many thanks to –merci – diina jogehëfi – danke...21/09/2017 1 organic multilingualism and its...

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21/09/2017 1 Organic multilingualism and its significance for language documentation and descriptive linguistics Friederike Lüpke [email protected] SOAS, University of London Many thanks to – merci – diina jogehëfi – danke All research participants in Agnack, Djibonker, Brin & Essil Alexander Cobbinah Samantha Goodchild Rachel Watson AlainChristian Bassène Chelsea Krajcik Miriam Weidl AnneLaure Vieillé Abbie Hantgan The Crossroads transcribers Aime Cesaire Biagui, Alpha Mane, Laurent Manga, Jeremie Sagna, Lina Sagna & David Sagna Alexander Cobbinah Approaching organic multilingualism Fishman’s famous typology + + Both diglossia and bilingualism Bilingualism without diglossia Diglossia without bilingualism Neither bilingualism nor diglossia Diglossia Bilingualism

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Page 1: Many thanks to –merci – diina jogehëfi – danke...21/09/2017 1 Organic multilingualism and its significance for language documentation and descriptive linguistics Friederike

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1

Organic multilingualism and its significance for language documentation and descriptive linguistics

Friederike Lü[email protected]

SOAS, University of London

Many thanks to – merci – diinajogehëfi – danke

All researchparticipants in Agnack, Djibonker,  Brin & Essil

Alexander Cobbinah

Samantha Goodchild

Rachel Watson

Alain‐Christian  Bassène

Chelsea Krajcik

Miriam Weidl

Anne‐Laure Vieillé

Abbie Hantgan

The Crossroads transcribersAime Cesaire Biagui, Alpha Mane, Laurent Manga, JeremieSagna, Lina Sagna & David Sagna

Alexander Cobbinah

Approaching organic multilingualism

Fishman’s famous typology

+ ‐

+ Both diglossiaand bilingualism

Bilingualism without diglossia

‐ Diglossiawithout bilingualism

Neither bilingualism nor diglossia

Diglossia

Bilingualism

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Bilingualism without diglossia

• In situations of “rapid social change, of great social unrest, of widespread abandonment of prior norms before the consolidation of new ones” (Fishman 1967: 87)

• “prone to be unstable and transitional” (1967: 87)

?Many new interactional approaches

Focus on Western societies or urban contexts

Areas of bi‐ or multilingualism without di‐ or polyglossia

Vaupeś basin (Epps & Stenzel 2013, Stenzel 2005, Chernela 2013, Aikhenvald

2002)

Casamance (Lüpke 2010, Cobbinah 2010, Lüpke & Storch 2013, Lüpke forthcoming a, b and c, Cobbinah, Hantgan, Lüpke & Watson forthcoming, etc.)

Grassfields (Di Carlo 2012, Good & Di Carlo 2014, Di Carlo forthcoming, Good forthcoming)

Nortwestern Arnhem land (Singer & Harris forthcoming)

Upper Xingu (Franchetto2011, Ball 2011)

Northern Vanuatu (François 2012)

Papua New Guinea (Döhler p.c, Aikhenvald2008, Evans in prep., Schokkin in prep.)

Suriname and French Guyana (Migge & Léglise 2013)

The non‐diglossic bilingualism name game

Non‐polyglossic multilingualism (Aikhenvald 2007)

Rural multilingualism (Di Carlo 2015)

Small‐scale multilingualism (Singer & Harris 

forthcoming), Lüpke forthcoming a, b and c)

Traditional multilingualism (Di Carlo forthcoming)

Egalitarian multilingualism (François 2012)

Indigenous multilingualism 

(Singer to appear)

Organic multilingualism

Endogenous multilingualism (di Carlo in prep.)

Meaningful geographic settings for organic multilingualism

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• Frontier societies (Kopytoff 1987)

• Areas without centralised polities or state formations

• Refuge zones at the fringes of states (marshlands, hills, mountains…)

• Areas not massively exposed to Western monolingual language ideologies and settlement colonisation

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The role of organic multilingualism• Frontier contexts require multiple and flexible alliances between groups conceptualised as distinct.

• Social exchange (of women, children, captives, labourers…) creates intensely multilingual societies.

• Different languages index sameness or difference according to context to enable these exchanges and their adaptivity.

Organic multilingualism is motivated by changing social needs and not regulated by 

top‐down processes.

A snapshot on the Vaupès basin

Invisible but necessary multilingualism

Linguistic exogyny

• “If we were all Tukano speakers, where would we get our women?” (Chernela 2013: 34)

• The preferential crossed cousin marriage results in women marrying into villages where their matrilect is spoken

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Monolingual ideologies of multilingualism

Practices

• Adults are expected to speak their patrilect

• Children initially grow up speaking their matrilect but are discouraged from speaking it as they grow older

• Strong constraints on code‐mixing and little lexical borrowing

• Code alternation and speaking of the matrilect (for women) or of the wife’s patrilect (for men) does occur in practice

Ideologies

• Distinguish between patrilect, matrilect and alterlect

• Patrilect is identity language and only lgcounted as one’s language

• Keeping languages distinct is paramount for marriability

Tariana speakers have a more accomodatinghabitus, which ultimately resulted in language shift

A snapshot of the Upper Xingu area

A multilingual society with monolingual groups

Shared pragmatic principles among different monolingual 

groupsPractices

• Groups are endogamous without widespread multilingualism

• No lingua franca before the spread of Portuguese 

• Three levels of ethnolinguistic organization 

• A common calendar of cultural events and exchange

• Communication based on shared principles of complaint and respect

Ideologies

• Languages emblematizes identity

• Language ideology emphasises monolingualism

• Dualism between witchcraft and shamanism is integral to functioning of the system

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Three levels of societal organization

Language family

Karib Arawak Tupi Isolate

Kuikuru Yawalapiti Kamayurá Trumai

Kalapalo Wauja Aweti

Nahaukuwa Mehinaku

Upper X

ingu

 society

Level of language family

Level of individual language A snapshot of the Lower Fungom area

Multiple languages, multiple identities

• Villages nominally associated with one language

• Individuals speak 5‐6 languages and 8 to 10 lects

• Exogamy is common, and children receive dual identity based on father’s and mother’s father’s identity

• Identity reflected in names and linguistic competence

• Affinities to the village also expressed through indexical language choice

• Multiple alliances seen as necessary to gain protection against invisible threats, notably witchcraft

A snapshot of northern Vanuatu

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Egalitarian and reciprocal multilingualism

• Languages nominally associated with villages, but many individuals speak four or more languages

• Widespread exogamy widespread for both sexes (30% of unions)

• Reciprocal multilingualism,  mainly depending on the location of the household

• In about 60% of unions, women relocate to their husbands’ villages, in about 40% it’s the reverse

• Children of bilingual unions raised bilingually

• Practices rapidly changing, as Bislama gains more ground

A snapshot of Nortwestern Arnhem Land

Owning vs. speaking languages

Warruwi community is a multilingual community on South GoulburnIsland

Pre‐contact language‐land association

Languages spoken at Warruwi community are underlined

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Multilingual individuals with less multilingual ideologies

Practices• Widespread 

multilingualism in 4+ Indigenous languages, very little use of English

• Great individual variation

• Widespread receptive multilingualism pre‐empts massive code‐mixing and results in low levels of lexical borrowing

Ideologies

• Ideologies based on language ownership

• Each language associated with land

• This association gives indirectly rise to language ownership

• Three languages commomlycited as languages of Warruwi; Yolŋu‐matha languages are erased for older speakers

• This reflects older settlement patterns, but also the influence of the one tribe‐one nation ideology of outsiders

Creolisation and pidginisationcontexts

• New settlements: ‘street’ settlements in Casamance, regional cities not based on historical settlements

• Migration and urbanisation: in those instances where social networks are altered

• Massive influx of languages of wider communication: Cameroonian Pidgin English (Lower Fungom), Bislama (Vanuatu), Portuguese (Brazil)

• Forced resettlement under colonisation:  all of Australia and North America.

Organic multilingualism in the Casamance area of Senegal

Jóola Banjal can designate the language of an entire area or only the variety of the village of Banjal

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Pozdniakov & Segerer (forthcoming)

Languages at the field sites

French (Romance)Kriolu (Portuguese‐based)Mandinka (Mande)Bambara (Mande)

A child fostered in from outside the language area

A woman moved to another linguistic setting as part of a fertility ritual

Multilingual and mobile individuals

• Between 3 and 10 named languages spoken

• Repertoires are dynamic because of:– Fostering

– Marrying in/out

– Economic, religious and ritual mobility

• Old and new mobility patterns co‐exist

The Christian « Bainounk » Hélène Coly turned into the

Muslim « Mandinka » Teye Sukoas part of the gubos ritual.

Shared cultural practices

• Initiation rites • Masked dances• Fertility rituals

(kanyalen/gubos)• Exogyny• Wet rice cultivation• Religion (« path of the 

forebears », Christiantiyand Islam)

• Many rituals are timedacross the area and involveall groups, although theyhave ethnic labels

31

Sacred grove & mask dance performance in Niamone.

Places as ideological home bases for patrimonial languages

DjibonkerJi‐bëeher

A placeIts language

Baïnounk

Its affiliation with an (ethnic) group and/or a 

code

Gu‐bëeherBaïnounk‐Jóola

U‐/Ñan‐bëeher

Important: patrimonial 

deixis

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Patrimonial identity and language based on dualism (Brooks 1993)

Landlords

Strangers

Landlords: descendants of 

the (remembered) founding clan

Landlords have land rights and 

can receive strangersPatrimonial language associated with 

landlords;  strangers don’t claim this language, even if they speak it

Patrimonial identity and language based on selective ideologies

Many inhabitants of a place are ideologically erased from representing it.

(Male) descendants of founders

In‐married women

Strangers

Fostered children

Language and languaging at the Crossroads

The descriptive challenge: condensing ‘a language’ from variable discourse

Jóola Gubanjalay

Jóola Kujireray

Baïnounk Gubëeher

e‐tex

‘to hit’

bu‐deg

e‐teh

e‐teh

JS giving forms in Jóola Banjal

‘to hunt’

ja‐saw gu‐saw

ka‐saw

ga‐saw

Data from AbbieHantgan

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The solution: language prototypes as reference points

Speaker A

Speaker BSpeaker C

Kujireray

Speaker A

Speaker BSpeaker C

GubanjalaySpeaker A

Speaker BSpeaker C

Gubëeher

Overlaps between prototypes and degree of reification

JóolaKujireray

JóolaGubanjalay

BaïnounkGubëeher

Divergence area is 

where a code is reified

Emblematic areas in 

phonology and lexicon are 

differentiated, other areas converge

Through different styles (Eckert 2008), speakers metapragmatically (Silverstein 2003) index (patrimonial) identities according to context

Boundaries evoked by standard language culture close to imaginary prototypes

“No, mélanger ak olof barewul de. Mélanger ak Français, moo bare, mo gëna bare. Mélanger ak olof? No no no no.“

’No, there is not a lot of mixture [of  Casamance languages] with Wolof. The mixture with French, it is a lot, it is more. A mixture with Wolof? No no no no.’

39Data and photo from Mia Weidl

Language‐independent literacies are practiced

‘Guys of Brin, hi there.’

‘Hey, the monkeys, what are you saying?’

‘What have you been drinking that day?’

‘My guys, I like you.’

c

c

c

cc c

FrenchJóolaKujireray

Wolof English

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Reification as “strategic essentialism” for representing and creating intangible heritage

Different planes of identity creation

Nationally

Locally

Polyglossic multilingualism & ethnic federalism

Small‐scale Frontier setting

Dualism between insiders/first‐comers and outsiders/strangers 

governs ideologies 

Symbolic and strategic essentialism governs ideologies

The symbolic power of writing

• Wolof and French dominate the national linguistic market place.

• Speakers of other languages symbolically fight for the recognition of their languages as discrete codes in this polyglossic arena.

Baïnounk orthography workshop introducing the standard orthography 

based on Wolof

… that can’t reify the language itself

Extract from the statutes of the Baïnounk lobby organisation BOREPAB

Baïnounk Gubëeher

Baïnounk Gujaher

Baïnounk Guñaamolo

Baïnounk Gugëcer

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This participation in the polyglossic market place remains symbolic.

Publicity materials produced by Baïnounk activists

Symbolic ideologies and language practices don’t match

• While non‐ethnic Wolof invoke the “Wolofisation” of the country and symbolically react to it, this has no actual influence on their linguistic behaviour.

• Wolof is integrated into the multilingual repertoires according to adaptive situational needs.

Symbolic reaction to polyglossic setting at the national level 

Lived multilingualism following the 

egalitarian organic multilingualism 

patterns

Different planes of heritage creation

The Kankurang The Baïnounk languages

In the UNESCO register of intangible heritage

In the UNESCO memory of the world register

The symbolic power of fixing mask performances

• Claimed for and by Mandinka 

• Regulated by notables of all official ethnic stakeholders of Ziguinchor

• Attested throughout Casamance and Guinea Bissau in various guises and with different roles all related to social control

A Kankurang mask performance

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The symbolic power of folklore

A Kankurang “cultural dance” in the Gambia

Two regimes

Regime of revelation

Regime of recognition

(de Jong 2007) for the Kankurang

Requires invisibility

Requires visibility

Patrimonial identity based on contrast

Landlords

Strangers

Dualism defines domain in which the contrast is evoked.

In other domains, this 

identity remains 

invisible and inaudible.

Loss of spirituality in carnivalesqueperformances 

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Creative reappropriation Playfyl mimesis

Performers at a Kankurang festival playing journalists (de Jong 2007:  180)

Language and cultural heritage are imaginary reference points.

Languaging and heritaging happen in practice.

Ideological misunderstandings

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Insistence on code‐based literacies for actual use 

Jóola Gusilay Jóola Gubanjalay

Outlook

A universal (?) backdrop of processing demands resulting in convergence

Reciprocal multilingualism

Passive multilingualism

Receptive multilingualism

Ideological separation of codes

No ideological separation of codes

Ideological merger of some codes

Monolingualismpracticed all most group members

Monolingualismpracticed by many/ some group members

No monolingualismpracticed

MonolingualismMultilingualism

No code‐mixingLittle code‐mixingPervasive code‐mixingCode interaction

Pervasive‐ness of multilingua‐lism

Comprehen‐sion and production of codes

Construct‐ion of codes

Multilingual ideologies Partly erasing ideologies Monolingual ideologies Visibility of codes

Parameters

Most patterns of organic multilingualism and language contact worldwide remain unstudied.

Research focusses on polyglossia in settings involving at least one Western language.

Small‐scale multilingualism – “the primal human condition” (Evans 2012) – remains dramatically underresearched.

Organic multilingualism is predominantly characterised as language contact between neighbouring groups, although these groups are heterogeneous.

Multilingualism is often seen as endangering, but small‐scale multilingualism is globally endangered.

The relationships between language ideologies and language practice remain largely unknown.

Concepts of language in its different modalities differ according to the multilingual setting.

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Tomorrow

• Differentiated look at code interaction in different situational settings

• Microvariation and its role for documenting change in process

• Morphological complexity in multilingual settings