of a novel continuous crystalliser (KRAIC) and its evaluation using various model systems such as calcium carbonate (polymorph control2) and Bourne reactions (mixing efficacy3). The crystalliser will then be used in the co-crystallisation of agrichemical and pharmaceutical compounds with co-formers in an effort to optimise the solid-state properties of these materials such as solubility. Various aspects of the evaluation of the design of the new crystalliser will be presented with reference to these trials, and assessed critically with respect to evolution of this design and potential implementation in manufacturing processes.
1. http://www.cmac.ac.uk/index.php
2. A.-N. Wu, W.-F. Dong, M. Antonietti, et al, Adv. Funct. Mater., 2008, 18, 1307-1313
3. J. Bourne, Org. Proc. Chem. Res. Dev., 2003, 7, 471-508
97
Scaling up of Batch Mixing for Flexible Manufacture
Thomas L. Rodgers1*, Jebin James1, Michael Cooke1, Peter Martin1, and Adam J. Kowalski2
1 The University of Manchester, SCEAS, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
2 Unilever R&D Port Sunlight Laboratory, Quarry Road East, Bebington, Wirral, CH63 3JW, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
High shear rotor-stator mixers are widely used in the process industries including the manufacture of many food, cosmetic, health care products, fine chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Rotor-stator devices provide a focused delivery of energy, power, and shear to accelerate physical processes such as micro-mixing, dissolution, emulsification and de-agglomeration. The use of rotor-stator devises used in a batch system provides the flexibility to produce a wide range of products in one vessel.
This paper examines the key design parameters for batch rotor-stator Silverson mixers at both lab (LR4) and pilot (GX10) scale. Full power curves are produced for a variety of rotor sizes with and without screens measured using a TorqueSense meter. The Metzner-Otto constant is also calculated for these same configurations providing a comparison of the average shear rate.
The mixing times and flow patterns of the rotor-stator mixers are measured using electrical resistance tomography suggesting an optimum configuration; the use of a secondary propeller is also investigated to aid the mixing. As many products can be sensitive to air ingress the speed until surface aeration is also measured and compared for the different configurations.
The equilibrium drop size is measured for the different configurations and compared at different rotor speeds over the two scales. The transient drop size is also measured and correlated against the key design parameters.
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Ultrasonically Assisted Machining
Anish Roy1*, Vadim V. Silberschmidt1
1 Loughborough University (Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough,
LE11 3TU, The UK)
Abstract
Typically, traditional ultrasonic machining is understood to be an abrasive process, in which material removal is purely mechanical. The process equipment consists of a vibrational horn, a tool part, an abrasive paste (usually, with boron carbide particles), and the working material. During machining, the frequency is adjusted, so that the tool-horn system resonates at around 20 kHz (thus making it ultrasonic); as a result, the abrasive particles suspended in slurry are propelled at the work surface, causing rapid erosion. In this sense, the abrasive paste ultimately ‘cuts’ the work-piece.
The ultrasonically assisted machining (UAM) process, a new hybrid machining process, differs principally from the mentioned ultrasonic machining. First, it is a dry machining process, where no abrasive paste of coolants is needed. Next, the vibrating cutting tool – the same that is used in a respective machining operation – interacts with the work-piece directly and cuts the material using a micro-chipping process. Kinematically, the system is different from that for a conventional machining process, as the cutting tool moves as in conventional machining but with superimposed vibro-impacts, leading to improved cutting conditions as demonstrated in the paper. Interestingly, when an externally controlled vibration is imposed on a cutting tool, significant improvements in surface finish, noise and tool-wear reduction are observed. This technique has been recently applied in drilling of carbon/epoxy composites, in which high-frequency vibration was used to excite a drill bit axially during its standard operation [1]. An extensive experimental study of drilling forces, temperature, chip formation, surface finish, circularity, delamination and tool wear, was conducted. Ultrasonically assisted drilling (UAD) showed a significant improvement in hole quality when compared to conventional drilling processes.
When ultrasonic vibrations are imposed on the cutting tool in a turning process, a multi-fold decrease in the level of cutting forces with a concomitant improvement in surface finish of work-piece was observed. This technique known as ultrasonically assisted turning (UAT) has also been used to efficiently machine a host of intractable alloys such Ni and β-Ti alloys [2, 3].
1. F. Makhdum, V. Phadnis, A. Roy, V.V. Silberschmidt, Effect of ultrasonically-assisted drilling on carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics, Journal of Sound and Vibrations, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsv.2014.05.042.
2. A. Maurotto, R. Muhammad, A. Roy, V.V. Silberschmidt, Enhanced ultrasonically assisted turning of a β-titanium alloy, Ultrasonics, 2013, 53, 7, 1242-1250.
3. R. Muhammad, A. Maurotto, M. Demiral, A. Roy, V.V. Silberschmidt, Thermally enhanced ultrasonically assisted machining of Ti alloy, CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, 2014, 7,2, 159-167.
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Incremental deformation processing for Near-Net-Shape manufacture of aerospace components: shear forming, rotary forging and flow forming
M.R. Salamati1*, A.P. Conway2, L. Muir3 and L.O’Hare4
1 Advance Forming Research Center (DMEM, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom)
2 Advance Forming Research Center (DMEM, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom)
3 Advance Forming Research Center (DMEM, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom)
4 Advance Forming Research Center (DMEM, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom)
*[email protected] Abstract A technology and capability gap exists against Near-Net-Shape Forming (NNSF) processing of aerospace materials subject to Incremental Deformation Processing (IDP), which limits the application of cost effective forming processes for today’s engine product. Examples of ID processes are shear forming, rotary forging and flow forming. In these processes a localized force is applied by a tool to the surface of a pre-form. The tool being under CNC control is traversed across that pre-form surface to create a macro-deformation of the preform surface.
1. Shear forming typically uses 2D plate material as the pre-form which is then shear-formed into a 3D conical structure.
2. Rotary forging uses machined 3D preforms with minimum starting diameter, which is then incrementally formed with external flanging or conical features.
3. Flow forming is a process whereby a hollow metal blank, disc or tube is mounted on a rotating mandrel. The material is made to flow axially along the rotating mandrel by one or more rollers
IDP can offer several key benefits such as eliminating tool and part heating requirements, achieve near-net shape geometry and reducing material input and a reduction in machining content all of which result in the process being a low energy, high yield, rapid manufacturing and material processing technology. Several shear forming, flow forming and rotary forge trials have been conducted in the AFRC. A range of geometries and alloys were selected and tested for each of the above IDP manufacturing technique. The geometries used were all industrially relevant and representative of parts that could be used in the aerospace industry. The range of metal alloys used for the trials were soft aluminum to high strength steels that were similar to the alloys often used of aerospace engine components. If conventional metal removal techniques were used to produce these geometries it would have resulted in significant increase in scrap material, manufacturing time and cost while achieving no significant improvement in the part properties. AFRC trials confirmed that cold forming using shear forming, rotary forging and flow forming can result in dimensionally accurate and stable components with complex geometries; while significantly reducing the post process machining requirements and improving part production rates. By demonstrating the capabilities of these cold forming techniques it is possible to show the once theoretical benefits of using these processes over conventional machining and hot forming techniques can now be achieved consistently.
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Optical switching in metal electrodes embedded dual-core optical fibre
M. Segura*, Z. Lian, N. Podoliak, X. Feng, N. White, W. H. Loh and P. Horak
Optoelectronics Research Center, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
Abstract
Micro-structured optical fibres (MOF) have been designed in a large variety of geometries. Much of these efforts were focused on control of dispersion, enhancement of the nonlinearity, reduction of the fibre transmission loss, or sensitivity to the environment for sensing in single-material MOFs. Multi-material MOFs have also been developed for added functionality, e.g, hollow-core fibres filled with liquid for temperature sensing [1] or with integrated electrodes for switching applications [2].
Optical fibres whose optical properties can be externally controlled after fabrication could open up a new range of applications. An example of such a reconfigurable fibre is the dual suspended-core optical fibre [3] which consists of two independent cores suspended by thin membranes and surrounded by air. The cores interact with each other via their evanescent optical fields. Changing the core-to-core separation by mechanical or electrical actuation changes the optical coupling length and thus allows for active control of the propagating light. In [3], optical switching was demonstrated by applying pressure. With just 8 nm change in core separation it was possible to observe switching of the light from one core to the other at the fibre output. Other mechanisms to induce optical switching, apart from pressure, can be electrostatic actuation [4], opto-mechanical forces [5] or thermally changing the refractive index of the glass cores. Forms of electrical actuation operating at low voltages/low powers in general benefit from introducing electrodes close to the optically guiding cores, i.e., from inserting metal electrodes into the fibre.
Here we report on the fabrication of dual suspended-core optical fibres with integrated tin electrodes and the optical switching achieved when electric current is applied to the electrodes, increasing the temperature of the cores. The dual suspended-core structure is at the centre of the fibre with four electrodes surrounding it. The dimensions of the cores are 2x3 m, separated by 200 nm and suspended by two glass membranes of 500 nm thickness. The fibres were fabricated in lead-silicate glass (Schott F2) which exhibits a low softening temperature (592○C) allowing for preform and jacket tube fabrication via glass extrusion with stainless steel dies. In 68 cm of fibre we observed optical switching between cores by applying 0.4 W of electrical power. This kind of design opens up new possibilities for applications of optical fibres as micro/nano-electromechanical systems (M/NEMS) where light is not only transmitted passively through the fibre but the optical transmission properties can be actively controlled. These two characteristics will allow for the development of all-fibre NEMS devices avoiding the use of chip-based micro-mirrors and micro-lenses.
1. Liu, S.; Wang, Y.; Hou, M.; Guo, J.; Li, Z.; Lu, P. Anti-resonant reflecting guidance in alcohol-filled hollow core photonic crystal fiber for sensing applications, Opt. Express 21, 31690-31697, 2013.
2. Chesini, G.; Cordeiro, C. M. B.; De Matos, C. J. S.; Fokine, M.; Carvalho, I. C. S.; Knight, J. C. All-fiber devices based on photonic crystal fibers with integrated electrodes, Opt. Express 17, 1660-1665, 2009.
3. Lian, Z.; Horak, P.; Feng, X.; Xiao, L.; Frampton, K.; White, N.; Tucknott, J.; Rutt, H.; Payne, D. N.; Stewart, W.; Loh, W. H. Nanomechanical optical fiber, Opt. Express 20, 29386-29394, 2012.
4. Podoliak, N.; Lian, Z.; Loh, W. H.; Horak, P. Design of dual-core optical fibers with NEMS functionality, Opt. Express 22, 1065-1076, 2014.
5. Butsch, A.; Kang, M. S.; Euser, T. G.; Koehler, J. R.; Rammler, S.; Keding, R.; Russell, P. St. J. Optomechanical nonlinearity in dual-nanoweb structure suspended inside capillary fiber, Phys. Rev. Lett. 109, 183904, 2012.
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Design and fabrication of next generation optical fibers for 2µm laser systems
P. C. Shardlow*, D. Jain, J. Sahu and W. A. Clarkson
Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
Abstract
Fibre laser systems have become a mainstay of manufacturing sectors over the preceding years as they can offer kW levels of power delivered in a well-controlled beam to the workpiece in a cost effective and efficient package. Current fibre laser technology normally utilises Yb ions doped into silica optical fibres as the gain medium, which operate at 1µm. The reliability of fibre laser systems due to their ‘alignment free’ nature makes them an attractive solution over competing laser architectures.
2um laser systems, based thulium or holmium active ions, offer the prospect of processing capabilities for a greater range of materials including many organic materials with
increased absorption at 2µm compared to 1µm lasers. Unfortunately currently available optical fibre for this spectral region has not reached the efficiencies or maturity for large scale market adoption.
We report on the design, development and optimisation of Tm, Ho and passive optical fibre for use within laser systems operating in the 2um spectral region. Emphasis of development has focused on glass compositional optimisation. Two key aspects will be discussed: Firstly process optimisation to reduce unwanted OH incorporation into the fibre core. This incorporation is relatively innocuous for 1um laser sources, but an OH absorption peak in silica glass at 2.2um laser can detrimentally reduce the efficiency of the laser system. We report on chlorine drying procedures within the fibre fabrication process which have led to doped fibre
with <0.1ppm contamination levels, reducing the attenuation within this region by two orders of magnitude over previous fabrication procedures. Secondly compositional optimisation of Tm doped active fibre in order to maximise a cross-relaxation process within the Tm doped fiber in order to achieve 70% slope efficiencies in the 2um spectral region when pumped by readily available pump diodes operating at 79xnm.
Fig. 1. SEM image of sample 2um fibres
Fig. 2. Attenuation of Tm doped preforms showing reduced attenuation due to the OH contamination (red – green – blue – black dotted) whilst increasing the Tm dopant concentration for
improved laser efficiency.
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Monitoring Fouling in the Moving Fluid Oscillatory Baffled Crystalliser under Isothermal Conditions using Image Analysis
Rachel Sheridan1a*, Naomi Briggs1b, Alastair Florence1b and Jan Sefcik1a
a Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
b Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences 1EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
*161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 0RE, [email protected]
Abstract
Crystallisation is an important unit operation in many industries for separating a pure substance from an impure environment. The pharmaceutical industry is a prime example, where a batch approach is routinely adopted. However, if crystallisation was converted to a continuous process there would be a variety of benefits. It would offer better control of the process variables which influence the crystal quality and overall efficiency. Fouling poses a significant challenge in continuous processing, as system blockages or reduction in heat transfer may result in shutdown of the process.
Fouling is the product of heterogeneous nucleation, which is often preferred over homogeneous nucleation due to energetically favourable conditions at solid-liquid interfaces [1]. The kinetics of heterogeneous nucleation is dependent on several variables, including the molecular species, solvent, surface properties, flow conditions, temperature, and impurities. Surface and solute interactions play a large role in fouling, and this is dependent on the wetting of the surface and hence the molecular interactions between the surface and the solute [2]. Preventative methods to avoid fouling have included approaches such as mechanically scraping the surface to remove growing crystals or material alterations through surface modifications and coatings [3].
The experimental setup used in our work was a batch version of the continuous oscillatory baffled crystalliser, known as a moving fluid oscillatory baffled crystalliser (MFOBC). When used in a continuous fashion, this system can achieve close to plug flow and provide reasonable residence time and good heat and mass transfer as well as suspension of solid particles [4]. Local mixing is created through the oscillation method of eddie formation, which are due to the interaction of the baffles with the oscillatory flow. The oscillation conditions are defined through frequency and amplitude [5].
We used image analysis to monitor fouling in the system under isothermal conditions, utilising different oscillations and concentrations. Fouling induction times on the glass wall were measured using average pixel intensity data from the MATLAB image processing toolbox and visual inspection of the captured images. Heterogeneous nucleation and growth of L-glutamic acid crystals at glass-water interface has been studied at a constant temperature at three concentrations and two oscillation conditions. Two Microsoft LifeCam VX-3000 cameras with illumination from LED torches are used inside an enclosed environment to ensure constant lighting and to minimize reflections. Fouling induction times were reduced through increasing the frequency of the oscillation and increasing the solution concentration. This experimental platform provides a unique way to characterize heterogeneous nucleation under oscillatory flow conditions and to explore conditions suitable for long term operation without fouling and/or designing relevant fouling mitigation strategies.
[1]. J. W. Mullin, Crystallisation, Chapter 5, 4th Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, 2001
[2]. Diao, Ying, et al. Langmuir 2011,27, 5324-5334
[3]. Geddert, T, Augustin, W, Scholl, Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning 2009, 319-325
[4]. Ni, X-W, Innovations in Pharmaceutical Technology 2006, 20, 90-96
[5]. Stonestreet, P, Harvey, A.P. IChemE 2002, 80, 31-43
103
Application of rolling and laser processing to improve structural integrity of multi-pass welds in HSLA steel
Jibrin Sule1*, Supriyo Ganguly1, and Paul Colegrove1
1 Cranfield University, Welding Engineering and laser processing Centre, MK43 0AL, Cranfield
Abstract
In a multi-pass weld, the development of residual stress to a large extent depends on the response of the weld metal, heat affected zone and parent material to complex thermo-mechanical cycles during welding. Creation of a refined and recrystallized microstructure with modified residual stress state was attempted by applying post weld rolling and subsequent laser processing in a temperature regime to initiate re-crystallisation. The residual stress has been investigated non-destructively by using neutron diffraction. The modification of the weld residual stress profile and magnitude in a 20 mm thick ferritic steel plate was demonstrated.
In this study, the residual stress measurement was measured in three through thickness locations across the weld (2, 10 and 18 mm below the surface on which the final weld pass was laid). The hardening of the weld metal due to multiple pass and subsequently rolling and laser processing was evaluated. Hardness results show evidence of plastic deformation up to 5 mm below the weld surface. In residual stress analysis, the result show that, at 2 mm below the weld surface, rolling was effective in changing the longitudinal residual stress distribution, modifying the stress state from tensile to compressive across the weld centre line. Laser treatment after rolling was found to reinstate the original residual stress state in the same location, indicating excessive application of thermal energy. It was observed that, in as-welded state, through thickness residual stress variation showed diminishing peak stress magnitude from cap to root pass, indicating plastic straining of previously deposited weld metal by successive passes.
Microstructural characterisation indicates minor grain refinement by post rolling laser processing. The reduction in grain size is due to formation of set of strain free grains, which would give improvement in strength and toughness properties of the material near the surface.
104
New Processing Technologies
Dr Antonio Sullo1*, Dr Thomas Mills2, Dr Fotis Spyropoulos3, Professor Ian Norton4
1EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacture in Food (School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham) 2EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacture in Food (School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham) 3EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacture in Food (School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham) 4EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacture in Food (School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham)
*School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, [email protected]
Abstract
Emulsification by droplet breakup often requires large energy inputs, exposes the sample to high levels of shear and often creates relatively broad distributions. This limits the production of “shear-sensitive” microstructure, but has the advantage of being simple to implement on a production scale. In comparison, drop-by-drop techniques such as microfluidics and membrane emulsification offer a lower shear environment with tighter control over the distributions created, this leads to greater flexibility and tailored products simply by altering operating parameters.
Microfluidics can create tightly controlled emulsion distributions, including complex constructions such as double emulsions, core shell particles and liquid crystal shells. Further work in this area would need to address parallelisation of the device in order to bring production rates in line with current methods without sacrificing product quality.
Membrane emulsification (both cross flow and rotating) offers drop-by-drop production of complex emulsions at relatively low shears allowing sensitive structures such as double emulsions to be produced with high efficiency and uniformity (figure 1). Issues of fouling and throughput for this technique need to be addressed by rational design and consideration of membrane material if this technique is to gain wider use (Pawlik and Norton 2012, Pawlik and Norton 2013). Future projects would target scale up of the application along with investigating a wider range of membrane materials and design to reduce the frequency of cleaning.
Fig. 1- The rotating membrane system
105
1. Pawlik, A. K. and I. T. Norton (2012). "Encapsulation stability of duplex emulsions prepared with SPG cross-flow membrane, SPG rotating membrane and rotor-stator techniques—A comparison." Journal of Membrane Science 415–416(0): 459-468.
2. Pawlik, A. K. and I. T. Norton (2013). "SPG rotating membrane technique for production of food grade emulsions." Journal of Food Engineering 114(4): 530-537.
106
Rapid welding of glass and glass with embedded metallic nanoparticles by nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation
G. Tang, S. A. Zolotovskaya and A. Abdolvand*
School of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
Abstract
Laser-assisted glass joining and bonding techniques have applications for the manufacture of sensors, microelectronic, MEMS, micro-fluidic and medical devices. Recently, direct joining techniques of glass with focused ultra-short (femtosecond and picosecond) pulsed laser beams have been reported [1-3]. The high intensity in the focal volume of the focused ultra-short laser pulses leads to the nonlinear and multi-photon absorption inside the bulk transparent glass substrates. The glass in the focal spot becomes opaque and absorbs laser energy leading to a localized melting and joining of the substrates. The main disadvantages here are that the ultra-short laser systems are expensive and that the process requires lens objectives of high numerical aperture, typically in the range of 0.4 – 0.65. The latter leads to short working distance and welding depth and ultimately restricts the welding efficiency. There are also requirements on the high surface quality of the work pieces – currently within /4. The above constitute a serious challenge for adapting this technique by industry.
In this abstract, we report on rapid welding of 1 mm thick glass with embedded spherical silver nanoparticles (~ 40 nm in diameter) to a 1 mm thick Schott B270 glass upon nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation at 532 nm. This wavelength is within the surface plasmon resonance absorption band of the employed silver nanoparticles. The nanoparticle containing layer was embedded (30 nm beneath the glass surface) in a surface layer of thickness ~ 20 m, and was employed to absorb the laser energy. At the mean laser fluence of ~ 0.2 J/cm2, the glasses were welded in atmospheric air pressure after a single laser beam scanning at 10 mm/s using a long focal length lens (f = 150 mm). The clamping pressure (see Fig. 1a) was only necessary to hold the pieces together during the laser irradiation. The welding mechanism is discussed in terms of absorption of the laser beam by nanoparticles and the transfer of heat to the surrounding glass leading to the local bubble formation, melting, vaporization and formation of a strong weld.
This is a scalable and rapid technique for welding clear glass to nanocomposite glass. It is argued that since the employed laser is an industrially friendly and adaptable source and due to the substantial increase of the working distance, the presented technique could find application in device manufacture.
Fig. 1. a) The schematic diagram. b) Image of the substrates after laser irradiation: glass (on the top) and glass with embedded silver nanoparticles (in the bottom and brownish in colour). The insets are enlarged images of the welded lines.
[1] W. Watanabe, S. Onda, T. Tamaki, K. Itoh, J. Nishii, “Space-selective laser joining of dissimilar transparent materials using femtosecond laser pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 021106 (2006).
[2] H. Huang, L. Yang, J. Liu, “Direct welding of fused silica with femtosecond fiber laser,” in Proc. SPIE 8244, Laser-based Micro- and Nanopackaging and Assembly VI, 824401 (February 3, 2012).
[3] W. Watanabe, “Direct joining and welding with ultrashort laser pulses,” in CLEO: 2013, (Optical Society of America, 2013), paper ATu2N.3.
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107
Laser marking of metals using a spatial light modulator
Krystian L. Wlodarczyk1*, Jarno J. J. Kaakkunen1,2,3, Pasi Vahimaa2, and Duncan P. Hand1
1 School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK 2 Department of Physics and Mathematics, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland
3 VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Lappeenranta, Finland *[email protected]
Abstract
All products leaving the production line have to be marked in order to provide their primary identification (e.g. company name, trademark, part number), traceability (e.g. serial number, bar code for inventory) and compliance (e.g. compatibility marks). Lasers are very often used for these tasks, because they offer high marking speeds and precision, and also can produce marks in different materials (i.e. metals, glass, ceramic, polymers).
In conventional laser marking systems a laser beam is delivered to the workpiece via a galvo-scanner equipped with a flat-field (F-theta) lens. The drawbacks of this solution, however, are a limited size of the marks generated by the focused laser beam (typically more than 20µm) and moving elements (mirrors) which are sensitive to external vibrations.
This work describes a speckle-free, sequential-parallel approach for marking surfaces using a picosecond laser (Trumpf TruMicro 5050-3C) and a liquid-crystal-based spatial light modulator (SLM Holoeye LC-R 2500), designed to avoid the speckle interference problem which is a typical drawback of current SLM-based laser marking processes1-3. In this approach, the SLM is used to generate complex two dimensional micro-patterns (e.g. 20 × 20 pixel datamatrices) with overall dimensions of approximately 300 by 300 µm. In comparison to conventional laser marking systems, the SLM-based laser marking setup does not contain any moving elements and therefore is resistant to vibrations, and can be quite compact in the construction because contains only two optical elements: a SLM display and a focusing lens.
1. J.P. Parry, R.J. Beck, J.D. Shephard, D.P. Hand, “Application of a liquid crystal spatial light modulator to laser marking,” Appl. Opt. 50, 1779–1785 (2011)
2. R.J. Beck, J.P. Parry, W.N. MacPherson, P.D. Hand, “Application of cooled spatial light modulator for high power nanosecond laser micromachining,” Opt. Express 18, 17059-17065 (2010)
3. Y. Hayasaki, M. Nishitani, H. Takahashi, H. Yamamoto, A. Takiita, D. Suzuki, S. Hasegawa, “Experimental investigation of the closest parallel pulses in holographic femtosecond laser processing,” Appl. Phys. A: 107, 357-362 (2012)
108
Nucleation of pharmaceuticals in batch and continuous crystallization
Huaiyu Yang1*, Vishal Raval1, and Alastair Florence1
1 CMAC, Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
*Mailing Add., [email protected]
Abstract
Nucleation denotes the initial step by which a new phase is formed and is a widely spread phenomenon in crystallization processes in nature and in industry1. Crystallization is of significant importance to our society in industrial production of metallurgic and polymeric materials, and of inorganic and organic compounds, as well as most of the active pharmaceutical ingredients. The primary nucleation induction time of butyl paraben in pure ethanol has been determined. The data has been evaluated within the framework of the Classical Nucleation Theory using several of the current approaches. In the classical nucleation theory, the free energy change upon nucleation is the free energy change of bringing molecules from the supersaturated solution into the cluster, subtracting the higher free energy of the molecules at the crystal surface, and the nucleation rate is determined by (
). Based on the induction time results under constant supersaturation the thermodynamic parameters like solid-liquid interfacial energy, critical number of molecules, critical free energy of nucleation can be extrapolated. The pre-exponential factor, A, has been investigated, which is dependent on various kinetic parameters like shear rate. The nucleation processes have been performed in batch crystallization by utilizing tank crystallizer and small glass vessel crystallizer and in continuous crystallization by employing moving fluid oscillatory baffled crystallizer and continuous oscillatory baffled crystallizer. The interfacial energy of butyl paraben in ethanol in different crystallizers estimated based on the Classical Nucleation Theory is consistent. However, the kinetics of the different crystallizers obviously influences the pre-exponential factors, inducing longer induction time in batch crystallization than in continuous crystallization. The nucleation of butyl paraben under same supersaturation at same temperature in continuous crystallization is easier than in batch crystallization, resulting from the better mixing and higher shear rate in moving fluid oscillatory baffled crystallizer and continuous oscillatory baffled crystallizer, which may indicate the continuous crystallization is a better method in future manufacturing of pharmaceuticals.
1. References should be placed at the bottom of the page, using Times New Roman 9, leaving 6 pts before and 0 after the paragraphs.
2. The reference should be numbered consecutively in the text.
109
Nozzle design used for reducing the MSF errors in rapid plasma figuring
Nan Yu1*, Renaud P. Jourdain1, and Paul R. Shore1
1 Precision Engineering Institute (Manufacturing and Materials Department, Cranfield University, Bedford, UK)
*Building 90, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL, Bedfordshire, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
This paper presents the design of novel Inductively Couple Plasma (ICP) torch nozzle that will enable the creation a highly collimated energy beam characterised by a material removal footprint of a few millimetres in diameter. This dedicated ICP torch will be used through a dwell time figuring method for the correction of optical surfaces which is applied as the final step of optical fabrication chain. The surface figuring method is based on reactive plasma chemical process that enables etching of silicon based material. Fast figure correction of 400 x 400mm optical surfaces has been demonstrated in the previous research. Surface accuracy better than 43nm RMS was obtained within 2.5 hours. However, mid-spatial frequency (MSF) errors were noticed in the processed surfaces, resulting in effects like hazing, energy loss and pixel cross-talk. MSF errors are believed to be reduced by using smaller and finer footprint plasma beam. Therefore, design of plasma torch nozzle is been investigated based on numerical simulation and removal footprint experiments. A CFD model of existing De-laval nozzle was created using software package FLUENT. The velocity of Argon flow was got from the simulation, and the beam shape can be observed too. Between the flow and substrate, there is a contacting area where material removal chemical reaction happens. The relationship among nozzle size, contacting area and plasma footprint is investigated, which enables the nozzle design.
110
THEME:
FRONTIER MANUFACTURING
111
Effects of Net Skins on Reinforced Body Centered Cubic Lattices
Aremu, A.1*, Maskery, I., Ashcroft, I., Tuck, C., Wildman, R., and Hague, R.
1 Aremu A. (Additive manufacturing and 3D printing research group, Nottingham University, Nottingham, United
Kingdom)
*Mailing Add., [email protected]
Abstract
Multifunctional capabilities of lattice structures allow them to be used for weight bearing, impact absorption and heat dissipation [1]. However, lattice topologies were previously limited by manufacturing route. This situation has been mitigated by advancement in additive manufacturing (AM), which allows the manufacture of complex parts directly from three dimensional CAD data. Most difficulties associated with realizing novel lattice topologies is reduced while others arise when manufacturing with AM techniques suited for metallic components. A prevalent issue is the need for support structures when using selective laser melting (SLM). It is difficult to remove such structures from the lattice during post processing without compromising the quality of the part; self-supporting lattices are therefore preferred for SLM. Yan et al. [2] observed various configurations of the Gyroid lattice to be self-supporting when manufactured with SLM. Ushijima et al. [3] presented an analytical model for predicting the mechanical properties of body centered cubic (BCC) lattice under compressive loading and validated with SLM without the need for supports. To further exploit the capabilities of SLM, it is beneficial to generate and characterize other self-supporting lattices.
Generating lattice structures for complicated three dimensional domains without distorting the behavior of its unit cell is a challenging task. A power approach was recently developed by Brennan-Craddock [4], involving the trimming of tessellated lattice structures via voxel models. The procedure fits the lattice to an arbitrary domain but weakens the lattice at its boundaries since it places unconnected hanging features in this region. Brennan-Craddock [4] suggested that net skins are placed at the boundaries of such trimmed lattices, to connect the hanging features without hazardously affecting the bulk properties of the lattice. In this paper, we investigate the effects of such skin on the structural properties of reinforced body centered cubic (RBCC) lattices via finite element analysis and practical validation via SLM. RBCC Lattices are subjected to different loading scenarios and simulations are structured factorially to understand the main and interaction effects of the skins and cell sizes on structural properties. Results show that the net skins has a positively effect on the stiffness of lattices structures, this comes with a minimal increase in weight.
[1] Evans, A., G., Hutchinson, J., W., Ashby, M., F., Multifunctionality of cellular metal systems, progress in materials science, 43, p171-221, 1999.
[2] Yan, C., Hao, L., Hussein, A., Young, P., Raymont, D., Advanced lightweight 316L stainless steel cellular lattice structures fabricated via selective laser melting, materials and Design, 55, p533-541, 2014.
[3] Ushijima, K., Cantwell, W., J., Mines R., Tsopanos, S., and Smith, An investigation into the compressive properties of stainless steel micro-lattice structures, Journal of sandwich structures and materials, 13(3), p303-329, 2010.
[4] Brennan-Craddock, J.P.J., The investigation of a method to generate conformal lattice structures for additive manufacturing, PhD thesis, Loughborough University, 2011.
112
Functional Oxide Particles by Hydrothermal Routes: scale up issues
Faith Bamiduro, Mario De Giovanni, Andrew P. Brown, Omar Matar, Rik Brydson and Steven J Milne
Institute for Materials Research, School of Process, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK.
Abstract
The manufacture of oxide powders by hydrothermal synthesis in principle allows superior control over particle size and structure relative to other solution-precipitation synthesis methods, but requires careful manipulation of process variables to achieve accurate control of particle properties [1]. This presentation will compare the optimum processing conditions for the manufacture of functional oxide nano- and micro- particles using a small-scale 0.1 litre reactor and a 2 litre reactor designed with the facility to extract samples at intermediate reaction times. Particle growth mechanisms will be described with the aid of scanning and transmission electron microscopy to reveal key stages in structural development. Information on product quality and reproducibility within and between batches (particle size, size distribution, uniformity of morphology and composition) will be correlated to mixing conditions and heating rates/dwell times. End–use applications of biomarkers synthesised by hydrothermal routes will be described, highlighting the importance of tight control over process conditions to produce particles suitable for the development of novel second harmonic imaging probes.
1. F. Bamiduro, M. B. Ward, R. Brydson and S J Milne ‘Hierarchical Growth of ZnO Particles by a Hydrothermal Route’ J. Am. Ceram. Soc. doi: 10.1111/jace.12809 ( 2004).
113
Boundary layer chemical vapour synthesis of self-organised ferromagnetically filled radial-carbon-nanotube structures
Mark Baxendale1, Filippo S. Boi1,2 and Gavin Mountjoy3,
1School of Physics and Astronomy, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK
2School of Physical Science and Technology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 29 Wangjiang Road, 610061China. 3School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NH, UK
Abstract
We report a new chemical vapour synthesis method that exploits random fluctuations in the viscous boundary layer between a laminar flow of thermally decomposed ferrocene and a rough surface to yield a not previously observed product: radial ferromagnetically filled-carbon-nanotube structures departing from a central particle1.
This simple method yields a single, self-organized, ordered product by vapour-, liquid-, solid-phase self-organization. The fluctuations create the thermodynamic conditions for formation of the central particle in the vapour which in turn defines the spherically symmetric diffusion gradient that initiates the radial growth. The subsequent radial growth is driven by the supply of vapour feedstock by local diffusion gradients created by endothermic graphitic carbon formation at the vapour-facing tips of the individual nanotubes and is halted by contact with the surface. The radial structures are the dominant product and the reaction conditions are self-sustaining. We argue that the method has potential for scalable production of metal-carbon nanostructures with other unusual morphologies and identify the carbon-to-metal ratio in the vapour species as the key factor which determines the morphology of the product. The radial structures exhibit a ferromagnetic response which can be tuned by selection of the process parameters. The stray magnetic field is shown to depart perpendicularly at the tips of the radial filled-carbon-nanotubes. These structures have potential for applications which exploit the high surface area and the high volume fraction of ferromagnetic material of an individual urchin, for example as magnetic nanocomposite fillers, microwave absorbing materials, magnetic particles for magnetorheological fluids, and energy materials.
1. F.S. Boi, G. Mountjoy, and M. Baxendale, Carbon 2013, 64, 516
114
Synthesis of bulk superconducting MgB2
Ashutosh G Bhagurkar1*, N Hari Babu1 and D A Cardwell2
1BCAST, Brunel University, London, UK 2 Bulk Superconductivity Group, Dept of Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK
BCAST, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK [email protected]
Abstract
Superconductivity in magnesium diboride (MgB2) was discovered in 2001[1]. Its relatively high Tc (39 K), high critical current density, high coherence length (∼6 nm), inexpensive raw materials, lower density and ease of fabrication make it an exciting choice for practical application. Furthermore, Lower anisotropy and strongly linked current flow in untextured polycrystalline MgB2 has allowed processing by different routes to make wires, tapes, thin films and bulks [2].
MgB2 is conventionally synthesized by solid state reaction between elemental (Mg+B), giving MgB2 phase in as little as 2 hr sintering [3]. However, it often results in highly porous structure (50% porosities) owing to high vapour pressure of magnesium and 28% volume shrinkage associated with MgB2 phase formation [4]. Sintering powders are often enriched with Mg to account for lost Mg in vapour form. Although this leads to improved grain connectivity, porosities are still unavoidable [5]. Moreover weak links are created by formation of oxides such as BOx and MgO which reduce effective current carrying cross sectional area.
This study reports the processing of dense, superconducting MgB2 (ρ≈2.4 g/cm3) by an infiltration and growth technique. The process, which involves infiltration of liquid magnesium into a pre-defined boron precursor pellet, is relatively simple, results in a hard, dense structure and has the potential to fabricate complex shapes. The resulting MgB2 bulk samples exhibit a sharp superconducting transitions at 37.8 K and have critical current densities of up to 380 kA/cm2 in self-field at 5 K. X-ray diffraction confirms the presence of the MgB2 phase with residual magnesium content in the fully processed samples. Dense packing of the precursor powder results in improved grain connectivity and reduced residual Mg. MgB2 discs up to 32 mm diameter and 4 mm thickness have been fabricated successfully by this process
1. Nagamatsu J, Nakagawa N, Muranaka T, Zenitani Y and Akimitsu J 2001 Nature 410 63
2. Kambara M, HariBabu N, Sadki E S, Cooper J R, Minami H,Cardwell D A,Campbell A Mand Inoue I H 2001 Supercond. Sci. Technol. 14 L5–L7
3. Canfield P C, Finnemore D K, Bud’ko S L, Ostenson J E, Lapertot G, Cunningham C E and Petrovic C 2001 Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 2423
4. Yamamoto A, Shimoyama J, Kishio K and Matsushita T 2007 Supercond. Sci. Technol. 20 658
5. Zeng R, Lu L, Wang J L, Horvat J, Li W X, Shi D Q, Dou S X, Tomsic M and Rindfleisch M 2007 Supercond. Sci. Technol. 20 L43
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Evaluation of the Corrosion Fatigue Behaviour of Laser-welded NiTi Alloys using Bending Rotation Fatigue Test in Simulated Body Fluid
C.W. Chan*1, H.C. Man2
1 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
2 Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Shape memory NiTi alloys have been used extensively for medical device applications such as orthopedic, dental, vascular and cardiovascular devices on account of their unique shape memory effect (SME) and super-elasticity (SE). Laser welding is found to be the most suitable method used to fabricate NiTi-based medical components. However, the performance of laser-welded NiTi alloys under corrosive environments is not fully understood and a specific focus on understanding the corrosion fatigue behaviour is not evident in the literature. This study reveals a comparison of corrosion fatigue behaviour of laser-welded and bare NiTi alloys using bending rotation fatigue (BRF) test which was integrated with a specifically designed corrosion cell. The testing environment was Hanks’ solution (simulated body fluid) at 37.5oC. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopic (EIS) measurement was carried out to monitor the change of corrosion resistance at different periods during the BRF test. Experiments indicate that the laser-welded NiTi alloy would be more susceptible to the corrosion fatigue attack than the bare NiTi alloy. This finding can serve as a benchmark for the product designers and engineers to determine the factor of safety of NiTi medical devices fabricated using laser welding.
Keywords: Corrosion Fatigue Behaviour, Bending Rotation Fatigue, Shape Memory Alloys, Laser Welding, NiTi
116
High Sensitivity Gas Sensing Using Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fibres Designed for Operation at mid-IR Wavelengths
Yong Chen1*, Marco N. Petrovich1, Natalie V. Wheeler1, Alexander M. Heidt1, Naveen K. Baddela1, S.
Reza Sandoghchi1, Francesco Poletti1 and David J. Richardson1
1 Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK * [email protected]
Abstract
High sensitivity gas detection is of great interest in the fields of security, medical diagnostics, and environmental and industrial monitoring. Optical absorption methods are well established and the use of fibre based devices has advantages in terms of small footprint, relatively low cost, immunity to electromagnetic interference and potential for distributed sensing; however, they generally suffer from poor sensitivity due to the difficulty of achieving an efficient spatial overlap with gas analytes. The use of Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fibres (HC-PBGFs), i.e. a special type of optical fibres that guide light in a hollow core through bandgap effects, enables an extremely efficient sensing platform due to close to 100% overlap between the light and gas in the hollow core and the possibility for long interaction lengths. Furthermore, HC-PBGFs can be designed to operate at mid-IR wavelengths, where conventional fibres cannot operate. We recently demonstrated HC-PBGFs with loss as low as 0.05dB/m at 3.3μm and more than 100nm 3dB transmission bandwidth [1]. The capability of accessing the mid-IR wavelengths is critical for gas sensing, as the fundamental vibrational transitions of many gas molecules (for instance those containing C-H, O-H, N-H groups) fall in this spectral region. By detecting the fundamental absorption bands as opposed to their much weaker overtones in the near IR often targeted by fibre based sensor systems, substantially higher sensitivity can be achieved [2]. Additionally, mid-IR HC-PBGFs have relative large core diameters (~50 μm), which is beneficial in allowing a comparatively faster gas filling and evacuation.
Figure 1: (a) The loss spectrum of a typical mid-IR HC-PBGF (Inset shows a SEM image of the fibre), (b) Normalized transmittance of a 5.7m long section of fibre, filled with 50 ppm C2H6 in N2, compared to HITRAN and PNNL data.
In this work we present recent gas sensing results obtained using newly developed mid-IR HC-PBGFs. A high intensity, ultra-broad mid-IR supercontinuum laser and an optical spectrum analyser were used to probe the gas absorption lines achieving values of wavelength resolution and signal to noise ratio unprecedented for a fibre based system [2]. Here we report measurements of Acetylene at 3μm, Methane at 3.25μm and Ethane at 3.35μm (Fig 1(b)). We obtained as high as 0.9ppmV sensitivity limit using a relatively simple interrogation arrangement, with very substantial scope for improvement. The results show the potential of the proposed approach for high sensitivity gas sensing and its suitability for a range of real life application is being evaluated.
1. N. V. Wheeler, et al. “Low-loss and low-bend-sensitivity mid-infrared guidance in a hollow-core-photonic-bandgap fiber,” Opt. Lett., vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 295–8, Jan. 2014.
2. M. N. Petrovich, et al. “High sensitivity methane and ethane detection using low-loss mid-IR hollow-core photonic bandgap fibers,”Proc. SPIE 9157, 23rd International Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors, 91573P
3200 3250 3300 3350 34000.0
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117
Systematic design of a scalable cryopreservation process for human cells
A. Picken1, T.J. Morris1, D. Sharp2, N. Slater2, C.J. Hewitt1, and K. Coopman1*
1 Centre for Biological Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK
2 Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3RA, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
The cell therapy industry continues to grow as more products reach the clinic. The overall aim of our research is to develop a viable process for the manufacture of these therapies such that clinically relevant cell numbers can be generated whilst ensuring product potency, purity and safety. The ability to preserve cells by freezing (i.e. cryopreserving) them is a critical part of this process, allowing for the transport of cells from point of production to point of use and also their storage. The latter avoids the need for continuous culture and allows, for example, large batches of cells to be banked as starting material for use in the manufacture of a therapy.
Cells are typically cryopreserved at 1ºC/min with a cryoprotective agent (CPA) in the solution to limit the damage to the cells caused by freezing. The most widely used freezing solution consists of 10% v/v DMSO (as the CPA) in foetal bovine serum (as the vehicle). Although effective, alternative freezing solutions continue to be sought as DMSO is reported to be cytotoxic at temperatures > 0°C and the use of animal serum introduces batch-to-batch variability into the process. Furthermore, with cell therapies being cryopreserved prior to delivery to the patient, the use of animal serum also carriers the risk that viruses or prions are transmitted to patients or proteins could cause a xenogenic immune response. There is therefore a need to develop defined, serum free and potentially DMSO free freezing protocols that enable recovery of viable and functional cells.
Here we have taken a design of experiments approach to defining a potentially scalable DMSO-free freezing protocol for a human osteoblast cell line, HOSTE85. Alternative CPAs (including mixtures), vehicle solutions, freezing rates and equilibration times have been explored and the recovery of cells (based on plastic adherence and proliferation) assessed. Data indicates that propylene glycol (10% v/v) is a viable alternative to DMSO when using serum as a vehicle, although the use of sugars such as trehalose leads to large cell losses upon thaw (<25% recovered). Notably, the concentration of propylene glycol can be reduced to 2% if the freezing rate is increased to 1.8ºC/min, whilst a higher concentration allows a wider tolerance to be set for the freezing rate before cell recovery is compromised. Foetal bovine serum can be replaced with plasmalyte-A/5% human serum albumin or commercially available hypothermic storage medium without a drop in cell recovery. Furthermore, changing equilibration times appears to have no effect. Thus, by using factorial and simplex-lattice designs we have defined an alternative freezing solution for HOSTE85 based on propylene glycol and identified some of the tolerances that exist within the protocol which make it amenable to scale up. Work is currently ongoing to repeat this with bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells, a therapeutically relevant cell type.
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Precise temperature control and use of enthalpy measurements during crystallization of L-glutamic acid in a batch CoFlux reactor
Natalia Dabrowska1*, David Littlejohn1, Alison Nordon1, David Morris2
1 Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
2 AM Technology, Cheshire, United Kingdom * 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 4RE, United Kingdom, [email protected]
Abstract
A series of cooling crystallisations of a model compound, L-glutamic acid (LGA), were carried out to evaluate the performance of a batch CoFlux reactor and to assess if enthalpy measurement is an advantage of the CoFlux reactor for monitoring the crystallisation of this compound. Particles obtained from crystallisation experiments in this reactor were analysed using in-situ Raman spectrometry (for several experiments) and off-line X-Ray diffraction (XRPD), laser diffraction (LD) and microscope imaging. These techniques were used to compare the crystal features (polymorph, particle size) to the results obtained for L-glutamic acid using other reactor types – batch oscillatory baffled reactor (OBR) and stirred tank reactor (STR)1. The results obtained indicate that the particle size and polymorphic composition cannot be easily controlled – the metastable alpha form was mostly produced, whereas the crystal sizes produced were in the range of 250-300 μm. In comparison with STR and OBR, the particles are smaller and a different polymorphic form – the metastable alpha form - is produced during the experiments with CoFlux reactor. Both for the slow cooling rate (contradiction to the results reported by Borrisova et al.2) and for the fast cooling rate the predominant polymorph of the product was the metastable α form. Also a narrower crystal size distribution (span value) was observed for crystals obtained in the CoFlux reactor than for other reactor types. The advantage of the reactor is that the results obtained are highly reproducible. As mentioned above the investigation of usefulness of enthalpy measurements was carried out for all the experiments. The conclusions drawn from those experiments are that enthalpy measurements are not an advantage of the CoFlux reactor for monitoring the crystallisation of L-glutamic acid. Accumulation or heat shift (qs) in the process fluid trend definitely does not show the nucleation point during the experiment, but may be an indicator of the crystallisation point. However those observations are not consistent for every experiment, so the changes in the trend observed for a few experiment might be caused by the temperature fluctuations.
1. Palmer, L., PhD Thesis, 2014, University of Strathclyde.
2. Borissova, A., et al., In Situ Measurement of Solution Concentration during the Batch Cooling Crystallization of l-Glutamic Acid using ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy Coupled with Chemometrics. Crystal Growth & Design, 2008. 9(2): p. 692-706.
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Non-invasive monitoring of powder drying by broadband acoustic emission spectrometry in comparison with spectroscopic techniques
Denise Logue, Arlene McBroom, Jaclyn Dunn, Alison Nordon*, and David Littlejohn
WestCHEM, Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, CPACT and CMAC, University of Strathclyde, 295
Cathedral St, Glasgow, G1 1XL *[email protected]
Abstract
In the pharmaceutical industry, particles must be manufactured to ensure that critical quality attributes (particle size, crystal morphology etc.) fall within the required specifications. It is known that changes in particle properties can occur during a drying process, as a result of attrition, agglomeration and polymorphic transformation. Non-invasive measurement techniques can provide the opportunity to derive a drying curve, and determine the end point of the process, as well as detecting any changes in particle characteristics in real time.
This work investigates the use of broadband acoustic emission spectrometry and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy, for the monitoring of powder drying processes. Acoustic emission (ultrasound) is generated through particles colliding with the inner walls of a process vessel and in this study signals were collected by a piezoelectric transducer attached to the outer wall of a drying vessel. Previous work has shown that acoustic emission can be used to derive the mixing profile during powder blending.1 It has also been shown that specific changes in acoustic emission spectra can be correlated with changes in particle size.2
The technique was assessed for the monitoring of drying in batch and continuous dryers with aspirin selected as a test compound. Drying curves were produced by monitoring the change in peak area intensity in different frequency range over time. Experiments were carried out under extreme drying conditions designed to cause attrition and agglomeration. To monitor changes in particle size, intensity ratios for signals in high and low frequency ranges were plotted against drying time. In some experiments, NIR spectroscopy was also used to monitor drying for comparison with acoustic emission measurements.
1. ‘Non-invasive monitoring of the mixing of pharmaceutical powders by broadband acoustic emission’, P. Allan, L.J. Bellamy, A. Nordon and D. Littlejohn, Analyst, 2010, 135, 518-524.
2. ‘Factors affecting broadband acoustic emission measurements of a heterogeneous reaction’, A. Nordon, Y. Carella, A. Gachagan, D. Littlejohn and G. Hayward, Analyst, 2006, 131, 323-330.
120
ZnO Thin film Surface Acoustic Wave Microfluidics
Ahmed Elhady,1 Yifan Li,2 Anthony Walton,2 Richard Y.Q. Fu 1,*
1 Thin Film Centre, Scottish Universities Physics Alliance (SUPA), University of West of Scotland, Paisley, PA1 2BE, UK
2 Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems, School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JF, UK
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Application using piezoelectric ZnO thin film materials in generating surface acoustic wave (SAW) for microfluidics applications is presented in this work. We discussed the theory underpinning thin film based SAWs and their interactions with particles/fluids. We evaluated and characterised the ZnO film SAW microfluidic devices to undertake fluid mixing, transportation of use of micro-droplets with volumes a few μL. Using the ZnO SAW devices, particle/cell focusing, sorting and patterning have been realised. Experimental work on microdroplets streaming, pumping, jetting and nebulization, have been performed. Simulation using the Comsol Multiphysics software was performed in order to understand the vibration of surface waves in the ZnO/SiO SAW devices.
Figure 1: Vibrational Mode for the 11.8 MHz of a 5 um ZnO/ SiO SAW. Figure 2: Vibrational Mode for the 11.8 MHz of a 5 um ZnO/ SiO SAW
Figure 3: uBeads Alignment. Figure 4: uDroplet Jetting. Figure 5: uDroplet Nebulization.
121
Additive Nanomanufacturing through Probe Based Electrodeposition - Possibilities and Problems
Daniel S Engstrom* and Harish Bhaskaran
Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK (Department, Institute, City, Country)
*Department of Materials, University of Oxford, 16 Parks Road, OX1 3PH, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
Manufacturing at the nanoscale is dominated by short wavelength photolithography and electron beam lithography requiring expensive facilities and the consumption of large amounts of precious metals, chemicals and energy. Additive nanomanufacturing technologies offer low equipment costs and manufacturing using a fraction of the consumables needed by traditional methods, while providing design flexibility previously unseen within nanomanufacturing.
Probe based additive nanomanufacturing through dip-pen lithography has been widely used for both organic and inorganic deposition. At the same time probe based electrochemical reactions such as local anodic oxidation lithography has proven the ability to fabricate structures down to 4 nm wide1. Combining the ability of dip-pen lithography to deliver material to a localized area with an electrochemical redox reaction enables direct writing of metallic structures at the nanoscale and will enable lithography-free fabrication of electrodes and plasmonic structures. Li et al2 showed electrodeposition of metals from an AFM probe to a silicon substrate by applying a DC potential between the probe and the sample. Lines less than 100 nm wide of Pt, Ge, Ag, Pd and Cu were deposited but the process was not characterized.
Here we present data showing that electrodeposition of Cu on silicon can lead to oxidation of the substrate rather than metal deposition even if the electrochemical reaction is driven towards a reduction rather than an oxidation of the silicon. The oxidation requires a DC voltage of more than ±4V thereby showing a symmetrical affinity toward oxidation regardless of the sign of the driving potential. We also show that applying an AC potential reduces the required potential for oxidation. Both the grown oxide volume and radius for dots increases for higher applied potentials as expected from an electrochemically driven reaction. Our results show that probe based electrodeposition of metals on silicon suffers from unwanted oxidation above a threshold voltage for both positive and negative potential.
1. Martinez, J.; Martinez, R. V.; Garcia, R. Nano letters 2008, 8, (11), 3636-3639.
2. Li, Y.; Maynor, B. W.; Liu, J. J Am Chem Soc 2001, 123, (9), 2105-2106.
Figure 6(a), (b) AFM topography image of copper dots deposited by electrodeposition using various AC potential amplitudes (5 µm scan). (c) Measured mean radius of the copper dots for various AC potential amplitudes. (d) Deposition rate for the AFM electrodeposition for various AC potential amplitudes. (e) Profile of copper dots deposited with increasing AC potential amplitudes.
122
Tailoring the properties of glass with embedded metallic nanoparticles by nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation
L. A. H. Fleming, S. A. Zolotovskaya and A. Abdolvand*
School of Engineering, Physics and Mathematics, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
Abstract
Glasses containing metallic nanoparticles are of particular interest in the field of optoelectronics due to their robust nature and unique linear and non-linear optical properties [1]. These properties are dominated by the Surface Plasmon Resonances (SPRs) and by manipulating the nanoparticles size, shape, spatial distribution and concentration (volume filling factor) of the embedded nanoparticles the optical properties of the material can be completely altered [2].
The work described here was done in order to investigate the effect of nanosecond pulsed irradiation on glass embedded with silver nanoparticles. The composite glass used was prepared from a 1 mm thick piece of soda-lime float glass by Ag+-Na+ ion exchange and subsequent annealing in a H2 reduction atmosphere. This resulted in the formation of a layer of spherical silver nanoparticles, ~30 nm mean diameter, embedded some 20-30 nm below the surface on both sides of the sample in a thin layer of 20 m.
This composite glass was irradiated using a Nd:YVO4 laser at λ = 532 nm and pulse length of τ = 36 ns, in standard atmospheric environment (room temperature and normal pressure). The laser energy fluence was kept constant at ~ 1.5 J/cm2 and six areas, all 16 mm2 in size, were irradiated at six different scanning speeds; by selecting appropriate scanning speeds, it was possible to vary the number of pulses being fired per spot, N, from 100 to 600 (in steps of 100 pulses per spot). Fig. 1 (a) shows an SEM image of each of the irradiated areas post irradiation.
Fig. 1 (a) SEM images of glass embedded with silver nanoparticles after irradiation at (i) 100, (ii) 200, (iii) 300, (iv) 400, (v) 500 and (vi) 600 pulses per spot. (b) Plot displaying the increase in particle size with increasing number of pulses per spot.
These SEM images were used to measure the average particle size of the six irradiated areas and the results were plotted in Fig. 1 (b). This plot clearly shows that with increasing applied number of pulses per spot there is an increase in the average particle size. It can be shown that the increase in size is a result of the intense heat produced by the laser and that this temperature exceeds the glass softening temperature therefore it is reasonable to assume that during irradiation the glass, and the silver nanoparticles embedded within it, is in a molten phase [3].
This allows for a controlled localized melting and reforming of the glass and embedded silver and the simplicity and flexibility of the ns pulsed laser irradiation technique allows for the creation of complex, reproducible patterns of larger nanoparticles with smaller separation distances on glass embedded with silver nanoparticles. This allows for the tuning of optical and structural properties of metal-glass nanocomposites, making this process suitable for the production of complex optical elements and for aesthetic applications.
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[1] P. Chakraborty. “Metal nanoclusters in glasses as nonlinear photonic materials,” J. Mater. Sci. 33, 2235-2249 (1998). [2] K. L. Kelly, E. Coronado, L. L. Zhao, and G. C. Schatz. “The optical properties of metal nanoparticles: The influence of size,
shape, and dielectric environment,” J. Phys. Chem. B 107, 668-677 (2003).
[3] L. A. H. Fleming, G. Tang, S. A. Zolotovskaya, and A. Abdolvand, “Controlled of optical and structural properties of glass with embedded silver nanoparticles by nanosecond pulsed laser irradiation,” Opt. Mater. Express 4 (5) 969-975 (2014).
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Smart Thin film technologies for future biomedical manufacturing
Richard Y.Q. Fu1*, Rab Wilson2, Julien Reboud2, D. Gibson,1 Jonathan M. Cooper2
1 Thin Film Centre, University of the West of Scotland, paisley, PA1 2BE, UK
2 Division of Biomedical Engineering, University of Glasgow, Rankine Building, G12 8LT, Glasgow, UK * E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The biomedical industry continues to represent a significant economic opportunity, driven by the growth of personalized medicine and the decentralization of both diagnostics and treatment, closer the patient. This ambition is underpinned by the need for low-cost low power disposable systems, representing a significant manufacturing challenge. Here we show how smart thin film technologies, and more particularly piezoelectric Zinc Oxide (ZnO), enable to bring a wide range of biomedical applications into the low-cost arena (including acoustic wave based microfluidics, bio-sensing, and lab-on-chip applications, and shape memory thin films for microgrippers, mcirocages, stent applications).
Surface acoustic waves (SAW) generated on a piezoelectric thin film, such as ZnO, carry a mechanical energy that can be transferred to a microvolume of liquid placed in the path of propagation, such as a drop of blood, a common diagnostic sample in point-of-care systems (Figure 1). Acoustic manipulations of fluids on surfaces have been demonstrated, including microdroplet mixing, pumping, ejection, jetting and atomization or nebulisation depending on the acoustic wave modes and amplitude. These fluidic functions cover the complete range of actuations required for biomedical application. In addition, we have used ZnO acoustic wave devices as biosensors, where highly sensitive shear horizontal and Love-wave SAWs are able to detect the presence of biomolecules on a surface. Taken together, fluidic actuation and biomolecular sensing provide a fully integrated bio-detection system on a low-cost platform, which will be discussed here.
We also show that thin film technology enables to manufacture (sputter-deposited) TiNi base shape memory alloy (SMA) to answer the great demand for the development of powerful microactuators for biological applications, where small samples (for example cancer biopsies) have to be reliably excised and manipulated. We show that actuation output (force and displacement) per unit volume of thin film SMA exceeds those of other micro-actuation mechanisms. We illustrate this capability in a range of applications including (i) microgrippers and microcages for biopsy applications; (ii) microvalves and micropumps for microfluidics and bio-MEMS applications; (iii) microstents, microtubes for intravascular microsurgery applications.
Key Supporting publications
1. Bourquin Y, Wilson R, Zhang Y, Reboud J, Cooper JM (2011), Adv. Mater. 23:1458–1462.
2. J. Reboud , et al, Chem. Commun., 49, 2918-2920 (2013).
3. J. Reboud , et al, PNAS, 109 (38). pp. 15162-15167.
4. J. Reboud , et al, Chemical Communications, 49 (28). pp. 2918-2920.
5. H. F. Pang, Y. Q. Fu, et al, Microfluidics and Nanofludics, 15 (2013) 377–386.
6. Y.Q. Fu, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett., 101 (2012) 194101.
7. M. Alghane, Y. Q. Fu, et al, Phys. Rev. E, 86, 056304 (2012).
8. Y.Q. Fu, et al, Biomicrofluidics, 6, 013864 (2012).
9. S. Miyzaki, Y. Q. Fu, W. M. Huang, Book of “Thin Film Shape Memory Alloys: Fundamentals and biomedical Device Applications”, Cambridge University Press, 2009.
10. Y.Q. Fu, et al, Applied Physics Letters, 89, 171922, 2006.
11. Y. Q. Fu, et al, Nanotechnology, 17 (21): 5293-5298 NOV 14 2006.
12. Y.Q. Fu, et al, Sensors & Actuators: A. 112/2-3, 2004, pp 395-408.
13. W. M. Huang, C.L Song, Y.Q. Fu, et al, Advanced Drug Delivery Review (ADDR), 65 (2013) 515-535.
14. Y.Q. Fu, Thin Solid Films, 519 (2011) 5290-5296.
15. Y. Q. Fu, et al Surface and Coatings Technology, Vol. 198 no. 1-3, 2005, 389-394
125
Eco-production of food
G. García García1, E. B. Woolley1*, and S. Rahimifard1
1 Centre for Sustainable Manufacturing and Recycling Technologies Loughborough University,
Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
Abstract
The food and drink industry is the largest manufacturing sector in the UK, employing just over 400,000 workers1. Despite its magnitude, local and global food and drink manufacturing companies are currently facing several challenges that will impact their ability to supply sufficient quantities and quality of food in the next few decades:
Population increase. Mid-range projections for global population growth predict that human members will reach 9 billion people by 2050. 2
Reduction of natural resources. Droughts and floods are more likely to occur due to climate change which is likely to lead to a decrease in crop productivity and loss of arable land. In addition, food production is competing with ecosystem-preservation demands and biomass production for the use of land. 3
High amount of waste produced. It is estimated that 30-50% of all food produced never reaches a human stomach3. This food waste implies unnecessary resources are used, which has clear economic and environmental issues.
Changes in consumer preferences and habits. Per capita calorific intake from meat consumption is set to rise 40% globally by mid-century3. Furthermore, current demands on gluten-free or lactose-free products, more natural food without chemicals or trends on higher consumption of ready-meals and convenience foods demand a number of new products and therefore new processes need to be developed.
In order to manage these issues an innovative approach to the way food is manufactured must be used. As part of the national EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Food, this research is specifically looking at being able to produce food on a global scale whilst adapting to these global and local drivers. In order to achieve this, four specific research questions have been identified. These research questions are linked to the following small projects within this program of research:
1. Resources efficiency (material, water, energy, time): understanding where resources are currently used to make better decisions.
2. Minimisation of waste: understanding why (and where) waste is created along the life cycle and what actions manufacturers can take to prevent it.
3. Reduction of chemicals used in food processing: understanding which are the most environmentally damaging chemicals and develop natural ingredients or alternatives processes.
4. Creation of cleaner processes: understanding how the previous issues can be mutually addressed without jeopardising the safety and hygiene of the processes.
1. Food and Drink Federation (FDF), (2013) Our five-fold environmental ambition [Online]. Available: http://www.fdf.org.uk/corporate_pubs/FEA-report-2013.pdf [Accessed 10 June 2014]
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2013) Our priorities. The FAO Strategic Objectives [Online]. Available: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/sfe/PDF/FAO_s_new_strategic_objectives.pdf [Accessed 10 June 2014]
3. Institution of Mechanical Engineers, (2013) Global Food: Waste not, Want not [Online]. Available: http://www.imeche.org/docs/default-source/reports/Global_Food_Report.pdf?sfvrsn=0 [Accessed 10 June 2014]
126
Designing optimal composite structures with curvilinear fibres under manufacturing requirements
G. Gonzalez Lozano1*, A. Tiwari1, C. Turner1, and S. Astwood2
1 Manufacturing and Materials department, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, UK
2 Airbus Group, Innovations, Filton, Bristol, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
The use of curvilinear fibre paths to develop variable stiffness composite laminates has risen as a promising technique offering great potential for performance improvements over conventional “straight fibre” laminates (Figure 7). Even though the topic shows an increasing interest from the specialised literature, most of the work done focuses on structural performance, overlooking the manufacturing reality. As a result, manufacturability is generally not guaranteed and variable stiffness laminates are not yet industrially applied.
This work intends to develop a tool for the introduction in design of the manufacturing requirements and limitations derived from the fibre placement technology. For that purpose, a two-step approach has been adopted that takes as an input the discrete fibre angle distribution resulting from structural optimisation (Figure 8). These fibre angles, representative of fibre trajectories for a ply, are translated into continuous reference paths in a first step using interpolation algorithms. Subsequently, manufacturable fibre paths are generated approaching previously defined references. An optimisation process is conducted in order to find a trade-off between minimising the deviation of the output paths to the input fibre angles and minimising cycle time. Constraints such as gaps and overlaps, minimum turning radius, curve simplicity or cycle time are implemented in the process in order to ensure the suitability of resulting fibre paths to fibre placement technologies and compliance with specific manufacturing requirements.
This procedure is fully integrated within the CAD software, CATIA, enabling for the automatic generation of fibre paths. Results from its application to a plate with a central hole are presented, showing good correlation of resulting manufacturable paths to initial fibre trajectories.
In conclusion, this work allows designing variable stiffness composite laminates effectively improving quality of the manufactured parts and productivity of the manufacturing process. As the manufacturing variables are captured early in the design process, variance between designed and actual manufactured parts can be diminished. Alternatively, the effect of manufacturing constraints is assessed to elucidate to what extent the structurally optimal design can be reached while conforming to existing manufacturing requirements.
Significance statement: the significance of this work is in the development of a design for manufacture capability to integrate manufacturing requirements into the design of variable stiffness composite laminates.
Keywords: composite structures, variable stiffness laminates, Design for Manufacture (DFM), Automated Fibre Placement (AFP)
Acknowledgements: the support of Airbus Group Innovations UK as well as the CANAL (CreAting Non-conventionAl Laminates) Project, part of the European Union Seventh Framework Program (grant agreement no: 605583), in the development of this work is gratefully acknowledged.
127
Figure 7: Shift on the design of composite structures from conventional laminates to variable stiffness laminate configurations using the lay-up of curvilinear fibres
Figure 8: Overview of method to design variable stiffness laminates under manufacturing requirements
128
3D micro/nano fabrication by multi-photon lithography: system design and fabrication characterization
Q Hu, M East, C Tuck, R Wildman and R Hague
EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Additive Manufacturing
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham
Abstract
Current 3D printing is dominated by systems operating in the millimeter and micrometer range. The multi-photon lithography system developed at the University of Nottingham is aimed to scale down 3D printing into nanometer range, with the added capability of multi-material and multi-functionality. The latest development in system design and fabrication characterization of organic-inorganic hybrid polymer and metal will be presented. True 3D micro/nano structures will be demonstrated and potential applications will be discussed.
129
Advanced 3D Woven Composite Materials for High value Manufacturing Applications
Parminder Singh Kang1*, Yong Sun1, Chris Silva2 and Alistair Duffy1
1 Faculty of Technology, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
2 M Wright and Sons Limited, Quorn Mills, Quorn, Loughborough, UK *De Montfort University, Faculty of Technology, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Composites are widely used engineering materials. For example, composites are used in the aerospace industry, where one of the examples is the 787 Dreamliner with 50% composites in the structure. Aerospace composites are made like any other composites, by laminating multiple layers of carbon or glass fabrics. This manufacturing method has been developed and tested numerous times. However one failure mode which limits the use of composites is delamination. This is the separation of layers caused mainly by in-service operation (fatigue). In this research project, several carbon fabrics have been woven with a new weave architecture which significantly reduces the onset of delamination. These fabrics go under the classification of 3D woven. 3D woven are fabrics with multiple layers with binder yarns to stitch the layers together; essentially a three dimensionally woven material with warp, weft and binder. In this research an emphasis has been put to the number of filaments which make each binder yarn. A binder yarn stops the delamination process (Two different sizes have been used 3000 (3K) and 6000 (6K) filaments respectively).
The new 3D woven carbon composites were tested under various loading conditions, following the procedures in the appropriate ISO standards. These tests include tensile test, compression test, flexural test, interlaminar shear strength test and compression-after-impact test. The results show that, as compared to the industrial standard carbon composite Panel 50, the 3D woven composites possess higher compressive strength, similar tensile and flexural strength and do not experience interlaminar shear failure. Most importantly, the 3D woven composites possess much higher compression-after-impact strength and thus are more resistant to impact damage. It is also found that the mechanical properties of the 3D composites are influenced by binder yarn size.
The potential beneficiaries of these 3D woven materials would be high value manufacturing industries, for instance aerospace, wind energy, automobile industry etc. One of the key findings of this research is the significantly improved compression-after-impact strength over existing industrial standards, which could enhance the life span and safety performance for products made out of advanced 3D woven materials. Original equipment manufacturers and tier one suppliers can use these materials to improve improved functionality and weight/cost reduction. Also, from the manufacturer’s point of view, 3D woven composites are structurally stronger and complex shapes, such as cross section profile components, could be produced in a relatively smaller period than other traditional methods. From an environmental perspective, the benefits would be reduced CO2 emissions due to the longer product life cycle i.e. Less recycling required and lighter in weight would be more energy efficient.
This paper will review the construction of 3D composites, report on the tests carried out and compare the performance to laminate panel reference. The paper will conclude with potential strengths, and weaknesses, of 3D woven composites.
130
Towards additive controlled crystallisation in the continuous flow environment
Anneke R. Klapwijk1,2*, Chick C. Wilson2
1 EPSRC Doctoral Training Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
at the University of Bath
2 Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Crystallisation is a vital step in the manufacture of many pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals, producing solids in a form ideal for downstream processes. Unlike others, these industries have not kept pace with advances in continuous production and for centuries industrial crystallisation has operated as a batch process, relying heavily on stirred tank reactors which bring batch to batch variations and limited control over particle attributes [1]. Continuous crystallisation can offer improved product quality, less waste and access to new products more efficiently; this is tackled within the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation (CMAC).
Control over particle attributes such as crystal morphology and polymorphic form is critical for the performance and function of a material as well as its processing behaviour. These attributes can often be influenced by the presence of impurities, where in some cases these impurities, or additives, are deliberately added to engineer the growth of a desired solid form. Specific crystal morphologies may be desirable for enhancement of the processing properties of a solid material, for example where plate shaped crystals may have poor filtration properties, block shaped crystals filter more easily [2]. These tailor-made additives disrupt crystal growth by adsorbing and inhibiting growth on fast growing crystal faces where hydrogen bonding acceptor or donor sites may be positioned. Potential growth inhibitors can therefore be selected for specific target materials based on these crystal engineering principles [3]. Control of crystal morphology can also be exerted using non-size-matched additives, for example through polymer templating.
The aim of this work is to understand the effect of soluble polymeric and structurally similar additives on the crystallisation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and to investigate to what extent continuous methods of crystallisation can influence the product quality and uniformity of crystal morphology and size. The research being presented demonstrates initial findings of small-scale additive controlled crystallisation towards the future goal of achieving the desired outcome in a continuous flow environment, an area where there is limited research to date and whose potential in continuous crystallisation for manufacturing is underexplored.
1. J. Chen, B. Sarma, J. M. B. Evans and A. S. Myerson, Cryst. Growth Des., 2011, 11, 887-895.
2. R. J. Davey and J. Garside, From Molecules to Crystallizers An Introduction to Crystallization, Oxford University Press Inc., New York, United States, 2000.
3. R.-Q. Song and H. Colfen, CrystEngComm, 2011, 13, 1249-1276.
131
Development of a Novel Graphene based Thermal Emitter
Lorreta M. Lawton*, Nathan H. Mahlmeister, Issac J. Luxmoore, and Geoffrey R. Nash
College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences (Engineering, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK)
*+44 (0)1392 726662, [email protected]
Abstract
Over the last few years, thermal emission from graphene has primarily been used as a means of probing its electronic properties [1]. There is however a need to develop new infrared sources to enable low cost, intrinsically safe, portable infrared gas sensors for applications such as mine safety. Most existing IR sensors use conventional incandescent sources which have several shortcomings including slow response time, limited wavelength range, limited lifetimes, relatively high power consumption, and a requirement for explosion proof housings. Alternatives to conventional incandescent components such as micro machined (MEMS) silicon thermal emitters [2] still have relatively slow response times (maximum modulation frequencies of ~ 100Hz), and although semiconductor LEDs [3] benefit from quicker modulation speeds, they still suffer from a poor radiative efficiency.
Graphene, with its extraordinary electrical conductivity and low thermal mass (~ three orders of magnitude smaller than typical silicon cantilevers) makes an attractive candidate for potential use as an incandescent source [4]. We present the spatial and spectral characteristics of mid-infrared thermal emission from large area CVD graphene, transferred onto SiO2/Si, and show that the emission is broadly that of a grey-body emitter. The peaks in emission at wavelengths of ~ 4µm cover the characteristic absorption of many important gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. Encouragingly the large drive currents used were sustained for over three hundred hours and measurable thermal emission was still attainable when modulated at frequencies up to 100 kHz.
1. I. J. Luxmoore, C. Adlem, T. Poole, L. M. Lawton, N. H. Mahlmeister, and G. R. Nash, Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 131906 (2013).
2. M. Parameswaran, A. M. Robinson et al, IEEE Electron Device Lett. 12, 57 (1991).
3. G. R. Nash, H. L. Forman, S. J. Smith, P. B. Robinson, L. Buckle, S. D. Coomber, M. T. Emeny, N. T. Gordon and T. Ashley, IEEE Sensors Journal 9, 1240 (2009).
4. L. M. Lawton, N. H. Mahlmeister, I. J. Luxmoore, and G. R. Nash, “High frequency mid-infrared thermal emission from large area graphene”, under review.
Significance Statement: This work demonstrates the potential for such devices to be developed into graphene based thermal emitters, a new generation of high frequency infrared sources which could be more cost effective and sustainable to manufacture than current alternatives such as lll-V based LEDs or silicon MEMS devices. In turn this will impact the manufacture of products containing these components such as gas sensors and analysers.
132
Continuous Crystallisation: Developing Workflows for Controlling Particle Attributes via Nucleation, Growth and Transport
T. McGlone1, N. Briggs1, V. Raval1 and A. Florence1
1 Affiliation of the A. Author (Department, Institute, City, Country) 1Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
c/o Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, John Arbuthnott Building, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
Crystallisation is a key unit operation spanning a wide range a manufacturing industries (pharmaceutical, agrochemical, dyes/pigments) used to achieve separation and purification of products.1,2 Manipulating the size, shape and form of crystals is critical as these factors can massively influence subsequent downstream processes such as filtration, drying, milling and ultimately the formulation process as a whole. Several factors contribute to the final crystal size distribution (CSD) including primary and secondary nucleation, growth, attrition and crystal breakage, encrustation, disturbances to the metastable zone width (MSZW) such as an impurity profile, polymorphism, agglomeration/aggregation, solvates and hydrates and seeding.
Continuous crystallisation is a highly attractive approach for delivering sophisticated levels of control over the process.3,4 The key point to consider, is that when a continuous crystalliser reaches steady state, in theory the crystallisation process behaves under uniform conditions with no variability in temperature, concentration, CSD etc, leading to greater reproducibility when compared with alternative batch methods. In addition, this concept offers exciting possibilities in terms of process modelling and real time control based on carefully selected process analytical technology (PAT) tools.
Figure 9. Schematic illustrating the workflow approach towards designing a continuous crystallisation process.
We are currently developing a systematic workflow for constructing continuous crystallisation processes, initially on the laboratory scale but with potential for scaling based on rigorous design rules. The high level stages can be summarised as follows: (i) gathering accurate thermodynamic information including solubilities and stability, (ii) assessing the kinetic parameters including nucleation and growth rates, (iii) selection of a continuous platform based on the previously gathered information, (iv) characterisation of the chosen platform (residence time distribution, heat transfer, flow rates etc) in addition to understanding the scaling rules, (v) initial assessment of the platform performance (eg identification of issues such as solid loading problems or encrustation), (vi) implementation of appropriate PAT tools including the necessary calibration procedures. By utilising this workflow approach, the time for overall delivery can be dramatically reduced and decisions based on process modelling and experimental validation can be made with confidence.
1. Chen, J.; Sarma, B.; Evans, J. M. B.; Myerson, A. S., Cryst. Growth & Des., 11, 887, (2011).
2. Mullin, J. W. Crystallisation; 4th ed. Oxford, (2001).
3. Lawton, S.; Steele, G.; Shering, P.; Zhao, L. H.; Laird, I.; Ni, X. W., Org. Process Res. Dev., 13, 1357, (2009).
4. Alvarez, A., J., Myerson, A., J., Cryst. Growth & Des., 10, 2219, (2010).
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Investigations into Parameters Affecting Purity in OBC and STC
Hannah McLachlan and Xiong-Wei Ni*
Centre for Oscillatory Baffled Reactor Advancement (COBRA), School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot Watt University Edinburgh,EH14 4AS UK)
*[email protected] Abstract Generally as either mixing intensity or cooling rate of a system is increased, the purity of crystals produced is reduced [1]. Unpublished trials have shown that the Oscillatory Baffled Crystallizer (OBC) always produced higher purity crystals than a traditional Stirred Tank Crystallizer (STC) when ran at similar conditions, even at higher cooling rates and higher mixing conditions. The main objectives of this work are to verify this unpublished data, to seek scientific explanations for the purity deviations between the vessels and to explore ways of improving the purity, using urea as the model compound. Experiments have been undertaken in a moving baffle OBC (mb-OBC) with stainless steel orifice baffles and a STC using a stainless steel two blade flat-paddle impeller and four stainless steel wall baffles. Three different cooling rates and mixing intensities have been examined. Results obtained so far suggest that the unpublished data are true for certain operational conditions. The lower purity in the STC appears to be linked with the rates of supersaturation generation and depletion and the levels of associated agglomeration.
1. Givand, J.C., A.S. Teja, and R. W. Rousseau, Manipulating crystallization variables to enhance crystal purity. Journal of Crystal Growth, 1999. 198-199, Part 2(0): p. 1340-1344.
134
Understanding Fundamental Fouling Mechanisms in Continuous Crystallisation Processes
Fraser Mabbott*1, Thomas McGlone1, Dimitrios Lamprou1, Alastair Florence1
1 Doctoral Training Centre in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation c/o Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy
and Biomedical Sciences, John Arbuthnott Building, University of Strathclyde ,Glasgow, Scotland *161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G4 0RE, UK, 0141 548 2560, [email protected]
Abstract
Fouling, or encrustation, is described as the unwanted formation of deposits upon a surface and is common in crystallisation processes [1]. Fouling is an acknowledged industrial problem with an associated economic burden on industry due to loss of product, altered product quality, damage to equipment and increased energy consumption [2]. A number of authors have highlighted mechanisms involved in fouling however the fundamentals are not entirely comprehended [3]. On the continuous paradigm, one factor influencing the uptake of such processes is the propensity of encrustation/full blockage as highlighted by Schaber and coworkers [4]. The present research ultimately aims to obtain a greater understanding of fundamental fouling mechanisms.
Materials of construction (MOC) are recognised to have an effect upon crystallisation fouling of calcium sulphate in heat exchangers [1] however these effects have not been investigated for organic compounds. Within this research, a number of MOCs have been characterised including PTFE, PEEK, glass, stainless steel, Hastelloy™ and silicon carbide. Characterisation techniques employed include microscopic imaging, contact goniometry, Raman mapping and atomic force microscopy (AFM) for each material. We are also working towards characterising the evolving fouling layer. The results obtained so far for stainless steel are displayed in Figure 1.
We are in the initial phase of exposing each surface to selected conditions within a flow cell. The proposed solute/solvent systems are i) L-glutamic acid/water and ii) acetaminophen (paracetamol)/water based on previous experience with these systems and their propensity to encrust. It is anticipated that inter-relationships between solution properties, surface properties and hydrodynamic conditions can be determined and encrustation can be predicted from these interactions.
Figure 1: Wettability representations (a) and AFM image (b) of stainless steel
1. T. Geddert, S. Kipp, W. Augustin, S. Scholl, ECI Symposium Series, Volume RP5: Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning -Challenges and Opportunities, 2007, Vol. RP5, Article 32, 229
2. M. Vendel, A. Rasmuson, Aiche J 1997, 43, 1300.
3. Geddert, T.; Augustin, W.; Scholl, S. Chem Eng Technol 2011, 34, 1303.
4. Schaber et al. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res 2011, 50(17), 10083–10092
135
Wear of Silicon Tips during AFM Probe-Based Machining of Copper
N.F.H. Mukhtar1,2, E.B. Brousseau1*, and P.W. Prickett1
1 Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
2 Malaysian Institute of Industrial Technologies, University of Kuala Lumpur, Johor, Malaysia *[email protected]
Abstract
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is widely used for performing dimensional measurements at the nano-scale as well as for characterising different material properties of inspected specimens such as their hardness and Young’s modulus for instance. Over the last two decades, AFM instruments have also been utilised as platforms for performing a multitude of nano fabrication tasks. One such manufacturing technique consists of mechanical machining at the nano-scale where the physical contact between the tip of an AFM probe and the surface of a sample results in material being deformed and/or removed via the formation of chips. The development of AFM probe-based machining has recently been of increased interest in the micro and nano manufacturing research community as it represents a simple and cost-effective alternative fabrication technique to vacuum-based technologies [1].
When implementing AFM probe-based machining, the wear experienced by the tip plays an important role in the outcome of the process as a result of the change in the effective cutting edge radius of the tip and in the contact area between the tip and the workpiece [2, 3]. In this context, an experimental study was conducted in this research on the wear of AFM silicon tips when implementing AFM probe-based machining operations on single crystal copper. The tip wear was assessed based on scanning electron microscopy data at selected machining distances until a maximum cutting length of 3 mm. In this way, results are obtained for varying processing conditions, namely two different values of applied normal force, 40 μN and 80 μN, and three cutting directions with respect to the orientation of the AFM probe.
For the particular processing window considered in this study, although grooves could be successfully machined for each trial, the results obtained highlight the limitation of using silicon probes for such operations. In particular, these probes are very prone to initial tip fracture. The amount of corresponding broken tip material appears to become larger with the augmentation of the normal applied force. The occurrence of such initial fracture should be avoided as it is very difficult to control and predict the subsequent groove formation mechanism and wear rate evolution. This is due to the fact that, as the conducted experiments suggest, these process outcomes are dependent on the resulting tip geometry after fracture. More specifically, the tip geometry influences the contact area between the probe and the sample and thus, the stress concentration at the tip apex. The resulting geometry for a fractured tip also plays a role in determining whether machining is taking place in the ploughing-dominated or shearing-dominated regime, which in turn is expected to influence the machining force and thus, the wear.
[1] B.A. Gozen et al., “Design and evaluation of a mechanical nanomanufacturing system for nanomilling,” Precision Engineering, 2012; 36(1): 19-30.
[2] B.A. Gozen et al., “An experimental analysis of diamond tip wear during nano-milling of single crystal silicon,” ICOMM: 2013, 507-513.
[3] Q.L. Zhao et al., “Investigation of an atomic force microscope diamond tip wear in micro/nano-machining,” Key Engineering Materials, 2001; 202-203: 315-320.
136
Additive manufacturing to join Stainless steel and Titanium
Goncalo Pardal1*, Supriyo Ganguly1, Stewart Williams1 and Jay Vaja2
1Welding Engineering and Laser Processing Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, United Kingdom
2AWE, Aldermaston, Reading, United Kingdom *[email protected]
Abstract
Joining the dissimilar combination of titanium (Ti) to stainless steel has been focus of several researches due to its possible application in nuclear power plants.
The aim of this project is to use additive built inserts which would act as a compound interlayer between stainless steel and titanium. Proof of the concept will allow the development of components with different dissimilar alloy combinations.
Joining stainless steel and Ti is challenging due to formation of brittle intermetallic compounds (IMC) (FeTi, Fe2Ti) on the interface of such combinations. To avoid the formation of Fe-Ti IMC it is necessary to apply weld metal engineering to modify the weld pool composition. From previous research it was concluded that it is not possible to use a single interlayer or intermediate metal to join Fe and Ti by fusion welding. In order to form a joint with sufficient toughness, it is necessary to use two different metals to obtain crack free joints. This was verified by T. Wang et al. [1] when they used a composite layer of Cu and V to make a defect free electron beam weld between Ti and stainless steel. These two materials were selected due to their metallurgical compatibility (absence of IMC) with one of the parent metals and their mutual compatibility. Vanadium is metallurgically compatible with Ti and Cu with stainless steel.
In this programme, the same principle was researched using Wire plus Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) to build freeform interlayers. WAAM uses fusion welding process (MIG, TIG and Plasma) to build such transitional components depositing successive layers of weld metal in near net shape [2]. This process will exploit deposition of several compatible metals to build a graded interlayer where the ends will comprise of Ti and stainless steel. To explore this, a straight wall was produced using four different metals, titanium, niobium, copper and stainless steel. The first layers of Ti-6Al-4V were deposited on a similar substrate, subsequently niobium layers were deposited on top, followed by Cu and finished with 316L stainless steel deposition. Through adequate adjustment of deposit volume and welding conditions, a graded interlayer could be produced without any intermetallic compound by preventing the diffusion of metallurgically incompatible metals.
Joining of the machined interlayer insert to the structures would be carried out by laser welding which would allow a low heat input process resulting in a well-defined and tailored weld pool dimension. This would prevent any diffusion or atomic migration inside the transition inserts during their joining to the main structures.
WAAM plus laser welding process has the necessary potential which would allow joining of dissimilar alloys previously considered unweldable. With careful selection of intermediate metals, controlled weld metal deposition and laser joining it is possible to apply this principle to other dissimilar metal combinations.
[1] T. Wang, B. Zhang, G. Chen, and J. Feng, “High strength electron beam welded titanium–stainless steel joint with V/Cu based composite filler metals,” Vacuum, vol. 94, pp. 41–47, Aug. 2013.
[2] P. Kazanas, P. Deherkar, P. Almeida, H. Lockett, and S. Williams, “Fabrication of geometrical features using wire and arc additive manufacture,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf., vol. 226, no. 6, pp. 1042–1051, Feb. 2012.
137
Liquid Metal Engineering by Intensive Melt Shearing
Jayesh B Patel1* and Zhongyun Fan1
1The EPSRC Centre - LiME, BCAST, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
In all casting processes liquid metal treatment is a compulsory step in order to produce high quality cast products. A new liquid metal treatment technology has been developed which comprises of a rotor/stator set-up that delivers a high shear rate of up to 105s-1 to the liquid metal. It generates macro-flow in a volume of melt for distributive mixing and intensive shearing for dispersive mixing. The high shear technology delivers the following benefits:
Significantly enhanced kinetics for phase transformations
Uniform dispersion and distribution of solid particles and gas bubbles
Homogenization of chemical composition and temperature fields
Forced wetting of usually difficult-to-wet solid particles in the liquid metal.
The high shear technology can be used for physical grain refinement by dispersing naturally occurring oxides, degassing of Al-melts, preparation of metal matrix composites and preparation of semi-solid slurries. It can be implemented to various casting processes to produce high quality cast products with refined microstructure and enhanced mechanical properties. In this paper we provide an overview on the application of the new high shear technology to the processing of light metal alloys.
138
X-ray Computational Tomography of Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fibre
S. R. Sandoghchi1*, G. T. Jasion1, N. V. Wheeler1, J. P. Wooler1, R. P. Boardman2, N. Baddela1, Y. Chen1, J. Hayes1, E. Numkam Fokoua1, T. Bradley1, D. R. Gray1, S. M. Mousavi1, M.
Petrovich1, F. Poletti1, and D. J. Richardson1
1 Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
2 µ-VIS Centre for Computer Tomography, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
Optical fibre plays an important role in our modern life enabling applications across various disciplines such as telecommunication, sensing, manufacturing and medicine [1]. Growing applications and demands from fibre optic technology have resulted in various, and often complex, geometric designs of optical fibre. Among these, microstructured fibres have attained considerable attention because of their broad range of optical capabilities [1]. To fully harness these capabilities, their fabrication process requires optimisation to reduce errors such as contamination, inconsistencies and non-uniformities [2]. They can occur during the conventional multistage fabrication process of these fibres [2]. Hollow core photonic bandgap fibres (HC-PBGFs) are an interesting example of microstructured fibre that are produced through a two-stage process; a number of ~1mm OD glass tubes are manually arranged in a hexagonal geometry and jacketed by a large OD glass tube to form a first stage preform (~20mm OD). The preform is then heated in an annular furnace and drawn to a cane with ~3mm OD and jacketed by another glass tube to form the 2nd stage preform. The 2nd stage preform is drawn to fibre with ~200um OD. Inspecting the preforms for these errors is non-trivial, as the conventional examination methods are either destructive and the preform cannot be used anymore, or incapable of accessing the preforms’ internal structure. Here we present, the first X-ray Computational Tomography (X-ray CT) investigation of microstructured optical fibres and their preforms. X-ray CT allows investigating the entire geometry of the 1st stage and 2nd stage preforms as well as the optical fibre with unprecedented details. Recent advances in X-ray CT allow for 3D imaging of up to 50nm resolution [3]. Here, we investigate: a 1st stage preform revealing some disarrangement in position of capillaries, a uniform cane, and a uniform HC-PBGF. The CT allowed non-destructive imaging of: the 1st stage preform, with 18.4µm resolution, that can still be drawn to a cane (Fig. a); the cane with 3.35µm resolution that can still be used to fabricate a fibre (Fig. b); and the fibre with 418nm resolution without any need to cut the specimen allowing further tests to be carried out on the fibre (Fig. c).
1. F. Poletti et al., "Hollow-core photonic bandgap fibers: technology and applications," Nanophotonics, Vol. 2, no. 5-6, p. 315 (2013).
2. S. R. Sandoghchi, et al., "First Investigation of Longitudinal Defects in Hollow Core Photonic Bandgap Fibers," Proc. OFC, M2F.6., San Francisco (2014).
3. P. R. Shearing et al., "Towards intelligent engineering of SOFC electrodes: a review of advanced microstructural characterisation techniques," Int. Mater. Rev., Vol. 55, no. 6, p. 347, (2010).
139
Inkjet printing routes for the manufacture of Antennae, Radio Frequency Identification and Frequency Selective Surfaces
R. Saunders1*, J. Wheeler1, V. Sanchez Romaguera2, A. Parry1 and S. Yeates1
1 The School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
2 Manchester Business School, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
The advancement of mobile and wireless systems has led to an increased need to evaluate the manufacture routes of components such as antennae, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags and Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS). Inkjet printing offers a means of fabricating structures without the use of masks or etching and with minimal post processing steps. This enables the production of surfaces with the required resolution at a more economic cost. Here we present an overview of the inkjet fabrications routes across a variety of designs.
RFID tags store and transfer data utilising radio frequency electromagnetic fields and either work alone or can be coupled to a power source. The use of RFID in industry is well established for asset tracking and are being increasingly scrutinised for further day tod ay applications and novel solutions. These applications are diverse ranging from multi substrate tags, wearable and thin films to tattoo based body tags [1]. The Dimatix Materials printer (DMP 2800) has been used to print a variety of low cost RFID designs for use in communication applications. The drop on demand nature of this printing ensures that the minimum ink is used whilst providing a fast and accurate manufacturing route. The design process is flexible and repeatable. The Dimatix materials printer can deposit features in the range of 20-200um. This is ideal for larger tags however the increased need for miniaturisation and thin film conductive tracks means other routes must be considered. Frequency selective surfaces also require a much smaller resolution. FSS comprise of 2D arrays of periodically spaced conductive features. They are tuned to a specific frequency through control of the features geometry and spacing. Manufacturing challenges for the FSS revolve around accuracy and cost. The digital Fabrication Centre, The University of Manchester have invested in a Super inkjet printer. The Super inkjet printer is an electrostatic printer capable of depositing drops in the range of 0.1fl – 10 pl. Here we demonstrate the use of the Super Inkjet printer to fabricate high frequency arrays with micron features. The printed structures comprise a pattern of a double square with micron spacing. Typical track dimensions range from 5-25 um with a 10-30nm thickness.
1. Sanchez-Romaguera, V, Ziai, MA, Oyeka, D, Barbosa, S, Wheeler, JSR, Batchelor, JC, Parker, EA, Yeates, SG, Towards inkjet-printed low cost passive UHF RFID skin mounted tattoo paper tages based on silver nanoparticle inks. Journal of Materials Chemistry C, 2013, 39
140
Unconventional mass customization of food with additive manufacture tooling
Frank Tully*, Stuart Banister, and Adrian Swinburne
Manufacturing Practice, 42 Technology, Cambridge, UK *42 Technology, St Ives, Cambridgeshire, PE27 4LG, UK. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Combining rapid prototyping with conventional manufacture techniques can deliver the benefits of rapid customisation with economies of scale.
This paper presents an application of rapid prototyped die-heads to enable extrusion of tailored foodstuffs to satisfy transient, high value market opportunities. This gives an opportunity for new food products to be designed, manufactured and ready for sale within hours, responding to seasonal market demand. This compares with traditional manufacturing methods which might otherwise take weeks.
As a high volume manufacturing technique, extrusion lends itself to this application very well, with high throughput, low overhead, but flexible shapes. The primary challenge is how to design the dieheads to reliably achieve the desired output, while working within manufacturing and cleanability constraints.
This technique has been demonstrated primarily on extruded Icecream, but is applicable to multiple other foodstuffs.
Several challenges have been overcome in the course of this work:
developing design rules and understanding to enable dieheads to be designed to generate specific product layouts
developing the process for die-head manufacture and rapid swap-over, including materials and clean-down requirements to achieve commercial food-grade status
testing many different designs to assess user benefit.
The next challenge is to set up the supply chain appropriately to address this market need.
With thanks to David Nelson.
Significance Statement: This work demonstrates food customisation technology capable of opening up new high value markets.
141
Hollow Core Large Mode Area Fibre Employing a Subwavelength Grating Reflector
Natasha A. Vukovic* and Michalis N. Zervas
Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
Abstract
Hollow core large mode area fibres are ideal candidates to guide light at high powers while avoiding non-linear effects and, as such, they are generating much scientific interest [1-3]. A variety of fibres have been investigated, including tube lattice photonic bandgap fibres and Kagomé-latticed photonic crystal fibres. One of the major challenges in obtaining low loss hollow core fibres is related to the unavoidable perturbations induced by the coupling between the core and cladding modes which is responsible for the increase of leakage loss. Recent approach based on the insertion of additional antiresonant elements demonstrates the significance of fibre geometrical parameters and shows leakage loss of an order of ~10-4 dB/m [3]. In this paper, we present preliminary results of a novel approach to fibres that guide light in a large hollow core, starting from the high index contrast grating reflector platform [4]. Subwavelength gratings have been used to achieve broadband mirrors with reflectivity greater than 99%. Importantly, the physical dimensions of the grating must be smaller than the wavelength of incident light, which implies that the diffraction order of interest is 0th. Under a surface normal incidence on diffraction grating, evanescent orders in the direction parallel to the grating period overlap with the leaky mode of the grating leading to the effect of guided mode resonance and a destructive interference effect between the two grating modes, which results in high reflection [4].
Starting from the simplest case of a diffraction grating as a binary structure which varies in one dimension we form an equivalent structure in a fibre. We numerically investigate the ultra-high reflectivity feature of a subwavelength grating using the rigorous coupled wave method and we study the leakage loss using a finite element method. Figure 1 (a) shows a cross section of the proposed fibre grating structure where the grating is filled with high index material (n=3.21) and surrounded with air. Design parameters for the structure include: core diameter 20 m, the grating period =0.787 m, fill factor 0.77, grating thickness 0.508 m and the distance between the external solid silica cladding and the annular core 6.5 m. The effective indices of the two lowest order modes in the hollow core are calculated in case of the grating fibre and compared to the tube fibre with the same design parameters for refractive index and thickness, and can be seen in Fig. 1 (b). We attribute the discontinuities in the dispersion curves of the modes of the grating fibre to the azimuthal resonances i.e. coupling between the airy modes and grating modes, which causes anti-crossings and high leakage loss. Calculating the leakage loss of the core propagating modes reveals the sharp drop of the first higher order mode TE01 and the leakage loss of ~7x10-4 dB/m as shown in Fig. 1 (c), which is a few orders of magnitude lower than loss of the fundamental mode, and is attributed to the guided mode resonance effect which appears for particular design parameters and angles of incidence. Ongoing work focuses on equivalent structures that could be manufacturable.
Fig. 1 (a) Schematic cross section of the proposed fibre structure. Inset is showing an enlarged view of the grating structure. (b) Effective index as a function of wavelength for the two lowest order core modes of the tube fiber (TF) and the grating
fibre (GF). (c) Computed leakage loss for the GF of the fundamental mode and fist higher order mode.
142
1. J.-L. Archambault, R. J. Black, S. Lacroix, and J. Bures, “Loss calculations for antiresonant waveguides”, J. Lightw. Technol. 11, 416 (1993).
2. F. Poletti, J. R. Hayes, and D. J. Richardson, “Optimising the performances of hollow antiresonant fibres”, Conference Paper European Conference and Exposition on Optical Communications, Geneva Switzerland September 18-22 (2011).
3. W. Belardi and J. Knight, “Hollow antiresonant fibers with reduced attenuation”, Opt. Lett. 39, 1853 (2014).
4. C. F. R. Mateus, M. C. Y. Huang, Y. Deng, A. R. Neureuther, and C. J. Chang-Hasnain, “Ultrabroadband mirror using low-index cladded subwavelength grating”, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. 16, 518 (2004).
143
Automating Aerospace Composite Sandwich Panel Production By Utilising Additive Manufacturing And Pick And Place Pad Printing
David P Pollard1, Josh A Roberts1, Carwyn Ward1*, Julie Etches1, and Kevin Potter1
1 Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science (ACCIS), University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TR
Abstract
Of all advanced composite structures, the honeycomb core sandwich panel is probably the most successfully applied design type. It typically uses thin skins of continuous carbon fibre epoxy resin composite with a spacer or core material, to deliver very lightweight and stiff panels. They are ubiquitous in aircraft, both in wing and tail surfaces, all cabin panelling; and can be found in volume in other industries such as Formula 1. Each aircraft may have hundreds of sandwich panels, with each external panel having a different geometry, requiring its own tooling, and manufacturing procedure. Owing to their initial success, a standard design approach emerged early on and little actual panel evolution has been seen in over 30 years. As a result, panels are presently very expensive to manufacture because the process is almost entirely manual and rather variable through some of the materials in use. Right first time yields can be low, meaning significant repair or rework per panel is required. This has led to a lot of production moving overseas although similar cost and quality difficulties in offshoring have been noted.
Several attempts have been made to automate the panel manufacturing process, by the use of robotic manipulators, but little or no progress has been seen. Issues for size, flexibility, and capability appear to dominate this lack of success; however the main recurring issues are in panel design and build complexity. As thinking on automation increasingly becomes dominated by large volume processes such as Automated Tape Laying/Fibre Placement; these panels risk being forgotten about, and may even become commercially untenable for rate and cost if they continue to be dominated by inefficient manual processes. For example, these panels at present are responsible for nearly 70% of the cost of a wing but contribute only 30% by weight.
This paper seeks to address the issue, by proposing a new automated process for the production of geometrically complex components. It does this by first identifying the key process requirements, and secondly by exploring low cost automation solutions from other industries. The down-selected process that has been identified combines two technologies: silicone transfer pads for the pick and place of prepreg plies, and additive manufacturing for the in-situ production of the honeycomb core. The paper explores both processes independently at first for their key characteristics. For example, in regards to the pads these include their compressibility as well as their accuracy, and flexibility. In regards to the 3D printing these include thermo-mechanical properties of the print materials, and the development of the technique onto a composite surface. It will be shown that results for both independent processes were positive, but when applied together in combination, significant advantages could be enjoyed. These benefits enabled demonstration of what is felt to be a world first: the manufacture of a complex honeycomb panel by automation alone, i.e. no human intervention of any kind in the layup stages of panel manufacture. The results of this demonstration will be discussed, as well as future opportunities for further automation development through examples such as robotic platforms and bespoke control solutions.
Uniquely the approach taken by this work has now enabled the opening up of the component design space for more optimised future designs. Pad transfer suggests capability for the layup of multifunctional material charges; whilst the low cost 3D printing equipment used, in association with a custom designed program to generate the required extruder tool-path, enables complex core shapes to be realised.
144
Application of high strength aluminium in aircraft components
Feng Yan, Shouxun Ji*, Zhongyun Fan
The EPSRC Centre, LiME, BCAST, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, United Kingdom *[email protected]
Abstract
The application of high strength aluminium alloys is very attractive for manufacturing such as transport because of the huge benefits in light weighting and the reduction of green gas emission during use. The present paper introduces the microstructure and mechanical properties of the high strength Al-alloy made by high pressure die casting, which is able to provide a yield strength over 300MPa and UTS over 400MPa and elongation over 2%. The application of the new alloy in the manufacturing of an aircraft component will be described with casting structure design, process optimization, heat treatment, microstructural characterization and mechanical properties.
145
A novel discontinuous fibre alignment method – HiPerDiF (High Performance - Discontinuous Fibre) method
HaNa Yu*, Marco L. Longana, and Kevin D. Potter
ACCIS (Advanced Composites Centre for Innovation and Science), University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
Abstract
Highly aligned discontinuous fibre reinforced composites can achieve high performances provided the aspect ratio is sufficiently high to support load transfer capability. Furthermore, complex structural shapes which cannot be easily fabricated using continuous fibres could be produced while retaining high performances. Discontinuous fibres provide ductility during moulding, but also offer the scope to create a ductile response by deformation and slippage at the discontinuities.
Several techniques have been tried in the past to orient fibres in a preferred direction while producing discontinuous fibre prepregs. Wet processing methods (PERME, MBB-VTF) have achieved some success with high alignment level [1, 2]. Fibre alignment is achieved by accelerating the carrier medium through a converging nozzle, forcing the fibres to follow the fluid streamlines. The high viscosity of liquid is essential for achieving good fibre alignment in conventional methods; however, it turned out to be the main factor limiting the productivity. As a novel way of solving the problems, a new method with a unique fibre orientation mechanism utilizing momentum change of a fibre suspension (in water) was proposed. The HiPerDiF method developed at the University of Bristol is a fast and continuous process producing highly aligned tow or tape type discontinuous fibre preforms. The new method can be used for hybridization with different fibre types and lengths, and offers the possibility to develop a recycling cycle [3].
This paper introduces the principle of this unique short fibre alignment method and describes the lab-scale discontinuous fibre impregnation rig for obtaining tape type prepregs with high productivity. In a preliminary test, aligned short carbon fibre/epoxy composites were successfully produced using 3 mm long fibres. The obtained tensile modulus and strength along the fibre direction of specimens with a fibre volume fraction of 55% were 115 GPa and 1509 MPa, respectively: significantly higher than those of aligned short fibre composites made by conventional methods [4]. Intermingled-carbon/glass hybrid short fibre composites were also manufactured by the HiPerDiF method and tested in uniaxial tension. Results are presented showing pseudo-ductile response of hybrid composites as a function of the carbon/glass volume ratio.
Acknowledgement: This work was funded under the EPSRC Programme Grant EP/I02946X/1 on High Performance Ductile Composite Technology in collaboration with Imperial College, London.
1. T.D. Papathanasiou, D.C. Guell. Flow-induced Alignment in Composite Materials. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., England (1997).
2. K.D. Potter. Deformation mechanisms of fibre reinforcements and their influence on the fabrication of complex structural parts. ICCM3- 3rd International Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, France (1980).
3. H. Yu, K. D. Potter and M. R. Wisnom. A novel manufacturing method of aligned short fibre composite. ECCM15-15th European Conference on Composite Materials, Venice, Italy (2012).
4. H. Yu, K. D. Potter and M. R. Wisnom. Aligned short fibre composites with high performance. ICCM19-19th International Conference on Composite Materials, Montreal, Canada (2013).
146
THEME:
MANUFACTURING INFORMATICS
147
Bottom-up modal analysis of a small size machine tool
Jonathan Abir*, Paul Morantz, Paul Shore
Cranfield University Precision Engineering Centre, Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK
Abstract
A bottom-up modal analysis methodology was adopted to specify the performance of a small size machine – the µ4. The modal properties were simulated using Finite Element Method (FEM), measured and analysed in order to improve the mechanical and control design. The goal of this research is to allow free-form manufacturing based on high dynamic performance and sub-micrometre accuracy of the µ4 machine.
The Integ-µ4 machine was conceived in 2008 (Shore and Morantz, 2007) by Cranfield University Precision Engineering Institute as a 6 axes CNC micro-milling machine. The machine specification was aimed to be around the leading capability of diamond turning and micro-milling machines. The overall size of the machine was set as a European scale washing machine in the range of 0.6×0.6×1m volume. The µ4 motion axes were split into two near identical modules thus; each one of the modules can be used as a test rig.
The analysis methodology is a bottom-up process (Figure 1) in which the lowest level components are tested and simulated first, then used to facilitate the testing of higher level components. The modal properties of one of the motion axes modules were simulated using Finite Element Method (FEM), measured and analysed using modal measurement equipment specified and procured for this research. Each component and assembly was supported in free-free conditions (Ewins, 2000) and frequency response functions measured using hammer excitation. The free-free boundary condition was approximately achieved by supporting the components and assemblies on a floating table and a bubble wrap mattress. This method of supporting will allow operating the motion module while measuring, which is more practical than using bungee cables suspension. The body modes were synthesised using stabilisation diagrams choosing the frequency and damping values.
Comparison and correlation between measured and simulated modes was carried out (Figure 2). Each measured mode was identified based on animation movie, which showed the main characteristics of that mode. The identified measured and simulated modal properties of the motion axes module were shown to have a good correlation with less than 15% discrepancy of the frequency values. The results of the modal measurements and simulation will be used to improve the mechanical and control design for a high-dynamic motion control goal.
Figure 10 Bottom-up process
Figure 11 FEM and measurements comparison and correlation
1. Shore, P. and Morantz, P. (2007) Integrated Knowledge Centre in Ultra Precision and Structured Surfaces.EP/E023711/1.
2. Ewins, D. "Modal testing: theory, practice and application, 2000", Research Studies Press LTD., Baldock, Hertfordshire, England.
148
Machineability considerations in design: Process planning based on manufacturing capability profiles
Behnood Afsharizand*, Xianzhi Zhang, Jack Barclay and Aydin Nassehi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Abstract
A manufacturing resource's health degrades continuously throughout its life due to environmental factors, tool wear, incorrect cutting parameters, etc. Planning processes based on nominal machine data, thus would result in inefficient and, sometimes, infeasible machining instructions. Therefore, a method for modelling manufacturing resources needs to include an accurate representation of actual resources to enable precise machining and ensure that tight tolerances can be achieved. In addition, the resource model can contain information on the kinematic configuration of the resource to allow checking of machine poses and estimation of geometric errors.
A manufacturing capability profile (MCP) is defined as a representation of the capabilities that a specific machine tool will be able to provide at a specific time on a specific product [1]. MCP potentially provides a unique solution to this problem, since machineability check can be carried out with design information offline; therefore, there is no need to spend so much time on planning processes, and generated process plans are more reliable [2].
A computer numerical control (CNC) machine is constructed of mechanical elements such as frames, tables, slides, tool holders, spindles, etc. Each of these machining resources come with different capabilities, and the overall capability of a CNC machine can be constructed by modelling the interaction of various elements in a CNC machine tool [3]. STEP-NC has been used due to simplicity in handling semantic terms in machine tool modelling, and its promising potential for representing manufacturing resource capabilities. Reasoning approach based on the mathematical logic has been developed to support the proposed framework, and to capture the actual machining ability to perform required tasks.
The most updated MCP file can be interpreted to determine the machining requirements for specific product such as machining workspace, cutting tool dictionary and axes accuracy. By providing such information, the user is able to plan processes based on information reflecting the “as-is” status of resources ensures that “in-tolerance” parts would be produced. Based on the information within this profile, a manufacturing decision-making process can also determine the time and production cost of parts.
1. Newman, S.T., and Nassehi, A. Machine tool capability profile for intelligent process planning. CIRP Annals-Manufactruing Technology, 2009. 58(1): p. 421-424.
2. Sadeghi, S., and Ameri, F. An intelligent process planning system based on formal manufacturing capability models. Proceedings of ASME 2013 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. Portland, Oregon, USA, August 4–7, 2013.
3. Vichare, P., Nassehi, A., Kumar, S., and Newman, S.T. A unified manufacturing resource model for representing CNC machining systems. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2009. 25(6): p. 999-1007.
149
Estimation of Size and Aspect Ratio of Non-Spherical Particles Using FBRM
Okpeafoh S. Agimelen1*, Jan Sefcik1, Massimiliano Vasile2, Alison Nordon3, Ian Haley4, Anthony J. Mulholland5
1Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom. 2Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
3Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry and Centre for Process Analytics and Control Technology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
4Mettler-Toledo Ltd., Leicester, United Kingdom 5Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
*Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom, [email protected]
Abstract
Manufacturing of pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals typically involves a crystallisation process for purification of pharmaceutical intermediates, active pharmaceutical ingredients, excipients and many other products. Crystallisation results in the formation of particles of varying size and shape, and these are key particle attributes which determine resulting particulate product properties. In order to monitor and control the size and shape of crystalline particles, it is necessary to develop models for the different sensors used in capturing data (related to size and shape of the crystals) during the crystallisation process.
The Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM) [1] sensor is particularly useful because it can be used in situ during the crystallisation process. The calculation of the particle size distribution (sizes of these crystals usually in a suspension) and aspect ratio (the degree of elongation of the crystals) from the FBRM data is a major challenge [1]. Previous efforts had been focused on systems of spherical particles [2] since the problem is simplified in this case. However, some developments have been made on systems with non-spherical particles [3]. In all these works, one of the key ingredients for performing the calculations was that a priori information about the range of sizes of the particles in the system of interest was required. This may not always be convenient particularly in a production process where this information is not readily available. Another issue which has arisen from the estimation of aspect ratio of non-spherical particles is that the estimated aspect ratio from FBRM data is not unique [4].
We have developed a technique [4] which allows the particle size distribution of both spherical and non-spherical particles to be calculated from FBRM data without the prior information of the range of particle sizes in the system. Our technique also allows us to retrieve the aspect ratio from the FBRM data uniquely. The estimated particle sizes and aspect ratios from our calculations have very good agreement with experimentally measured sizes and aspect ratios for the same samples used in the calculations [4]. The method guarantees the key requirement of non-negative particle sizes and can be easily implemented in existing numerical packages. The work carried out here resolves one of the major challenges standing in the way of active control of particle attributes (size and shape) during the manufacture of pharmaceuticals. However, the technique still needs to be refined to make it more efficient. This will be carried out in future developments.
[1] J. Heinrich, J. Ulrich, Chem. Eng. Technol. 35, 967 (2012).
[2] E. F. Hobbel, R. Davies, F. W. Rennie, T. Allen, L. E. Butler, E. R. Waters, J. T. Smith, R. W. Sylvester, Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 8, 29 (1991); M. J. H. Simmons, P. A. Langston, A. S. Burbidge, Powder Technology 102, 75 (1999); P. A. Langston, A. S. Burbidge, T. F. jones, M. J. H. Simmons, Powder Technology 116, 33 (2001).
[3] A. Ruf, J. Worlitschek, M. Mazzotti, Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 17, 167 (2000); J. Worlitschek, T. Hocker, M. Mazzotti, Part. Part. Syst. Charct. 22, 81 (2005); M. Li, D. Wilkinson, Chemical Engineering Science 60, 3251 (2005); N. Kail, W. Marquardt, H. Briesen, Chemical Engineering Science 64, 984 (2009).
[4] O. S. Agimelen, J. Sefcik, M. Vasile, A. Nordon, I. Haley, A. J. Mulholland, Estimation of Size and Aspect Ratio of Non-Spherical Particles Using FBRM, manuscript in preparation.
150
Early Prediction of the Manufacturability of Therapeutic Proteins: A Biophysical approach
Nesrine Chakroun1*, David Hilton and Paul A. Dalby
1 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Emergent Macromolecular Therapies, Department of Biochemical
Engineering, University College London - UK * [email protected]
Abstract
Biopharmaceuticals or therapeutically relevant proteins have become one of the fastest growing parts of the pharmaceutical industry. These innovative molecules are more complex than conventional drugs and their processing is much more demanding. Assessing, at a very early stage in the development process, the ease of manufacture (the manufacturability) would allow the candidate proteins to be ranked and thus help to control the cost-effectiveness of new drugs.
This research project aims to identify critical properties of protein candidates allowing the prediction of their behaviour in large-scale bioprocesses. Our multidisciplinary approach combines computational analysis (Molecular Dynamics simulations), with the pilot-scale production and biophysical characterization of a set of Fragment antibody (Fab) mutants. This allowed the identification of several regions of unstable structure which could be targeted to enhance candidate’s stability. Additionally, aggregation kinetics were carried out at a wide range of temperature, pH and ionic strength allowing the determination of a model for Fab aggregation, and the development of a rapid micro-scale screen for antibody fragment aggregation. These data are used as early indicators for protein stability and to create indices for product manufacturability.
151
Sensor networking for Intelligent Decision Support and Control Technologies for Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation of Pharmaceuticals and Fine
Chemicals <<One blank>>
Jerzy Dziewierz1*, Anthony Gachagan1, Stephen Marshall2 and Alison Nordon3
<<One blank>> 1Centre for Ultrasonic Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
2 Centre for Signal and Image Processing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK 3 Centre for Process Analytics and Control Technology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
*[email protected] <<One blank>>
Abstract
This work contributes to a large, collaborative project to create an intelligent decision support and control platform for continuous crystallisation processes. Real time, robust monitoring of quantitative attributes (form, shape, size) of crystalline particulate products represents a massive challenge. No current solution allows the processing of data from in-line sensors to reliably extract these attributes in real time across multiple manufacturing steps and the subsequent use of this knowledge for intelligent decision support and control.
Specific to this paper, the primary objective is to devise a measurement data management strategy to promote adaptation of real-time intelligent decision support systems within continuous crystallization manufacturing processes. This is to be achieved through person-to-person interaction and automation of the data acquisition stage. In particular, it is critical to identify appropriate sensor technologies and multi-sensor configurations for real-time monitoring of continuous processes; select complementary sensor options to enhance the data sets used in the decision support and control technological functions of the overall system; optimise the data collection process for a multi-sensor system configuration; and implement data management techniques at the system front-end.
To demonstrate the implementation of our data management strategy, the development of a sensor network for crystallisation of Carbamazepine in a Continuous Baffled Oscillator Crystallizer is presented. The output from the system’s 42 thermocouple sensors incorporated into the experimental rig have been brought together into a coherent data acquisition, processing, visualization, reporting and archiving system. Moreover, the extensibility of the adopted approach will be described through the future plans to incorporate a wide range of instrumentation into the system.
152
Advanced monitoring and control strategies for plasma manufacturing with molecular precision
Arthur Greb, Deborah O’Connell, Timo Gans*
York Plasma Institute, University of York, York, UK
Abstract
Plasma technologies not only underpin many high-end multi-billion pound manufacturing industries of today, but also are critical elements for the invention of new devices of the future. A new revolution is underway in plasma processing: 3-dimensional atomic layer nano-structures in state-of-the-art computer chips and controlled room temperature atmospheric pressure plasmas have only just been realised. This opens up new horizons for inventions. Envisaged applications of next-generation plasma technology include innovative non-equilibrium chemistry applications for energy efficient biofuel synthesis as well as directly using cold atmospheric pressure plasmas for medicine and healthcare.
Realisation of all these critically depends on the development of new adaptable plasma processing techniques. The main bottleneck is the lack of adaptable process monitoring and control. The most promising approach is the direct coupling of multi-scale numerical simulations with advanced ultra-fast optical diagnostic techniques for plasma monitoring. These enable us to accurately tune non-linear mechanisms in the plasma dynamics for tailored plasma properties towards accurate control of the non-equilibrium chemical kinetics for next generation plasma technology providing superior molecular-scale precision.
We have developed nanosecond optical imaging spectroscopy techniques for sensitive measurements of the electron dynamics in low temperature plasmas. In combination with multi-scale numerical simulations of the non-equilibrium chemical kinetics it allows us to predict critical plasma properties, in particular absolute particle densities of short-lived and highly reactive plasma generated species responsible for material and sample interactions crucial in any plasma technology [1]. The results have been benchmarked and are in very good agreement with direct laser spectroscopic measurements. This provides significant progress for practical plasma process monitoring and control in industrial environments.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Intel Ireland (Ltd.) for financial support, and in particular G. J. Ennis and N. MacGearailt for valuable discussions. The authors acknowledge the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for supporting this research through the EPSRC Manufacturing Grant (EP/K018388/1) and the EPSRC Career Acceleration Fellowship (EP/H003797/1).
[1] The influence of surface properties on the plasma dynamics in radio-frequency driven oxygen plasmas: Measurements and simulations: A Greb, K Niemi, D O'Connell, T Gans; Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 103, No. 24, (2013)
153
Development of Windows of Operation for predicting large scale IEX Fab purification using robotic microscale experimentation and
general rate modelling
Spyros Gerontas, Simyee Kong, Nigel J. Titchener-Hooker
University College London, Department of Biochemical Engineering, Bernard Katz Building, London, WC1H 0AH, UK, 02076797745, [email protected]
University College London, Department of Biochemical Engineering University College London, Department of Biochemical Engineering
Abstract
In a maturing pharmaceutical industry, cost of production has the attention of management and science. An essential step of downstream processing is chromatography as it offers high selectivity and productivity. Therefore, the economic design and optimisation of a new chromatography operation is critical. Pharmaceutical companies frequently have limited time and material to make a full assessment of suitable chromatographic resins for a given purification process consisting of three or more chromatographic steps. In recent years, scale-down systems based on microplate format have been used to investigate purification conditions for therapeutic proteins by miniaturizing large scale 1000-fold. Their integration with robotic liquid dispensing systems has enabled high throughput studies. Appropriate mathematical models of the chromatographic separation may be used to convert the information provided by high throughput studies into quantitative predictions of large scale performance.
Creating predictive process models from microscale data for such macromolecules is a challenge due to the competing properties of the protein domains linked together, the dominance of wall effects in scale-down systems, the compressibility of resins and the inhomogeneity of bead structure. Therefore, efficient methods need to be explored for mapping the scale-down experimental data into predictive process models of large scale performance.
This research project aims to develop chromatographic first principles models from high throughput data, which will extend current models by studying protein adsorption/desorption at bead level. The mathematical model used in this study is the general rate model with mobile phase modulator. It is a comprehensive chromatography model which takes into account intra- and inter-particle mass transport, adsorption/desorption kinetics on the site of the particles and salt-induced elution. Windows of Operation for the large scale are then generated for each protein variant indicating the contours for different yield and throughput targets as a function of the critical process parameters (e.g. protein load, linear velocity).
154
Research project objective
Significance Statement: Pharmaceutical companies frequently have limited time and material from which to make a full assessment of suitable resins for a given purification process consisting of three or more chromatographic steps. Microscale systems have been used for high throughput screening studies so as to investigate separation conditions for therapeutic proteins. This research project aims to develop chromatographic first principles cause-and-effect models from high throughput data by studying protein adsorption/desorption. The predictive power of the integrated microscale experimentation and sound theoretical principles modeling could potentially reduce the number of scale up experiments required. Windows of Operation for the large scale are then generated indicating the contours for different yield and throughput targets as a function of the critical process parameters.
155
A New Scheduling Algorithm for Asynchronous Mixed Model Production Line
Weibo Liu1, Yan Jin2*, Mark Price3, and Qingxuan Gao4
1, 2, 3 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
4 College of Mechanical Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China * Queen's University Belfast, BT7 1NN, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
Mixed model production line recently attracted lots of attention from both industry and academia due to its superior flexibility and productivity. However, very few papers paid attention to asynchronous mixed model production line which is often used in manufacturing enterprises such as aerospace, shipbuilding and heavy machinery. Scheduling mixed model line is a rather challenging problem especially when coping with large number of jobs and machines. Existing scheduling methods for mixed model line suffer from long computation time, over-simplified model, and inaccurate calculation [1], [2], [3]. To overcome these shortcomings, this paper proposes a new permutation scheduling algorithm which converts the scheduling problem into a Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP), sequencing jobs and calculating the system idle time simultaneously and guaranteeing an optimal/near-optimal solution at the end. The difference of processing times of two consecutive jobs is newly defined as idle time and status as shown in Fig. 1 where idle time represents waste in production while status is a temporary variable and could be utilized for constructing the schedule of the subsequent job. A new algorithm is developed to rapidly compute the total idle time associated with a sequence of any number of jobs. Taking jobs as a number of location nodes for salesman to visit, and idle time as the distance for salesman to travel, the Nearest Neighbour Rule is utilized to construct the initial sequence [4] and then 2.5-OPT [5] is employed for improving the quality of the solution. The algorithm has been validated by several preliminary case studies. More tests will be conducted to verify its effectiveness.
Job iJob j
M k-1M k
M k+1
Idle timeStatus
Job l
Fig. 12 Idle time and status of schedule
[1] Saadani NEH, Guinet A, Moalla M. A travelling salesman approach to solve the F/no-idle/Cmax problem. European Journal of Operational Research 2005;161:11–20.
[2] Bagchi TP, Gupta JND, Sriskandarajah C. A review of TSP based approaches for flowshop scheduling. European Journal of Operational Research 2006;169:816–54.
[3] Caricato P, Grieco A, Serino D. Tsp-based scheduling in a batch-wise hybrid flow-shop. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 2007;23:234–41.
[4] Nitin Bhatia V. Survey of nearest neighbor techniques. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security 2010;8:302–5.
[5] Balaprakash P, Birattari M, Stützle T, Yuan Z, Dorigo M. Estimation-based ant colony optimization and local search for the probabilistic traveling salesman problem. Swarm Intelligence 2009;3:223–42.
156
Towards a Cloud-based framework for Smart Connected Manufacturing
Mariam Kiran
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
Abstract
The advent of Smart mobiles have propagated a change in technology with advanced smart connected devices for mobility and improved living. The IT industry has grown vastly by using Cloud to lease infrastructure and resource availability [1]. These services are being used to move towards more open and trustworthy models which produce more efficient usage of energy and resources. Employing the use of connected devices in manufacturing is a way forward for the factories of the future with Web2.0 technologies to allow individual circuits and components to be able to communicate. This abstract presents how Cloud computing and connected devices can advance smarter manufacturing where machines can communicate together in real time for designs and optimised solution. The procedure allows more decentralised and optimised manufacturing cycle to be developed for resilient and optimised connected components to determine intelligent plans conserving energy and resources.
The smart connected manufacturing research raises a number of issues which present research challenges:
Security concerns: Security of the connectivity of devices [2].
Big Data collection: Data integration and collection of device related services.
Sensor connectivity: Sensor driven data collection for decentralised components.
Optimised solutions: Optimisation of the data and the ability to produce intelligent suggestions [3].
Risk and energy awareness: Risk and green energy aware security components devices.
Figure: Block diagram of the components connected via the Cloud.
Services can be created uniquely for various components which can monitor the component history, design, structural capabilities and geographic
positions to communicate their data to a central store which exists as a secure Cloud database. Further services in the Cloud collect heterogeneous data and produce optimised solutions based on risk and energy aware solutions. There are various research issues and requires an interdisciplinary method to solve a wider problem using technology to advance factories and future research.
1. I. Foster, Y. Zhao, I. Raicu, S Lu. Cloud Computing and Grid Computing 360-Degree Compared. In GCE ’08: Grid Computing Environments Workshop, pages 1–10. IEEE, November 2008.
2. M.Kiran, M.Jiang, D.Armstrong and K.Djemame, Towards a Service Life Cycle-based Methodology for Risk Assessment in Cloud Computing, CGC 2011, International conference on Cloud and Green Computing, December, Australia, pp 449-456.
3. M.Kiran, A.U.Khan, M.Jiang, K.Djemame, M.Oriol, M.Corrales, Managing Security Threats in Clouds, Digital Research 2012.
157
Computational modelling of SPIF processed titanium alloys
Spyridon Kotsis
Advanced a Forming Research Centre, Dept. Design, Manufacture and Engineering Management, University of Strathclyde
Abstract
Sheet metal forming is an important aspect for most of the manufacturing industries. The demand for sheet components has been lately extensively increased as automotive and aerospace industries are following the trend of processing evermore lighter materials and introducing to their products light sheet parts. Thereby, manufacturing costs are strongly reduced and standards for the production of environmentally friendly products are met.
Incremental sheet forming (ISF), invented in the 1990’s, is a relatively new process and an innovative approach for the forming of sheet materials. The simplicity of the process, its flexibility and the availability of the involved machines and tools constitute a very efficient approach for the forming of sheet materials. Moreover, the advantages of ISF process against other forming processes, such as, the non-necessity of a die or the reduced (per piece) costs, reveal its great potential. Due to challenges, however, in the determination of the required tool paths in order to form the parts with complex shapes successfully (i.e. to achieve the required dimensional accuracies without occurrence of any necking or fracture) ISF processes are still not widely used in industrial production. Additionally, the processing of titanium alloys increases difficulties, as their formability at room temperature is known to be limited.
Industries are still relying on costly production trials to form components. In order to reduce or completely eliminate these trials reliable computational simulating methods of ISF processes are in demand. Computational modelling of ISF process, however, reveals an increased complexity due to several nonlinearities that are involved in the process. Therefore, for the efficient use of available and highly sophisticated software systems for the analysis of incrementally formed sheets, advanced simulation methods and methodologies are required.
The overall aim is to build a computational simulative framework for the analysis and optimisation of Single Point Incremental process (SPIF) process. This will result to a further process understanding and a substantial increase of its applicability. Furthermore, it will be shown how manufacturing industries can yield a higher product quality by including computational modelling in their design and analysis processes.
158
CAD modelling to enable an intelligent DMU
Trevor T. Robinson1*, Adrian Murphy2, Cecil G. Armstrong3, Mark A. Price4, and Joseph Butterfield5
1 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK
2 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK 3 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK 4 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK 5 School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK
Abstract
A Digital Mock-Up (DMU) is a virtual prototype which is now central to every major industrial design process. In most modern processes the DMU represents the overall product as spatially positioned Computer-aided design (CAD) models of the individual components. As a CAD model provides a virtual geometric representation of the nominal manufactured product, and is assembled using simple relationships, DMU technology does not capture the impact of sources of part or assembly variation [1]. This means that the manufactured, assembled product will almost certainly deviate from the DMU assembly. This fact is usually only considered when the design is complete [2]. However, the DMU is usually managed within a Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) system, where whole life considerations for the product may be managed. During the design process any disjoint between the CAD feature parameters and the manufacturing processes and their key dimensions could effectively be managed.
There is now an industrial ambition to use CAD and DMU models more effectively, earlier in the design process. Given this, if it is to make better provision for factors related to manufacture, then the amount of change in the design that the DMU will have to accommodate is much greater than before. With the advance of these new technologies the CAD model, which was primarily designed to provide a virtual representation of shape for the purpose of manufacturing, now has a role throughout the product lifecycle. This means that CAD models now need to be able to communicate more than just shape based or visual information. It does however open up the opportunity to improve the quality of manufacturing related data much earlier in the design process.
This paper describes a number of novel approaches for deriving intelligence from the parameterisation of the DMU to assist the engineer in making manufacturing related decisions. In this work a link between the CAD model and the manufactured model is established, which simplifies the process of using the parameters defining the features in the CAD model to make manufacturing decisions. This work emphasises the importance of the model parameterisation on the ability to use the DMU during the design phases. It also provides insights about how the model should be parameterised to provide the greatest DMU manufacturing utility.
1. Han, P., Butterfield, J., Buchanan, S., McCool, R., Jiang, Z., Price, M., Murphy A., 2013, The prediction of process-induced deformation in a thermoplastic composite in support of manufacturing simulation. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture. 227/10:1417-1429 DOI: 10.1177/0954405413488362
2. Maropoulos, P.G., Vichare, P., Martin, O., Muelaner, J., Summers, M.D., Kayani, A., 2011, Early design verification of complex assembly variability using a Hybrid – Model Based and Physical Testing Methodology, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 60/1:207-210, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2011.03.097.
159
Novel control architecture for machining processes
Luis Rubio1*, Wenlong Chang1, Wenbin Zhong1 and Xichun Luo1
1 University of Strathclyde (Department of Design, Manufacture, and Engineering Management, Faculty of
Engineering, Glasgow, UK)
Abstract
Control architectures for machining processes can be split into three parts, motion control, process control and supervisory system [1]. Motion control deals with the movement of the axes of the machine in order to achieve a smooth trajectory for the generated path of the cutter into the workpiece [2]. Selection of adequate interpolation algorithms, generation of jerk-limited trajectories and control the servo motors are main topics to take into account when controlling the motion of the servo drives [2]. Furthermore, control of cutting forces, detection and suppression of chatter vibrations, monitor of the cutter status and wear are major tasks in process control [1,3]. Control of cutting forces is required to keep the forces below a prescribed upper limit in order not to deteriorate the cutter and machine components [4]. Chatter vibrations may lead to reject the part due to poor surface finish and/or wear of the cutter. Consequently, an adequate strategy to avoid or suppress chatter vibrations should be implemented. Moreover, in order to monitor the cutter status and wear, cameras are widely used, but alternative sensors, such as acoustic sensor, are, also, deployed [1]. In addition, supervisory systems take into consideration the final product is within the required specifications. Due to the increasing competence in manufacturing sector and the introduction of industrial soft-CNCs, more sophisticated intelligent solutions for supervising machining processes are gained attention in the manufacturing community [5,6]. Besides the specifications of the final product, other functionalities are being included into supervisory control packages. This work presents a novel control architecture which addresses motion, process and supervisory controllers, meanwhile implements intelligent algorithms to manage different aspects of the process like, the chord error compensation, the adaptive control of the forces, the strategy for chatter detection and suppression, the self-selection of optimal cutting parameters, etc. Finally, an example will illustrate how the control architecture comes through the different parts of the control architecture according to the requirements of the process.
1. A. G.. Ulsoy, Dynamic modeling and control of machining processes, 1998, in Dynamics and Chaos in Manufacturing Processes, Ed. Francis C. Moon.
2. K. Erkorkmaz and Y. Altintas, High speed CNC system design, Part I: jerk limited trajectory generation and quintic spline interpolation, 2001, IJMTM, 41, 1323-1345.
3. Y. Altintas, Manufacturing Automation: Metal cutting mechanics, machine tool vibrations, and CNC design, 2013, Cambridge University Press.
4. L. Rubio, M. De la Sen, A. P. Longstaff and A. Myers, Analysis of discrete-time schemes for milling force control under fractional order holds, International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, 14(5), 735-744, May 2013.
5. L.N. Lopez de Lacalle and A. Lamikiz. Machine Tool for High Performance Machining, Springer, 2009.
6. L. Rubio, M. De la Sen, A. P. Longstaff and S. Fletcher, Model-based expert system to automatically adapt milling forces in Pareto optimal multi-objective working points, Expert systems with applications, 40(6), 2312-2322, May 2013.
160
Predicting the Performance of Collaborative Manufacturing Projects: Knowledge Discovery from Digital
Assets
Lei Shi1, Linda Newnes1, Steve Culley1, Ben Hicks2
1University of Bath (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bath, BA2 7AY) 2University of Bristol (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bristol, BS8 1TR)
Abstract
Today, manufacturing faces many challenges such as increasing complexity of products and projects, cost overruns (HS2 from 10bn to 42bn), distributed working environments and shortages of highly skilled labour (Foresight, 2013)1. Many large-scale projects are collaborative in nature requiring the integration of many areas of design and manufacturing, as well as extending the manufacturing of complex products to include advanced services. One of the challenges of such projects is to achieve on-time and on-cost delivery, whilst capturing sufficient knowledge of the product to maintain through-life support. Knowledge Management (KM) can play a key role in collaborative manufacturing projects to meet these challenges - the Language of Collaborative Manufacturing (LOCM) project is aimed at addressing these.
In practice, the application of typical KM approaches in collaborative manufacturing has some issues: (i) time and cost: the building of knowledge base requires extensive input from both knowledge experts and manual works, which is time-consuming and costly, (ii) human impacts: human errors or lack of responsibility can significantly decrease the quality of captured knowledge, (iii) information selection: selecting the “right” information/knowledge to capture is still a challenge, as the definition of knowledge varies depending on an individuals’ expertise; in parallel to this representing the knowledge in a manner so as to be useful for different subject matter experts and stages of a project development also pose major challenges, and (iv) adaptive capacity: the ability to apply captured knowledge from one specific scenario to another will limit its reuse.
To reuse essential information to improve the efficiencies and effectiveness of projects, and then minimise their execution risk and uncertainty, a knowledge-based approach for predicting the performance of collaborative manufacturing projects is proposed, which includes the following features: (i) rapid knowledge discovery; (ii) predicting/characterising project complexity based on information transactions; (iii) predicting workflow for new/early stage projects; (iv) predicting duration for new/early stage projects; and (v) assisting with reuse by identifying similarity of workflows on other projects. This approach contains a knowledge discovery module, i.e., applies data mining and semantic techniques to discover knowledge from historical projects, and also a prediction module, i.e., applies discovered knowledge and machine-learning techniques to predict the performance of new/early stage projects. Unlike many typical KM approaches, the approach is able to automatically identify, analyse and organise the project knowledge, therefore the time, cost, human effort and errors can be substantially reduced. Moreover, the prediction involves large amounts of historical data, therefore it can provide a more comprehensive perspective of project characteristics (historical and new) to the project participants, i.e., managers and engineers, which could effectively assist them with task planning, performance monitoring and decision-making on different levels and at different project stages. To demonstrate the utility of the approach, a large collection of data (includes 400 individual in-service projects) from an international aerospace company is considered.
Significance Statement: Knowledge is consistently generated and used across the manufacturing project lifecycle. To prevent obsolescence and improve sustainability, certain project knowledge needs to be preserved and re-used. The proposed approach is an automatic mechanism and requires zero user intervention, thus it can be smoothly applied or integrated in real manufacturing environments. It can discover the knowledge from “big data”, and then uses the prediction mechanism to provide various assistants to project participants.
1 The Future of Manufacturing: A new era of opportunity and challenge for the UK - Project Report.
Available: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/future-of-manufacturing. Last accessed 30 May 2014.
161
Figure 13 Process of the proposed approach
162
Mathematical Modelling of a Novel Periodic Flow Crystallisation Process using Cascaded Multistage MSMPR Crystallisers
Qinglin Su1, Keddon Powell1, Zoltan K. Nagy1, 2, and Chris D. Rielly1*
1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
2 School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA * [email protected]
Abstract
The potential advantages of continuous crystallisation using cascaded multistage mixed-suspension and mixed product removal (MSMPR) crystallisers have been investigated widely [1-3], e.g. a controlled state of operation, intensified production, reduced footprint and energy costs and improved scalability. However, the challenges of insufficient residence time for slow growing crystals, fouling on crystalliser walls and process monitoring equipment, transfer line blockage, and broad crystal size distribution in conventional MSMPR operations are still not well addressed. Periodic flow crystallisation is a novel method whereby controlled periodic disruptions are applied to the inlet and outlet flow of a MSMPR crystalliser to intermittently increase flow rates during transfer between stages and to increase the mean residence time by having a hold period between transfers. If the transient effects caused by periodic operation are controlled within narrow limits in the design space, then the crystal product attributes will be maintained in a ‘state of controlled operation’. Experimental results have shown that the periodically operated MSMPR crystalliser can operate for up to 11 residence times (RT) without any blockage or encrustation issues. Periodic flow crystallisation experiments were conducted using a glycine-water system in a three-stage MSMPR crystalliser. Glycine feed solution was saturated at 20 oC, seeded with 2.5% seed (75 -125 µm) and kept at 19 oC. The system achieved a ‘state of controlled operation’ after the 8th RT. The experimental yield of the seeded crystallisation was 81 %. Analysis of the crystal size distribution using a Malvern MasterSizer (laser diffraction), showed that volume weighted mean of the product crystals was significantly larger (274 µm) than the starting seed material used (86 µm). A mathematical model was developed for the periodic flow crystallisation process to provide a better understanding and improve the performance of the periodic operation. The modelling framework was based on the Process System Enterprise’s gCRYSTAL 4.0.0 software, wherein, the customized crystallisation kinetics of the model compound Glycine was estimated from batch crystallisation experiments equipped with process analytic tools (PATs) for solute concentration and crystal size measurements. The model was shown to agree well with the experimental observations from the periodic flow crystallisation process. Further investigations will consider optimisation of the periodic operation to achieve the best crystal critical quality attributes.
[1] Alvarez AJ, Singh A, Myerson AS. Crystallization of cyclosporine in a multistage continuous MSMPR crystallizer. Crystal Growth & Design. 2011;11:4392-4400.
[2] Wong SY, Tatusko AP, Trout BL, Myerson AL. Development of continuous crystallization processes using a single-stage mixed-suspension, mixed-product removal crystallizer with recycle. Crystal Growth & Design. 2012;12:5701-5707.
[3] Zhang H, Quon J, Alvarez AJ, Evans J, Myerson AS, Trout B. Development of continuous anti-solvent/cooling crystallization process using cascaded mixed suspension, mixed product removal crystallizers. Organic Process Research & Development. 2012;16:915-924.
163
Image-based Monitoring of Encrustation in the Crystallisation Process
Christos Tachtatzis1*, Rachel Sheridan2, Craig Michie1, Jan Sefcik2, Robert C. Atkinson1,
Alison Cleary1 and Ivan Andonovic1
1 Centre for Intelligent Dynamic Communications, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland, UK
2 Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation, Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE
Abstract
In the growing shift from batch to continuous crystallisation, many issues must be overcome to ensure that continuous operation is a viable option outside of the research laboratory. One major barrier to the adoption of continuous processes is the fouling (encrustation) of vessel walls, which changes the liquid flow conditions, and in more extreme cases may cause blockages1,2. We show how statistical analysis of image pixel intensity values can be used to simultaneously monitor vessel wall fouling and crystal growth in bulk solution, using images captured using low-cost cameras. With image data measured from a moving fluid oscillatory baffled crystalliser, we demonstrate how the analysis can provide an early warning mechanism for the onset of fouling.
To detect fouling the captured images were converted to greyscale, and persistent outlier detection was used to identify areas of fouling. Images were then reconstructed to show the areas of fouling, as demonstrated in Figure 1. The proposed method allows estimation of the induction time of the bulk crystals and crystal growth on the vessel walls.
Figure 1. Example output from the fouling pixel classifier.
1. T. R. Bott, “Aspects of crystallization fouling,” Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, vol. 14. pp. 356–360, 1997.
2. C. J. Brown and X.-W. Ni, “Online Evaluation of Paracetamol Antisolvent Crystallization Growth Rate with Video Imaging in an Oscillatory Baffled Crystallizer,” Cryst. Growth Des., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 719–725, Jan. 2011.
164
White Light Channeled Spectrum Interferometry for the On-line Surface Inspection
Dawei Tang*, Feng Gao, and X. Jiang
Centre for Precision Technologies, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
In the industries making high volume as well as large area foil products and flexible electronics, the deposition and patterning of multi-layer thin films on large area substrates is often involved in the manufacturing processes. For these types of product, the films must be uniform and largely perfect across most of the area of the foil. To achieve a high product yield, the key challenge is to inspect the foil surface at production speed as well as have the sufficient resolution to detect the defects resulting from the coating and patterning processes. After the effective inspection, further process like local repair technique can be applied to remove the defects.
We present a white light channeled spectrum interferometry (WLCSI) method that is effective for applications in on-line surface inspection because it can obtain a surface profile in a single shot. It has an advantage over existing spectral interferometry techniques by using cylindrical lenses as the objective lens in a Michelson interferometric configuration to enable the measurement of long profiles. The adjustable profile length in our experimental setup, determined by the NA of the illuminating system and the aperture of cylindrical lenses, is up to 10 mm. By translating the tested sample during the measurement procedure, fast and large-scale on-line surface inspection can be achieved.
The performance of the WLCSI was evaluated experimentally by measuring step heights. The measuring results closely align with the calibrated specifications given by the manufacturer as well as the measurement results by the other commercial instrument, which demonstrate that the proposed WLCSI could be applied to production line like the R2R surface inspection, where only defects on the film surface are concerned in terms of the quality control.
Figure 1. Measurement results: 3D surface map and 2D profile plot of a sample with the height of 9.759 µm
1. Jeffrey D. Morse (2011) ‘Nanofabrication Technologies for Roll-to-Roll Processing’. Report from the NIST-NNN Workshop
2. Dawei Tang, Feng Gao and X. Jiang (2014) ‘Cylindrical Lenses Based Spectral Domain Low-Coherence Interferometry for On-line Surface Inspection’. In: Proceedings of the 14th euspen International Conference, 2 - 6 June 2014, Dubrovnik, Croatia
0 50 100 150 2000
5
10
15
20
Pixel number
Heig
ht (u
m)
Average Height = 9.741 µm(b)
Length of profile up to 10mm
165
Towards an intelligent robotic system for high accuracy and precision inspection of holes
Z. Usman; R.P. Monfared; P. Ogun, M.R. Jackson
Abstract
Robots are rapidly being employed to support different manufacturing processes including machining, assembly and material handling. However, robots are not well known to support inspection processes involving accuracy and precision to micro meter (µm) levels. Present industrial robots cannot be employed to inspect parts requiring µm level accuracy and precision on their own. This paper presents and integrated solution that is a step towards the use of robots for automation of highly accurate and precise inspection processes. The paper is focused on measuring different parameters of a set of finished machined holes. A non-contact inspection device using optical technology is mounted at the robot end effector to measure the hole diameter, roundness and roughness. A vision system is integrated with the robot controller to identify the hole to be inspected and guide the inspection device to the centre of the hole. A compensation algorithm in the inspection device is used to cancel out the minor positioning errors. The results of robotic measurements of a variety of precision manufactured holes have been compared with the measurements taken of the same holes using the inspection device mounted on a stationary platform. The comparison of results shows that the integrated robot system is a step towards automating the high accuracy hole inspection process for industry.
166
Facility fit prediction and debottlenecking of antibody purification facilities
Yang Yang1, Suzanne S. Farid2, Nina F. Thornhill1
1 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Emergent Macromolecular Therapies, Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
2 EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Emergent Macromolecular Therapies, Department of Biochemical Engineering, University College London, Torrington Place, London WC1E 7JE, UK
Abstract
Facility fit challenges in legacy biopharmaceutical purification suites can occur in purification suites with capacities originally matched to lower titre processes and lower concentration formulations. Higher titre and higher concentration formulations can pose bottlenecks that result in unexpected product losses and hence discarding expensive product. This presentation describes a data mining and optimisation decisional tool for rapid prediction of facility fit issues and debottlenecking of antibody purification facilities. Two industrial case studies will be presented. The first focuses on facility fit challenges in legacy facilities exposed to higher titres as well as batch-to-batch variability. The predictive tool was comprised of advanced multivariate analysis techniques to interrogate Monte Carlo stochastic simulation datasets that mimicked batch fluctuations in cell culture titres, step yields and chromatography eluate volumes. A decision tree classification method, CART (Classification and Regression Tree) was introduced to explore the impact of these process fluctuations on product mass loss and reveal the root causes of bottlenecks. The resulting pictorial decision tree determined a series of if-then rules of the critical combinations of factors that lead to different mass loss levels. Three different debottlenecking solutions were compared in relation to their impact on mass output, cost of goods and processing time, as well as consideration of extra capital investment and space requirements. The second case study focuses on facility fit challenges in multiproduct facilities catering for both low and high concentration formulations. The work explores the capability of a particular TFF system to reach high concentration product formulations and to apply multiobjective optimisation to find the optimal final UF/DF design for different target product concentrations with both maximum annual product output and minimum cost of goods (COG).
Keywords: monoclonal antibody, facility fit, chromatography, tangential flow filtration, debottlenecking, multivariate analysis, multiobjective optimisation
167
Process comprehension for knowledge based process planning systems
X. Zhang*, W. P. Essink, B. Afsharizand, J. Barclay, A. Nassehi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Abstract
Over the last 40 years manufacturing industry has enjoyed a rapid growth with the support of various computer-aided systems (CAD, CAPP, CAM etc.) known as CAx to support Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) machines, which are the major contributors to the production capacity of manufacturing industry today. Process planning plays an important role between design and manufacturing, and CAPP system is a vital link in the CAx chain [1, 2]. Due to the inherent complexity of the task, Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) systems are still not as sophisticated as other Computer Aided systems [3]. It is a common practice that manufacturing industries use CAD/CAM to generate part programmes for CNC machines without using a process planning system. The process planning task is still relying on the knowledge of process planners, which is not consistent and error-prone. Furthermore, due to the unidirectional information flow from CAD/CAM to CNC machines, there is no feedback from the shopfloor, while the shopfloor is the last and one of the most knowledge-intensive stages of the manufacturing process [4]. Industries always have problem to provide an accurate process plan for a product. In this paper, a knowledge based process planning system has been proposed. The knowledge behind the system is captured from the actual part programmes used on CNC machines at the shopfloor. The mechanism of acquiring knowledge from part programmes is called process comprehension [5]. Using this method, manufacturing enterprises can have every record of process plan for each product manufacturing at the shopfloor. The process planning activities for new products can benefit from using existing process knowledge by enquiring the knowledge based process planning system. It is helpful for the enterprise to keep the product quality and consistency, reduce the leading time for new products and accumulate knowledge to gain competitive advantages. In this paper, process comprehension has been introduced and a framework of the knowledge based process planning system has been presented. The knowledge capture and retrieve mechanisms are discussed.
Keywords: Process comprehension; process planning; CAPP; manufacturing knowledge management;
1. Bourne, D., Corney, J. and Gupta, S.K. Recent Advances and Future Challenges in Automated Manufacturing Planning. Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering, 2011, 11(2), 021006.
2. ElMaraghy, H. Reconfigurable Process Plans For Responsive Manufacturing Systems. In Cunha, P. and Maropoulos, P., eds. Digital Enterprise Technology. pp. 35-44 (Springer US, 2007).
3. Xu, X., Wang, L. and Newman, S.T. Computer-aided process planning - A critical review of recent developments and future trends. International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 2011, 24(1), 1-31.
4. Newman, S.T., Nassehi, A., Xu, X.W., Rosso Jr, R.S.U., Wang, L., Yusof, Y., Ali, L., Liu, R., Zheng, L.Y., Kumar, S., Vichare, P. and Dhokia, V. Strategic advantages of interoperability for global manufacturing using CNC technology. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2008, 24(6), 699-708.
5. Zhang, X., Nassehi, A., Safaieh, M. and Newman, S.T. Process comprehension for shopfloor manufacturing knowledge reuse. International Journal of Production Research, 2013, 1-15.
168
THEME:
SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
169
Reduction in Consumption of Heavy Rare Earths in Nd2Fe14B Permanent Magnets by High Speed Coating and Diffusion of Dysprosium
Andrew Cockburn
University of Cambridge
Abstract
Many applications of Nd2Fe14B permanent magnets, such as electric vehicles, require the magnet to have a high coercivity at temperatures in the region 80 - 200 ⁰C. This requires the addition to the alloy of as much as 10 wt% of the heavy rare earth Dysprosium to increase the intrinsic coercivity and thus the temperature performance. However the heavy rare earths are a very expensive critical resource and subject to price fluctuations. In order to reduce their consumption, an external coating of Dysprosium can diffused along a sintered magnets grain boundaries in a process known as Grain Boundary Diffusion Processing (GBDP). The Dysprosium then substitutes for Nd at the edge of crystal grains and forms a core shell structure, suppressing reverse domain nucleation and thus greatly enhancing the intrinsic coercivity. A new, rapid and effective method has been identified for coating magnets with Dysprosium for GBDP. Results have demonstrated the same increase in Hc for as little as 10% of the Dysprosium which would be required by conventional alloying.
Key words – Critical resource, Rare Earth, Magnet, Dysprosium
170
Modelling of Sheet Metal Forming Processes for Sustainable Recycling
Javad Falsafi 1*, Emrah Demirci1, Vadim V. Silberschmidt1
1 Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, UK * Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough,
LE11 3TU, UK, [email protected]
Abstract
Forming is the most efficient way of mass manufacturing of metal parts with increased mechanical performance thanks to work hardening of material during manufacture. Metal-forming processes include forming of sheet as well as bulk metals at room temperature (cold forming), above a recrystallization temperature (hot forming) and below it (warm forming). Industrial production growth within the last decades has led to increase in the amount of material and energy consumed. This has accelerated the movements towards the idea of sustainability and sustainable manufacturing [1] . To curb carbon emissions caused by mass production, energy efficiency and recyclability should be considered when designing a metal forming process. Since sheet metal forming offers great amount of contribution in metals industry, it has high potential to encourage the study on possibilities of cold recycling to avoid melting which is an inevitable part of conventional recycling. A practical way to design such a process is to use finite element analysis (FEA) as a numerical modelling tool to simulate it, study the behaviour of work piece and tools, assess the required forming energy and analyse the recyclability of the formed product. The idea of non-destructive recycling or cold recycling is an emerging phenomenon within a variety of industrial schemes [2]. Specifically, in case of sheet metals, reusability lacks a dedicated research [3]. This study aims at introduction of advanced FEA in metal-forming field for the analysis of sustainable recycling with industrial case studies. A technique to assess formability is introduced. Roll forming, the most commonly-used method for manufacturing sheet profiles, is utilized in this research as a case study. Several sheet-metal profiles are simulated with FEA using industrial roll designs and parameters of processes without melting to analyse carbon emission and possible recycling options based on the level of work hardening applied to the metal during the forming process. With this numerical scheme, a complete forming process can be designed avoiding a trial-and-error approach when considering the energy and recycling requirements. The Significance of this work is the novel computation of sustainable recycling of sheet metal products without melting them. This numerical scheme will improve energy saving in recycling as well as design for sustainable recycling of sheet metal parts.
1. Allwood, J.M., J.M. Cullen, and R. Milford, Options for Achieving a 50% Cut in Industrial Carbon Emissions by 2050. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2010. 44: p. 1888–1894.
2. Milford, R., Emissions savings from case studies, in Re-use without melting 2010, University of Cambridge
3. Takano, H., K. Kitazawa, and T. Goto, Incremental forming of nonuniform sheet metal: Possibility of cold recycling process of sheet metal waste. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 2008. 48: p. 477-482.
171
Design and Manufacture of an Energy Storing Thread
D.Harrison1*, F.Qiu1, Y.Xu1, J.Fyson1, R.Zhang1 and D.Southee2
1 (School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, London, UK)
2 (Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK) *Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper describes the design and manufacture of a flexible, weavable energy storing thread. Advances in wearable electronics bring requirements for flexible energy storage that can be integrated into textile structures, (1). This work has been funded as part of the EU FP7 Powerweave project, which aims to develop a fabric that can generate energy from sunlight (using a woven photovoltaic fibre), and store the energy within the fibrous matrix of the fabric. The project is coordinated by TWI, Cambridge.
In an earlier publication, (2), the authors describe the development of a short energy storing thread based on a coaxial super capacitor with a steel core wire, two concentric carbon electrodes and a PVA/ phosphoric acid gel electrolyte. In this current paper we characterise the structure and storage performance of longer threads with both aqueous and organic electrolyte systems. We describe a semi automatic dip costing system developed to manufacture the thread, and report the performance of threads which have been woven into a cotton fabric using a computer controlled sampling loom.
1. Chuizhou Meng, A Review of Flexible and Weaveable Fiber-Like Super capacitors Vol. 1, No. 12, December 2013 Journal of Postdoctoral Research (www.postdocjournal.com)
2. D. Harrison, F. L. Qiu, J. Fyson, Y. M. Xu, P. Evans and D. Southee, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2013, 15, 12215-12219
172
Low Cost Manufacture of Steered-Fibre Laminates
Philip Harrison*, Farag Abdiwi and Annika Akkerman
University of Glasgow (School of Engineering, UK)
Abstract
Steered fibre laminate technology typically involves manufacturing advanced composite laminates comprised of curved rather than straight fibre paths [e.g. 1, 2]. The aim of fibre-steering is usually to optimise structural performance; holes and inserts in composite laminates can concentrate stresses, potentially becoming the focus of cracks and eventual failure. By steering fibres, stress concentrations can be reduced or eliminated. Another noted benefit of steered-fibre laminates is enhanced buckling resistance. This promising technology has already been adopted in manufacturing high-end aerospace structures and can significantly increase the design-space of advanced composite materials leading to highly optimised, lighter structures. Nevertheless, the technology has drawbacks, most notably its high cost. Typically, steered fibre laminates are manufactured using expensive Automated Fibre Placement (AFP) machines and despite high levels of automation, high capital costs and relatively slow laydown rates inevitably result in high costs per part. The AFP steering process can also results in defects; understanding and mitigating these defects is a research topic in its own right [3].
Funded by EPSRC via a 6-month feasibility study distributed through CIMComp [4], the current work offers an entirely different approach to manufacturing steered-fibre laminates. The benefits of the new method are much lower capital costs and defect-free manufacture of two-dimensional steered fibre laminates that, unlike most traditional AFP steered-fibre laminates, can be further processed into complex three-dimensional parts. In order to support the development of this new processing technology, novel computational design tools have been developed and integrated within commercial finite element software (AbaqusTM). Inherent constraints in the manufacture process make the new approach less flexible in terms of generating arbitrary fibre orientations than AFP, though significantly lower manufacture costs suggest a possible mid-ground production solution, bringing steered-fibre technology to mass market, lower cost applications. This purpose of this presentation is to: (i) discuss the new production method, (ii) outline the purpose and utility of the new computational design tools developed to support the process and (iii) report preliminary experimental findings on the performance of the first steered-fibre laminate sheet manufactured using the new processing technology.
1. C. S. Lopes, Z. Gürdal and P. P. Camanho, “Tailoring for strength of composite steered-fibre panels with cutouts,” Composites: Part A, no. 41, pp. 1760-1767, 2010.
2. O. Falcó, J. A. Mayugo, C. S. Lopes, N. Gascons, A. Turon and J. Costa, “Variable-stiffness composite panels: As-manufactured modeling and its influence on the failure behaviour,” Composites: Part B, no. 56, pp. 660-669, 2014.
3. K. Croft, L. Lessard, D. Pasini, M. Hojjati, J. Chen, A. Yousefpour, Experimental study of the effect of automated fiber placement induced defects on performance of composite laminates, Composites: Part A 42, 484–491, 2011
4. http://www.epsrc.ac.uk/
173
Cleaning Land For Wealth (CL4W)
K. Kirwan1*, L. Horsfall2, P. Longhurst3, A. Harvey4, D. Book5
1 WMG, University of Warwick, UK 2 School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, UK
3 School of Applied Sciences, University of Cranfield, UK 4 School of Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials, University of Newcastle, UK
5 School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, UK *[email protected]
Abstract
The CL4W project resulted from the ‘More with Less’ Resource Efficiency Sandpit. It addresses the challenge of treating contaminated land to recover materials for future use and economic gain. All existing work on land remediation is energy and/or resource intensive and focuses on sequestering contaminants with no attempt to recover them as a resource. Currently there are few genuine economic drivers to motivate decontamination and land recovery even though many sites contain substantial amounts of valuable minerals. The resource costs for land treatment are prohibitive for dilute and dispersed sites. Recent estimates suggest that there are approximately 300,000 hectares of land in the UK affected to some extent by industrial or natural contamination. In Western Europe 350,000 contaminated sites with an estimated treatment cost of 350bn euros have been identified. Globally, substantial land contamination exists though this is poorly quantified. This project has delivered production routes for bio-manufactured, functionalised, Nano-particles and other high value products from contaminated land with appropriate energy balancing options being investigated. We utilise the ability of plants to preferentially take metals out of the ground in significant quantities (hyperaccumulate) and then recover those metals via a combination of synthetic biology and process engineering to develop "bio-factories" that turn those metals into metallic nanoparticles via bacteria. During the recovery process we have also utilised microbes to break the lignocellulose parts of the crops into valuable materials like DHA, Vanillin and other chemical or polymer feedstocks.
As part of the future bio-factory process, we will functionalise the nanoparticles so that they have industrial significance and hence maximise their value. We have selected three common polluting targets - arsenic (As), Nickel (Ni) and platinum group metals (PGM) - which are generated by industrial processes and pollute large amounts of land and water courses which endanger health, preventing human habitation or other forms of exploitation. As nanoparticles are used to treat aggressive cancers and both Ni and PGM nanoparticles are used in a wide range of applications such as catalysis, fuel cells and batteries. We also expect to develop new opportunities for these and similar materials as the research progresses.
174
Adaptive Process Planning and Optimisation for Sustainable Manufacturing
Weidong Li*, Sheng Wang, Xin Lu, and Michael Fitzpatrick
Faculty of Engineering and Computing, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
Abstract
The manufacturing sector contributes to over 24% of total European energy consumption [1], including the use of high-power motors, compressors, machine tools, and thermomechanical processing. The manufacturing research roadmap towards 2020, developed by an international consortium from Europe, Japan, Korea and the United States, has indicated that improving energy efficiency of manufacturing processes while maintaining quality and productivity should be a priority target in the sector [2]. However, modern manufacturing is characterised by dynamics. Co-operation between companies is more project-specific, customer-centric and flexible, but the jobs/orders that are dealt with by a manufacturer are likely to be diversified, and many of them are urgent. Shop floors therefore face disruption and uncertainty as part of their day-to-day operations. The lack of effective process planning and optimisation solutions that are adaptive to the dynamics inherent in modern manufacturing processes is one of the major barriers limiting companies in implementing manufacturing sustainability, as well as making it difficult for them to remain competitive in terms of quality and productivity.
In this research, an innovative process planning optimisation system for sustainable machining processes has been developed, and mechanisms for the improvement of adaptability and responsiveness to dynamics have been designed in the system. Three key performance indicators in manufacturing – energy efficiency for production, product production quality, and productivity – have been incorporated into the system to be modelled as a multi-objective optimisation problem. Critical process parameters that affect the performance indicators, including surface roughness, spindle speed, cutting speed, step-over and tool-path patterns for machining features, have been taken into account as variables of the optimisation modelling. As the variables are highly associated with the dynamics of manufacturing processes, real-time monitoring on the variables for test parts is critical in order to ensure the effectiveness of sustainable process planning for production.
In the system, a portable wireless sensor platform has been mounted into machine-tool systems for real-time data acquisition of key variables. Neural Networks have then been employed to establish the relationships between the variables and performance indicators adaptively, while a Pattern Search algorithm, Simulated Annealing algorithm and Genetic Algorithm have been developed and benchmarked in order to identify the most effective optimisation method for optimising process plans. With the sensor networks and intelligent algorithms, the system can realise real-time data collection and reasoning. Experimental tests and case studies show that over 30% of energy can be saved from an optimised process plan compared to randomly generated plans. Comprehensive industrial trials in two manufacturing companies in the UK and Sweden are on-going. The research has been sponsored by the EU FP7 CAPP-4-SMEs and SMARTER projects, which aim to develop flagship process planning and demonstration platforms for the future factories of EU towards sustainability.
[1] Balogun V.A. and Mativenga P.T. (2013): Modelling of direct energy requirements in mechanical machining processes, Journal of Cleaner Production, 41, pp. 179-186.
[2] Bunse K., et al. (2011): Integrating energy efficiency performance in production management – gap analysis between industrial needs and scientific literature, Journal of Cleaner Production, 19, pp. 667-679.
175
Re-shoring UK Manufacturing Activities. An Investigation of decision making criteria in respect of Supply Chain Management
Hamid Moradlou1, Chris Backhouse1
1 Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough,
United Kingdom LE11 3TU
*[email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
As a result of globalization and a dynamic business environment, the manufacturing sectors are obliged to co-operate within far more complicated and longer supply chains than in the past. Therefore since mid-20th century, the offshoring trend for jobs and manufacturing facilities has gained significant popularity for the purpose of cost reduction [1]. The movement for off-shoring the labor-intensive manufacturing tasks to the low-cost countries, namely east Europe and Asia, has been well investigated within the industries as well as academia [2], [3]. According to Porter and Rivkin [4] the decision on offshoring, in many cases, is based on what could potentially save the most overhead cost without considering the long-term influences that the decision could ultimately have on the organization performance. However over the past years, the evidence indicates that offshoring strategies may not continue to be beneficial for the organization’s manufacturing activities [5] [6]. As a result, in the current year, the companies have begun to establish a better understanding of the total cost and base their manufacturing location decisions on supply chain issue and strategic factors rather than simply relying on cost [3]. Once the discrepancy between the initially estimated cost of offshoring and those of actually occurred resulted from the “hidden costs” is comprehended, there is more tendency on reversing the off-shoring strategy. This phenomenon is known as “re-shoring” [6] [3].
Despite the significance of this phenomenon, the supply chain literature has not received sufficient attention by the academics [7]. The objective of this study is to identify the key factors which influence the manufacturing decision making process. In order to address these challenges this study focuses on Intelli-sourcing in which the local knowledge and global networks are combined and encourages establishment of relationships in the supply chain that enable collaborative cost reduction even when exchange rates diverts the sourcing costs in the wrong direction [8].
This paper consists of a detailed literature review introducing different types of re-shoring strategies as well as the reasons that drive decisions for re-shoring entire or part of the production units.
[1] Manuj, I; Mentzer, J;, “Global Supply Chain Risk Management,” Journal of Business Logistics, 2008.
[2] L. Fratocchi, “Manufacturing Back-Shoring: A Research Agenda for an Emerging Issue in International Business,” 37th European International Business Academy Annual Conference, 2011.
[3] Ellram, L; Tate, W; Petersen, K;, “Offshoring and reshoring: an Update on the Manufacturing Location Decision,” Journal of Supply Chain Management, 2013.
[4] Porter, M., & Rivkin, J., “Choosing the United states,” Harvard Business, 2012.
[5] Fratocchi, l; Mauro, C; Barbieri, P; Nassimbeni, G; Zanoni, A;, “When Manufacturing Moves Back: Concepts and questions,” Journal of Purchaing and Supply Management, 2014.
[6] Gray, J; Skowronski, K; Esenduran, G; Rungtusanatham, J;, “The reshoring Phenomenon: What Supply Chain Academics ought to know and should do,” Journal of Supply Chain Management, 2013.
[7] L. Ellram, “Offshoring, Reshoring and Manufacturing location decision,” Journal of Supply Chain Management Internationalization, 2013.
[8] C. Fine, “Intelli-sourcing to replace offshoring as supply chain transparency increases,” Journal of Supply Chain Management, 2013.
[9] Kinkel, S; Maloca, S;, “Drivers and actecedents of manufacturing offshoring and backshoring- A German perspective,” Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, 2009.
176
Massive scale up of size-selected nanoparticle production for catalysis
Richard E Palmer
Nanoscale Physics Research Laboratory, University of Birmingham, U.K. [email protected]; www.nprl.bham.ac.uk
Abstract
The controlled deposition of size-selected nanoclusters, assembled from atoms in the gas phase, is a novel route to the fabrication of functional materials including catalysts, coatings, batteries, biochips etc. Several of these applications are limited by the current throughput of current, state-of-the-art technology: the cluster beam sources available offer excellent size-selection but far rom adequate flux. With EPSRC support (Established Career Fellowship) we have embarked on a highly ambitious project which aims to scale-up the production rate by 6-9 orders of magnitude: this would allow, for example, the industrial-level production of pharmaceutical catalysts. So far we have achieved the first 2 orders of magnitude, based on a new concept for nanoparticle production called “Matrix Assembly”. This presentation will review the technical progress to date, the outstanding challenges, the disruptive business opportunities which may be enabled by the new technology and the prospects for effective knowledge transfer within the UK.
177
Green Manufacturing of Functional Nanomaterials: case study of silica
Joseph Manning, Yashodhan Gokhale, Craig Drummond and Siddharth V. Patwardhan*
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ
*[email protected] www.svplab.com
Abstract
The invention of mesoporous silicas, which offer well-defined and tunable pores with applications in medicine, separations and catalysis, has led to 20,000+ citations. However, because their synthesis is complex, multistep and energy intensive, they have been difficult to scale-up. We have invented an alternate green chemistry for silica synthesis1 and this presentation will demonstrate scaling-up bioinspired synthesis from mg to g-kg as a first step towards the manufacturing of functional nanomaterials.2 We will also demonstrate their applications in a wide ranging sectors such as drug delivery, biocatalysis and environmental decontamination.
We will present results from our efforts towards scale-up manufacturing of bioinspired silica. A new, more industry-relevant method of mixing was investigated, and its effect on the extent of reaction was demonstrated. While using the larger vessel was found to decrease the precursor conversion and reproducibility over the smaller-scale method, carefully designed mixing was found to revert both of these to previous levels. Additionally, a method of post-processing was assessed to determine its effect on the character of the nanomaterials produced. Post-processing by acid quenching affected the structure, morphology and porosity of the silica produced. These results and on-going research will help us understand the correlation between manufacturing parameters, nanomaterials properties and their performance – a key to de novo design of novel materials.
Designs of industrial scale systems for both the existing process and the bioinspired process were prepared and their detailed economic feasibility confirmed green manufacturing as a promising alternative.3 Furthermore, the green process was estimated to reduce the manufacturing carbon footprint by over 90%, mainly by reduced energy requirements in the silica formation reactions, while enabling better control and tailorability of nanomaterials properties.
1. Patwardhan, S.V. Biomimetic and bioinspired silica: recent developments and applications. Chem. Commun., 2011, 47, 7567-7582.
2. Patwardhan, S. V. and Perry, C. C. Synthesis of Enzyme and Quantum Dot in Silica by Combining Continuous Flow and Bioinspired Routes. Silicon, 2010, 2, 33-39.
3. Drummond, C., McCann, R. & Patwardhan, S. V. A Feasibility Study of the Biologically Inspired Green Manufacturing of Precipitated Silica. Chem. Eng. J., 2014, 244, 483-492.
178
Developing Reconfigurable Recycling Processes to Support Closed-Loop Economy
Pringle. T*, Barwood. M, Sheldrick, L and Rahimifard. S
Centre for Sustainable Manufacturing and Recycling Technologies (SMART),
Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK
*Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU. [email protected]
Abstract
Availability and access to raw materials is one the most critical challenges facing future manufacturing applications. The concept of closed-loop economy has recently been introduced to promote reclamation and recovery of material content from end-of-life product waste for further reuse. However at present, in most recycling applications, material quality is often downgraded (down-cycled) which severely limits the scope for further use of the recycled materials, and only results in ‘prolonging’ the use of materials before having to send them to landfill. Therefore, the vision of a ‘continuous approach’ for recycling and reusing materials will require significant improvement in our recycling technologies, processes and applications.
In this context, reconfigurable processes are playing an increasingly vital role in improving the flexibility of manufacturing systems. Such processes have a number of key characteristics and provide various benefits including: modularity, scalability, customisability, convertibility, integrability and diagnosability. This poster explores the application of these key characteristics within recycling systems, towards significantly improving the quality of recycled materials (up–cycling). The example of ‘footwear recycling’ has been used to demonstrate the requirements and potential benefits for such reconfigurable recycling processes. Worldwide footwear production reached 21 billion pairs in 20111
with an estimated 10% of this global figure recovered for reuse and recycling 2. This represents a significant opportunity for improving recycling systems and processes within this industry, in particular in applications where a wide range of material mixtures within post-consumer product waste needs to be sorted, separated and recycled.
A laboratory-scale footwear recycling system has been developed and implemented at Loughborough University, which consists of a number of different fragmentation and post-fragmentation separation technologies. The number and range of required recycling processes in this system is greatly influenced by a) the range and mix of post-consumer footwear waste that is being recycled, b) the intended secondary use for these recycled materials (a secondary application that requires a higher quality of recycled material will require a greater level of processing), and c) operational costs and revenues which will determine long-term economic sustainability. This highlights the need for a range of reconfigurable recycling processes that could be combined in different permutations and sequences to provide the flexibility to process a variety of post-consumer footwear products.
1. (APICCAPS, World Footwear Yearbook, 2012)
2. (Bartlett et al., Textiles flow and Market development opportunities in the UK, 2012)
179
Building resilient, self-healing electronics using time-dependant cyclic reconfiguration logic
P. Schiefer1*, R. McWilliam1, and A. Purvis1
1 School of Engineering and Computing Sciences, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham,
DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
Abstract
Every high value item like aircrafts, cars, trains and complex industry installation contain a significant number of electronic control units (ECUs). For instance high value cars contain sometimes 70 or more ECUs for different functionalities and safety related application. In case of a fault occurring within one unit the functionality of the whole car can become unstable or loss of function may occur. Faults within a given ECU can be of permanent or temporal nature. Permanent electrical faults can be of the kind of single transistor defects and changes the effected logic circuit. A common type of fault is stuck-at low (SAL) or stuck-at high (SAH). Temporal faults manifest as non-permanent alterations of logic information. This type of faults is caused by a bombardment of the chip with high energy particles which alter the logic level of a single transistor and in this regards the output of this particular logic gate. In this case the temporal event is called a single event upset (SEU). For coping with this kind of fault novel concepts of self-healing are developed to maintain a functional ECU.
We are part of the EPSRC Innovative Centre for Through Life Engineering Services and we are investigating self-healing strategies for electrical and electronics systems. Our self-healing strategies require detection, test and repair with a focus on self-* capability. The function of testing is incorporated in the application block build-in self-test (BIST) and repair is utilized in the block built-in self-repair (BISR). These blocks perform the task of self-healing within a given logic circuit structure and use pre-defined stand-by logic elements. Self-healing is triggered by self-detection of a fault within a given logic structure. Our concept for self-detection uses time dependant cyclic reconfiguration of a specific logic structure, which we are describing as round-robin approach, in accordance to a pre-specified pattern. By using this approach, faults within one logic-cluster are identified by a unique fault pattern reflected in the individual output results. An example of a fault pattern analysis is presented in Figure 1 for a SAH fault injection at variable circuit location. Through the fault pattern presented in Figure 1 and the knowledge of the round-robin reconfiguration pattern, the logic cluster within this logic structure can be identified and BISR removes the faulty logic unit by activating a replacement logic cluster.
Figure 1: Accumulated output evaluation data after SAH fault injection at variable circuit locations
180
Power Consumption Analysis in the Machining of Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy
A. Shokrani1*, V. Dhokia1, and S.T. Newman1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
*Email: [email protected]
Abstract
Due to the excessive heat generation and poor thermal conductivity, machining titanium and it alloys has always been considered a challenge. One of the most common approaches to control the generated heat in machining titanium alloys is using a generous amount of cutting fluids. However, there are evidences indicating that flood cooling is not always beneficial for improving machinability of heat resistant alloys. Moreover, traditional cutting fluids are known to be environmentally hazardous substances [1]. Over the last few years, cryogenic cooling using liquefied gases has attracted a significant body of research as an environmentally friendly alternative to flood cooling. The majority studies on cryogenic machining stated that cryogenic cooling has significantly improved the machinability of titanium alloy through improved tool life and surface finish [2]. However, there is a lack of studies on the effects of the machining environment on the power consumption of the machine tool [2].
A total of 27 machining experiments were conducted under three machining environments namely, dry, flood and cryogenic at various combinations of cutting parameters. The machining experiments consisted of end milling of aerospace grade Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy using coated solid carbide cutting tools whilst the total power consumption of the machine tool was monitored. A Gaussian filter was used to remove noise from measured data and the filtered data was used for statistical analysis. As shown in figure 1, irrespective of cutting parameters, power consumption in flood cooling is significantly higher than dry and cryogenic machining. Analysis indicated that power and energy consumption in flood cooling is 40% to 80% higher than dry and cryogenic machining. This is attributed to the power consumption of the coolant pump.
Further statistical comparison of power consumption in dry and cryogenic machining indicated that cryogenic machining increases the power consumption by a maximum of 4%. The study indicated that whilst the power consumption in cryogenic machining was slightly lower (1%) than dry machining at lower feed rate (0.03mm/tooth), it was higher at higher feed rates of 0.055mm/tooth and 0.1mm/tooth. This can be explained by the fact that at lower feed rates, the cutting operation can benefit from a lubrication effect of liquid nitrogen whilst it evaporates faster at higher feed rates and fails to reach the cutting zone.
Furthermore, at higher cutting speeds, dry machining benefits from material softening as a result of heat generation at the cutting zone which results in lower cutting forces and thus power consumption. Since dry machining of titanium alloy is limited to low cutting speeds and feed rates, cryogenic machining has been shown to have significant potential for reducing power consumption at higher cutting speeds and feed rates, typically used in current industrial practice.
1. Shokrani, A., Dhokia, V., Newman S.T., 2012. Environmentally conscious machining of difficult-to-machine materials with regards to cutting fluids, Int. J. Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol.57, pp.83-101.
2. Shokrani. A, Dhokia, V., Muñoz-Escalona, P., Newman S.T, 2013. State-of-the-art cryogenic machining and processes. Int. J. Computer Integrated Manufacturing, vol. 26(7), pp.616-648.
181
Eco-intelligent multi-sensor monitoring system for wastewater assessment and fouling detection for cleaning-in-place processes
A. Simeone1*, E. B. Woolley1 and S. Rahimifard1
1 Centre for Sustainable Manufacturing and Recycling Technologies Loughborough University,
Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
* Correspondent author: [email protected]
Abstract
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) is a widely used technique applied to clean industrial equipment without disassembly. Optimisation of CIP processes is based on operator or company experience without scientific evidence and is therefore prone to significant inefficiencies. This results in excessive water, energy, and material consumption as well extended process times and therefore leads to higher environmental impacts. Such inefficiencies are common due to the lack of monitoring tools hence in this research a multi-sensor monitoring system has been developed to assist in eco-intelligent process control of CIP leading to improved utilisation of resources whilst minimising waste streams. The system consists of two main components:
1. A real-time wastewater monitoring kit comprising of three individual sensors, which are a turbidity sensor, a refractometer and a pH sensor. The quality of the wastewater can be evaluated by the refractometer which gives information about the dissolved substances in the wastewater, while the suspended particles can be identified and quantified by a turbidity sensor. The pH sensor measures the acidity of the water to determine the presence of detergent;
2. An optical tank fouling monitor provided by a fisheye camera endowed with UV lighting system acquires digital images during all the phases of tank CIP process, allowing for the detection of fouling.
The experimental work consisted in monitoring system setup, data acquisition on both the wastewater and the tank inner surface and a design of experiments in order to get a statistical validation of the CIP effectiveness. Data and image processing techniques were adopted to retrieve information useful to be fed into an intelligent decision making support system for the automatic cleaning assessment throughout all the stages of the CIP process.
This multi sensor monitoring system is versatile and so can be used on a wide range of applications, for which individual sensors can be specified to optimise the efficiency of the CIP. Significant water and energy savings have been recorded by the implementation of this system.
1. Goode, Kylee R., et al. "Fouling and Cleaning Studies in the Food and Beverage Industry Classified by Cleaning Type." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 12.2 (2013): 121-143.
2. A.J. Van Asselt, G. Van Houwelingen, M.C. Te Giffel, Monitoring System for Improving Cleaning Efficiency of Cleaning-in-Place Processes in Dairy Environments, Food and Bioproducts Processing, Volume 80, Issue 4, December 2002, Pages 276-280, ISSN 0960-3085.
3. Kathryn A. Whitehead, Lindsay A. Smith, Joanna Verran, The detection of food soils and cells on stainless steel using industrial methods: UV illumination and ATP bioluminescence, International Journal of Food Microbiology, Volume 127, Issues 1–2, 30 September 2008, Pages 121-128, ISSN 0168-1605
4. Wallhäußer, E.et al., Clean or not clean - Detecting fouling in heat exchangers. DOI 10.5162/sensor2013/A5.4
5. Roy, K. et al., 2014, Multivariate statistical monitoring as applied to clean-in-place (CIP) and steam-in-place (SIP) operations in biopharmaceutical manufacturing, Biotechnology Progress, Volume 30, Issue 2, pages 505–515.
182
Improvement of System Design Process for Whole Life Cost Reduction
P. Sydor1, P. John1, E. Shehab1, T. Mackley1, A. Harrison2
1EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Through-life Engineering Services Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK
[email protected] 2 Engineering for Services, Rolls-Royce PLC, Derby, DE24 8BJ, UK
Abstract
The requirements and architectural choices made in the early stages of the product development lifecycle are critical to further design and realisation decisions. Therefore, these should provide the lowest risk option compatible with achievement of the overall business and customer requirements, taking into account past experience and the perceived levels of challenge relative to established product pedigree.
The presented research study is carried out in collaboration between Cranfield University and Rolls-Royce with the focus on aircraft Civil Large Engines (CLE) requirements setting processes and the early stage of architecture design processes.
The aim of this project is to propose a method to improve the system design process to achieve whole life cost reduction. This research also investigates what impact design decisions at the system level have on the whole life cost (WLC) and identifies the key cost drivers.
The key deliverable is to define process of mapping high level requirements, e.g. time on wing (TOW), cost per flying hour ($/FH), reliability, etc., into requirements that are both manageable for designers and that embed risk factors; where the risk factors represent the likelihood and consequence of failure to deliver a system to a given set of requirements, especially for novelty and new design.
As a result a set of generic steps and recommendations will be proposed to improve the systems design process.
Keywords: System life-cycle, Whole-life cycle cost, System design
183
Requirement Setting Methodology to Improve System Design for Life-Cycle Cost Reduction
X. Tomas1, E. Shehab1, P. Sydor1, T. Mackley1, P. John1, A. Harrison2
1EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Through-life Engineering Services Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK
[email protected] 2 Engineering for Services, Rolls-Royce PLC, Derby, DE24 8BJ, UK
Abstract
The design of modern aircraft engines relies heavily on technological advances. In response to pressures from customers and competitors for improvements in efficiency of performance, scheduling and overall cost reduction, manufacturers are being forced to consider innovative solutions. These innovative solutions often come with higher risks and the need for risk assessment, especially at the early product and service design stage, becomes a necessity.
Decisions at an early stage of the lifecycle, e.g. during the conceptual design, are made with relatively low confidence, but such decisions greatly influence the overall product and service development. It is, therefore, critical to define the risks involved in order to help designers to make informed decisions. This research project investigates the risk and uncertainties in delivering products to meet top-level business requirements. The aim is to improve the existing process of setting business requirements and the current design approaches to achieve an optimised system design. This project also examines different approaches in assessing the risk of product and service delivery. To achieve that, a dedicated software tool, based on Weibull distribution function reliability model, has been created.
An example of Rolls-Royce Civil Large Engine (CLE) gas turbine design process is used in this research as the case study. An analysis of the gap between the current design achievements and the targeted business requirements of a new product is performed at whole engine, module and component level. Further comparison of the new product business requirements, the novelty in the design and the historical reliability data is used to define and asses the risk of new product delivery.
184
A method of green manufacturing of Orthoses based on reconfigurable moulds utilizing screw-pins
Y. Wang1*, Y. He2, and Y. Ai2
1 Department of Engineering and product development, University of Brighton, UK
2 State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission, Chongqing University, China *[email protected]
Abstract
Orthoses are important tools to help patients recover in the clinical environment as well as the disables and elderly live independently. Currently, the manufacturing of orthoses involves the manufacturing of one negative and one positive casts which is time and labour intensive, dirty and messy. As orthoses are generally made with specifications for individual patients, thus are considered to be one-of-a-kind dedicated moulds. The usage of the moulds is very low and it needs huge amount of storage space for used casts. In addition, as the material of casts is natural plaster, they have to be disposed instead of recycled after using, leading to natural resource depletion and landfill problems.
Based on previous experiences in the reconfigurable fixtures and tools for aerospace applications, [1,2] this research is aimed at replacing traditionally dedicated moulds with reconfigurable moulds. Screw-pins that are directly transferred to the vacuum forming of thermoplastic materials are utilized to eliminate the plaster casts. The proposed solution involves the use of a scanner to capture the geometry of a patient’s anatomy which is then used to produce a vacuum formed cast directly. The research is focused on two aspects: (a) the design of reconfigurable moulds tailed for the application of orthese using lower limb orthese as case study; The advance and locking mechanisms of the reconfigurable screw pins, and specifications such as the mould size, and the size and number of pins for the specific application are investigated; (b) the supporting tools for the design of reconfigurable moulds. Algorithm for automatic calculation of the height deviation of previous and current geometry of low limb anatomy to facilitate G code generation for the advance of individual pins are developed; Due to the similarity of the geometry of human body anatomy, the parameters used for one patient are very similar to that used by other patient, thus a database is under development for the record of optimised parameters for scanning such as scanning speed and number of point clouds, machining of screw pins including cutting speed, feed rate and cutting depth to achieve the machining efficiency and quality, and vacuum forming to reduce human inferences;
The proposed new process of orthoses manufacturing is clean, fast and convenient, and environmental problems caused by plaster cast are minimized to realize the green manufacturing.
[1] Y. Wang, Z. Wang, N. Gindy, “Automated discrete-pin adjustment for reconfigurable moulding machine”, International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, Vol 23, Pages 229-236 , 2010
[2] I. Garry; Y. Wang et al, “Work support”, US patent, patent number: 7,581,722, 2008
185
AUTHOR INDEX
Name Page No Poster No Name Page No Poster No Abir, J, 147 P055 Feng, J 69 P016 Afsharizand, B 148 P056 Fleming, L 122 P101 Agimelen, O 149 P057 Flynn, J 71 P017 Agnew, L 52 P001 Fu, R 124 P102 Allmendinger, R 53 P002 Gans, T 152 P060 Aremu, A 111 P090 Garcia-Garcia, G 125 P103 Attallah, M 38 Geng, Z 72 P018 Bamiduro, F 112 P091 Gerogiorgis, D 73 P019 Baraka, A 40 Gerontas, S 153 P061 Barekar, N 54 P003 Gimeno-Fabra, M 74 P020 Bastock, P 5 P004 Gomes, R 75 P021 Baxendale, M 113 P092 Gonzalez Lozano, G 126 P104 Benning, M 56 P005 Guillot, M 76 P022 Bhagurkar, A 114 P093 Halliwell, R 77 P023 Bigot, S 57 P006 Hand, D 17 Bitharas, I 58 P007 Harrison, D 171 P076 Brackett, D 59 P008 Harrison, P 172 P077 Bradley, T 19 Hewitson, P 78 P024 Chakroun, N 150 P058 Hofmann, S 12 Chan, C W 115 P094 Hu, Q 128 P105 Chaplin, J 60 P009 Hussein, S 79 P025 Chen, Y C 27 Jain, D 48 Chen, Y 116 P095 Jawor-Baczynska, A 7 Clare, A 36 Jin, Y 155 P062 Claypole, T 62 P010 Joshi, U 80 P026 Cockburn, A 169 P074 Kalt, E 37 Coopman, K 117 P096 Kang, P 129 P106 Cubillo, A 63 P011 Kavade, R 81 P027 Dabrowska, N 118 P097 Khan, K 82 P028 Das, S 64 P012 Kim, BC 83 P029 Dharmaraj, K 23 Kiran, M 156 P063 Dryfe, R 13 Kirschneck, D 84 P030 Dunn, A 65 P013 Kirwan, K 173 P078 Dunn, J 119 P098 Klapwijk, A 130 P107 Dziewierz, J 151 P059 Kotadia, H 85 P031 Eason, R 21 Kotsis, S 157 P064 Elhady, A 120 P099 Lawton, L 131 P108 Elrawemi, M 66 P014 Li, K 41 Engstrom, D 121 P100 Li, W 174 P079 Evans, S 44 McGlone, T 132 P109 Falsafi, J 170 P075 McLachlan, H 133 P110 Feinaeugle, M 68 P015 Mabbott, F 134 P111
186
Mackenzie, A 20 Sydor, P 182 P087 Manorathna, P 86 P032 Tachtatzis, C 163 P069 Maropoulos, P 87 P033 Tang, D 164 P070 Martina, F 28 Tang, G 106 P051 Martinez-Marcos, L 88 P034 Terrazas, G 25 Mattevi, C 14 Tomas, X 183 P088 Maurotto, A 89 P035 Tully, F 140 P117 Meco, S 90 P036 Usman, Z 165 P071 Moradlou, H 175 P080 Vautravers, A 32 Mukhtar, N F H 135 P112 Vukovic, N 141 P118 Munguia, J 91 P037 Wang, Y 184 P089 O'Reilly, J 9 Ward, C 143 P119 Palmer, R 176 P081 Wheeler, J 45 Pardal, G 136 P113 Williams, S 16 Patel, J 137 P114 Williamson, J 34 Patwardhan, S 177 P082 Wittering, K 10 Pavuluri, S 92 P038 Wlodarczyk, K 107 P052 Perciballi, F 93 P039 Yan, F 144 P120 Potluri, P 30 Yang, H 108 P053 Potter, K 94 P040 Yang, Y 166 P072 Powell, K 95 P041 Yu, H 145 P121 Pringle, T 178 P083 Yu, K 33 Redding, L 46 Yu, N 109 P054 Robertson, K 96 P042 Zhang, X 167 P073 Robertson, M 24 Robinson, T 158 P065 Rodgers, T 97 P043 Rodrigues, N 49 Roy, A 98 P044 Rubio, L 159 P066 Saiz, E 14 Salamati, M 99 P045 Sanchez, A 42 Sandoghchi, R 138 P115 Saunders, R 139 P116 Schiefer, P 179 P084 Segura, M 100 P046 Shardlow, P 101 P047 Sheridan, R 102 P048 Shi, L 160 P067 Shokrani, A 180 P085 Simeone, A 181 P086 Su, Q 162 P068 Sule, J 103 P049 Sullo, A 104 P050
187
DELEGATE LIST
Surname First Name Organisation Abdi Meisam EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Additive
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Afsharizand Behnood University of Bath Agimelen Okpeafoh
Stephen EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
Agnew Lauren EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
Al-Afandi Albarah EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
Allmendinger Richard EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Emergent Macromolecular Therapies
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Engineering Barker Fiona Inventya Ltd Barton Alastair Alconbury Weston Ltd Bastock Paul Optoelectronics Research Centre Baxendale Mark Queen Mary University of London Benning Matthew EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical
Devices Beynon David Welsh Centre for Printing & Coating Swansea University Bhagurkar Ashutosh EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Liquid Metal
Engineering Bhardwaj Rajni EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
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188
Black Kate University of Liverpool Bradley Thomas Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of
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Manufacturing and Crystallisation Breslin Catherine University of Strathclyde Briuglia Maria EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
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Manufacturing Clark Catriona IBioIC Claydon-Smith Mark EPSRC Claypole Tim Welsh Centre for Printing & Coating Swansea University Cleary Alison EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
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Coopman Karen EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Regenerative Medicine
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and Manufacturing Elhady Ahmed University of the West of Scotland Elrawemi Mohamed EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Advanced
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190
Ferguson Veronica EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Laser-based Production Processes
Firth Paul Alconbury Weston Ltd Fisher John EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical
Devices Fleming Jim EPSRC Fleming Lauren University of Dundee Florence Alastair EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
Manufacturing and Crystallisation Flynn Joseph University of Bath Foote Peter EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Composites Foster Tim EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Food France Richard University of Sheffield Frawley Dee Dee EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Industrial
Sustainability Fu Richard University of the West of Scotland Fuller Sophie EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Ultra
Precision Gans Timo University of York Gao Feng EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Advanced
Metrology Garcia Garcia Guillermo EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Food Garcia-Tunon Blanca
Esther Imperial College London
Gaunt Nigel Mettler Toledo Ltd Geng Zunmin University of Sheffield Gerogiorgis Dimitrios University of Edinburgh Gerontas Spyros EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Emergent
Macromolecular Therapies Giaracuni Enza EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Ultra
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Electronics Gimeno-Fabra Miquel University of Nottingham Gokhale Yashodhan University of Strathclyde Gomes Rachel University of Nottingham Gonzalez Lozano Gustavo Cranfield University Grant Rowan EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Medical
Devices Gray Lorna EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
Manufacturing and Crystallisation Gregory Mike EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous
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Halliwell Rebecca EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation
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192
Joshi Utsavi EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Liquid Metal Engineering
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193
Manorathna Prasad EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Intelligent Automation
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196
Shephard Jonathan EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Laser Based Production Processes
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Southampton Walport Mark HM Government
197
Wang Yun EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Liquid Metal Engineering
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HostsThe Conference is hosted by the EPSRC Centre for Innovative Manufacturing in Continuous Manufacturing and Crystallisation. The 2015 Conference will be hosted by the Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge.