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MARINE FRONTIER@Unikl

MIMET TECHNICAL BULLETIN

VOLUME 4 EDITION 2 2013

MIMET TECHNICAL BULLETIN VOLUME 4 EDITION 2 2013

MARINE FRONTIER


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© 2013 Marine Frontier @ UniKL MIMET Technical Bulletin. This publication is copy-

right under Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology Universiti Kuala

Lumpur.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Permission is not, however, required

to copy abstracts of papers or of articles on condition that a full reference to the source is

shown.

Published by:

UniKL MIMET

Dataran Industri Teknologi Kejuruteraan Marin

Bandar Teknologi Maritim

Jalan Pantai Remis

32200 Lumut

Perak Darul Ridzuan

+(605)- 6909000(Phone)

+(605)-6909091(Fax)

[email protected]

http://www.mimet.edu.my

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.mimet.edu.my


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MESSAGE FROM ASSOC. PROF. ZAINORIN MOHAMAD

THE CHIEF EDITOR OF MARINE FRONTIER

1

A REVIEW OF MODULAR CONSTRUCTION AT LUMUT PORT by M. R.

ZOOLFAKAR, M. D. S. A. MANAF

2

AUTOMATED WEIGHT SHIFTING MODULE FOR INCLINING TEST OF

VESSEL BELOW 35 METRES by A. ISMAIL, M. H. KAMIT, M. S. M. TAHIR, B.

A. BAHARUDIN

10

REVIEW ON MULTI-RELAXATION-TIME LATTICE BOLTZMANN METHOD

(LABSWEMRT) AND INTRODUCTION OF LABSWETM WITH DISSIPATIVE

TERM (LABSWEDTM) BY M. I. S. IBRAMSAH, M. A. H. M. SAAD, S. H.

SHAFIAI, M. F. A. AHMAD

17

THE CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FEASIBLE SHORT SEA

SHIPPING PROJECT IN BIMP EAGA SUB-REGION by A. M. AROF

32

A REVIEW OF RICE HUSK ASH FILTER TO TREATMENT BILGE WATER by M. R. ZOOLFAKAR AND M. S. M. SHUKOR

44

ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE FAILURE OF BUTT JOINT SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC

LOADING by M. F. A. RAZAK

52

A REVIEW OF STANDARD OF TRAINING, CERTIFICATE, AND WATCHKEEP-

ING FOR FISHERMAN 1995 by M. R. ZOOLFAKAR AND M. T. A. RAHMAN

60

STEEL HULL CONSTRUCTION IN RELATION TO CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY

AND IACS SHIPBUILDING STANDARDS by F. AYOB

65

HEAT TRANSFER IN FUEL OIL TANK: AN INTRODUCTION by M. R. ZOOLFA-

KAR AND A. K. RAJAB

85

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR PRI-

VATE ENTERPRISE by M. N. USTADI AND P. N. H. M. A. RAHMAN

94

HULL FORM DESIGN STUDY FOR TRADITIONAL WOODEN BOAT IN

TERENGGANU by A. A. ROSLEE, S. E. A. HAMID AND M. N. MANSOR

108

A STUDY OF BALLAST SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION by M. R. ZOOLFA-

KAR AND M. N. MANSOR

115

INSIDE THIS ISSUE:

CHIEF EDITOR:

Assoc. Prof. Zainorin Mohamad

EXECUTIVE EDITOR:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Yuzri Mohd Yusop

COORDINATING EDITOR:

Dr. Siti Habibah Shafiai

EDITORS:

Assoc. Prof. Aminuddin Mohd Arof

Mr. Ahmad Azmeer Roslee

Mrs. Fauziah Ab Rahman

Mr. Hamdan Nuruddin

Mr. Aziz Abdullah

Dr. Redzuan Zoolfakar

Mrs. Shareen Adleena Shamsuddin

Mrs. Wan Suhailaliza Wan Mohd Hussin (Secretary)

EDITORIAL MEMBERS: Mrs. Norfadhlina Khalid,

Mrs. Maziah Mohd Ali & Puteri Zirwatul Nadila Binti

Megat Zamanhuri

GRAPHIC EDITORS: Mr. Azzahari Hamid & Mr.

Mohd Khairuddin Abdul Karim

EDITORIAL


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MESSAGE FROM

Associate Professor Zainorin Mohamad

The Chief Editor Of Marine Frontier

Welcome to the Marine Frontier's second issue of the year 2013. The editorial board ex-tend our sincere thanks and appreciation to Prof. Dato' Dr. Mohd Mansor Salleh for his guidance and contribution as the former Chief Editor of Marine Frontier. Through his en-thusiasm and support, the Marine Frontier has been able to publish a wide range of re-search undertaken by our academics in MIMET. This issue of the Marine Frontier’s coverage reflects a diverse range of research areas be-ing studied by our academics in MIMET. Included are studies in areas of ship construction, ship operations, marine engineering, regulatory requirements, logistics management and wave propagation. However, we encourage the editorial team to solicit more papers from outside MIMET to be published in future issues. The year 2013 has been a significant year for UniKL with organization structure changes to strengthen our research and external partnerships. Marine Frontier has the potential to become a renowned publication amongst the marine researchers and academics in years to come. With greater emphasis given on research and innovation activities, more aca-demics in MIMET are expected to publish their work. By collaborating with industry and other institutional partners, we can undertake new fields of research. Besides, ship con-struction and marine engineering, the fields of marine electronics, port operations, ship-ping management, offshore engineering and coastal management should be explored. As suggested in the previous Chief Editor's message, we could also undertake research in teaching and learning of technical subjects particularly, in the adoption of new innovative methods and tools. Concluding my first Chief Editor’s Message for Marine Frontier, I sincerely express my gratitude to all the members of Editorial Board for their commitment and dedication to encourage the discovery of "New Marine Frontiers". Thank you!

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ABSTRACT

The shipbuilding industry of Malaysia is getting larger and ship builders are adapting with the latest

technology. The shipbuilding technology is growing at a fast pace efficiently as construction time

savings being the most important factors in ship construction. The Modular construction approach in

building a vessel is a common method nowadays. However more focus is required in order to im-

prove the performance of this construction method. Thus, this paper will focus on the introduction of

modular construction in Lumut port.

Keywords: Malaysian Shipbuilding, Modular Construction, Lumut Port.

INTRODUCTION

Ship construction is widely developing around the world. Various technologies are being

used. There are many ship construction methods and their adoption depends on the effectiveness of

the methods. One of the methods is modular construction. Modular construction is one of the fastest

and effective means in constructing ship but somehow human error or system failure results in con-

struction delays.

Shipbuilding industries are gradually expending and ship builders are adapting with newer

technologies. Shipbuilding technologies are growing fast, efficiency in construction and time saving

being the most important factors considered.

A REVIEW OF MODULAR CONSTRUCTION AT LUMUT PORT

M. R. ZOOLFAKAR1, M. D. S. A. MANAF1

1University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology

[email protected]

[email protected]

Received 25 July 2013 ; Revised 28 August 2013; Accepted 28 August 2013

___________________________________________

Corresponding author: [email protected]

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The Malaysian shipbuilding industries have different levels of workers; every level has its

own objectives. For an example, a project engineer must attend meetings to understand his scope of

work for the week. He must then brief to his foreman, fitter, welder and general workers. He must

also monitor the job that has been assigned during the meeting until completion.

Normally a shipbuilding company has its own level of workers from the top level until bot-

tom, namely the project manager, project assistant manager, project engineer, QC/QA (quality con-

trol), foreman, fitter, welder and general worker or helper as shown in Figure 1. All the levels shown

are of the construction department only, and there are other departments e.g. safety and health depart-

ment and engineering department within the overall company structure.

Figure 1 Flow Chart of Typical Work Flow in Shipbuilding Industry

Safety and health department usually takes care of safety of each worker and the working

environment. Safety department is authorised to start or stop any work when a problem that risks a

worker’s safety arises. The main job of the safety department is to prevent workers from injuries

while constructing a ship. Engineering department is another important department in ship construc-

tion and involves ship design from general arrangement to individual frame drawings. In other words,

engineering department will produce the necessary drawings to smooth the construction process.

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Finally, this study would help students understand better about the fundamental concepts of

modular construction and hopefully generate more ideas towards better improvement of modular pro-

cess in the shipbuilding industries of Malaysia.

Shipyard in Malaysia

In Malaysia there are several shipyards that implement shipbuilding works, namely in Sibu

and Miri, Sarawak; Lumut, Perak and Pasir Gudang, Johor, with significant investments to boost their

capabilities. Special adviser to the Prime Minister, Mr Zakri Abdul Hamid, said that although several

companies, such as Boustead, had already set up their shipbuilding and ship repair business here,

there is a need to get all the players together (New Straits Times, 4 Ports For Ship Repair, 2011).

Figure 2 MHB (Malaysia Marine and Heavy Engineering Sdn. Bhd.) layout.

(Sources: World Maritime News, Jun2012)

Malaysian shipyards are growing rapidly, with the earliest shipbuilding industry that began

begin at Pasir Gudang, now known as MMHE (Malaysia Marine and Heavy Engineering), Figure 2.

After that, the shipbuilding industries of Malaysia have gone through tremendous evolutions ship-

yards at Sibu, Miri, Penang, Lumut and Klang..

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Lumut Port Industries

The LUMUT PORT Project began in 1993 as a privatisation project by the State Govern-

ment of Perak, the first of its kind in Malaysia (a Greenfield port and private sector development that

received no governmental funding or grants).

Lumut Port comprises two distinct yet complementary terminal developments:

LUMUT MARITIME TERMINAL (LMT)

LEKIR BULK TERMINAL (LBT)

Figure 3 Lumut Port Layout map

(Sources: Lumut Port ,2013)

The LMT Terminal also includes the LUMUT PORT INDUSTRIAL PARK, an industrial

estate of originally some 1,000 acres gross area (3.9 million sq. metres) with land available for sale,

rent or lease (Lumut Port 2013).

There are few ship construction companies at Lumut port which are Lee Marine, Grade One

Shipyard, Kencana Marine and BSK Marine. Basically, companies in Lumut port construct a vessel

of not more than 100 meters for an example fishing vessel, tug boat, accommodation barge,

http://www.lumutport.com/facserv/lmt.asp

http://www.lumutport.com/facserv/lbt.asp

http://www.lumutport.com/lpip/default.asp

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offshore supply vessel and etc. Lumut port is a strategic location for ship construction due to its prox-

imity to the estuary of the river as shown in figure 3.

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION

Modular construction process is one of the popular methods used in shipbuilding industry.

Modular construction, or prefabricated construction, is a process that uses a prefabricated building

process involving assembling on-site to produce a permanent or temporary prefab building.

Figure 4 Picture of Modular Construction at Kencana (Erection Process)

Figure 5 Picture of Module (Lifting Process)

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Modular Space takes full advantage of a controlled production environment combined with the design

flexibility of traditional building methods to produce high-quality permanent or temporary prefabri-

cated structures for any demand.

The result is a prefabricated modular building product that is faster, more affordable and

environmentally-friendly, with all the same architectural aesthetics you would expect from traditional

building methods. After the module is completed and has passed the inspection by quality control

department, the module is ready for erection process on-board as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

(This process is taken at Kencana Marine in KM2 (Kencana Mermaid 2) project). Modular construc-

tion is the most time saving method in use nowadays as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Traditional Construction versus Modular Construction. Sources: Azizie(2013)

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In sequence:

Figure 7 Flow Chart of Modular Process

(Sources: Azizie, 2013)

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MODULAR CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Figure 7 shows the flow chart of a common modular construction process in ship building. It

begins with a stockyard, the place where raw materials such as plates and sections are stored and cov-

ered by awning. After that, the flow proceeds with the preparation process involving marking, weld-

ing, cutting, fabricating and so on. Sub-assembly process included fitting, fairing and monitoring by

quality control to make sure the sub-assemblies are based on drawings. Assembly is a process that

assembles the larger parts of the module that involves of erection on board. Erection berth is basically

the last step of module construction and in this part the modules are ready to be erected on board.

Finally, the ship is launched and must be able to float correctly and safely

CONCLUSION

This brief paper covers a basic perspective on shipbuilding approach namely, Modular Con-

struction process. It is meant to provide some common knowledge about modular construction con-

cept in particular and the Malaysian shipbuilding industry in general.

REFERENCES

[1] D. J. Eyres, Department of Maritime Studies Plymouth Polytechnic (2001) Fifth Edition.

Ship Construction. Basic Design of Ship page (1-7).

[2] E. C. Tupper, (1996) Third Edition, Introduction to Naval Architecture, Ship Design page (304).

[3] K. J Rawson and E.C Tupper (2001) Fifth Edition, Basic Ship Theory. Hydrostatics and Strength

Vol. 1.

[4] Lumut Port, www.lumutport.com retrieved on February 9, 2013, 09:45.

[5] Muhamad Ikhwan Azizie, www.scribd.com, Shipbuilding Technology Modular Construction

and Lean Shipbuilding Construction retrieved on February 13, 2013, 2:15.

[6] New Straits Times, www.NewStraitsTimes.com, 4 Ports for Ship Repair, February 2011 re-

trieved

on February 25, 2013, 08:45.

[7] World Maritime News, www.worldmaritimnews.com, MMHE Reveals Major Yard Optimization

Investment Januari 2011 retrieved on February 2, 2013, 11:12.

http://www.scribd.com

http://www.worldmaritimnews.com

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ABSTRACT

An inclining test is normally done on a vessel to verify data derived during the vessel’s design phase.

Usually this test requires some manpower onboard and cost incurrence to run the actual test at the

slipway. A lot of effort is needed for this test. Due to many untoward movements onboard a vessel,

the accuracy of the actual test results may be affected. This paper will discuss the technique that

might be introduced in order to further simplify this process and help reduce the required manpower,

thus saving on cost of implementation of this inclining test.

Keywords: Inclining test, simplify process, manpower, save cost.

INTRODUCTION

An inclining test provides a means to determine a ship’s weight and stability limits. This test

will help to determine the corrective measures needed to bring a ship back within its acceptable

weight and stability limits [1]. Before a ship is delivered upon completion of construction or major

overhaul, it must undergo an inclining test to determine its stability behavior [2]. Normally, concrete

is used as the inclining weight in the inclining test, but the weight movements may be automated to

replace the conventional method of shifting concrete weights.

AUTOMATED WEIGHT SHIFTING MODULE FOR INCLINING TEST OF VESSEL BE-

LOW 35 METRES

A. ISMAIL1, M. H. KAMIT2, M. S. M. TAHIR3, B. A. BAHARUDIN4

1Marine Construction and Maintenance Technology

2Marine Design Technology

Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology

[email protected]

Received 22 November 2012 ; Revised 20 August 2013; Accepted 23 August 2013

___________________________________________



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The inclining test consists of heeling the ship to a small angle by moving a known weight

through a measured distance perpendicular to the ship’s centerline plane [3]. Prior to any weight

movements, it requires a few people to be onboard, and lifting devices such as crane to move loads

with sequence movements as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Weight movement for inclining test

The proposed new technique for inclining test consists of an automated weight shifting mod-

ule which can be designed without major modification to the existing testing procedures in order to

minimize the number of person onboard and equipment as this may affect the accuracy of the result of

the actual test. It may also save cost in terms of wages and lease of equipment. Furthermore, the new

module can be portable and flexible which can accommodate all types of ship and deck condition less

than 35 meters in length and compliable with classification rules.

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METHODOLOGY

The research starts by improvising the basic concept of exchanging the conventional weight

(concrete block) with the weight of seawater. The concept is then integrated with the water ballast

system where the water is filled within the tanks and transferred from one tank to another by a pneu-

matic system.

For this purpose, a 34m fast crew boat has been used as the reference where all the data from

the inclining test record of this vessel is used in designing the system layout. The size of the tank is

then determined based on the comparison result generated by actual inclining test and Hydromax.

In designing this module, materials selection plays an important role to make it portable and

durable to handle for easy installation. To suit this purpose, two materials were compared namely the

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Aluminum 5083 where some analysis were made to deter-

mine the internal pressure and stress exerted on the tanks. For safety, the stress from the applied forc-

es must be less than the ultimate tensile strength, ultimate compressive strength or fatigue strength of

the materials [4].

DESIGN PHASE

The idea of the design is adapted from the water ballast system that is used as an anti-heeling

system onboard a ship where it transfers the water from one tank to another [5]. This can be referred

to Figure 2. The pneumatics diagram of this automated weight shifting module for the inclining test

can be designed as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Anti heeling system onboard ship

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strength

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressive_strength

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_%28material%29

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Figure 3 Pneumatics Circuit

This new system layout for the inclining test consists of eight tanks of High Density Polyeth-

ylene (HDPE) to transfer the weight (water) from one tank to another and vice versa. The actual lay-

out of the design can be seen in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Actual layout

Ideally the water must be pumped to either port or starboard tank based on the initial move-

ment of the inclining test procedures which have been shown in Figure 1 previously. The pressure of

air will push the water downward and transferring it to the other tank. This process can be referred to

Figure 5.

Figure 5 Air and water flow in tanks (Port and Starboard)

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For material selection, the HDPE is compared to the marine grade Aluminium 5083. In term

of strength, the Aluminum offers higher strength based on its properties and tank can be easily fabri-

cated but on other hand, aluminum has higher density which could increase the weight of the module.

Thus, choosing aluminum would require more people to handle it during the installation process. This

will not suit the factor of portability. It is the main factor why HDPE is selected as the tank material.

The system is designed to be portable which is measured by the low weight and ease of in-

stallation. By using HDPE, the tank can be handled by only two people for mobility and the small

sized valves and equipment make this module portable.

Additionally, the installation can be easily done as required. The installation for piping also

uses the stab type mechanical fitting which is an easy method for pipe joining.

DISCUSSION

This system is being designed as portable and flexible which can be installed and dismantled

easily. The pneumatics parts in the system which are small in size give the advantage in handling. The

stab type of mechanical fitting for piping system enables parts to be easily joined within a short time.

The design of tanks may be changed to a spherical shape instead of square shape as it can make the

transferring process of water more efficient and uniform.

CONCLUSION

This automated weight shifting module for inclining test is successfully designed in order to

minimize the number of person onboard, maintain results accuracy and should help reduce cost. This

system provides portability and flexibility for the user. This new system, hopefully, can benefit naval

architecture in general and the process of ship construction in particular especially with regards to

stability calculations of the ship.

Furthermore, this new system, hopefully, can shed new ideas to other researchers in impro-

vising the weight shifting arrangement for inclining test in future, thus saving further in manpower

and capital usage costs.

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REFERENCES

[1] Bureau Veritas, Rules for the Classification of Steel Ships, April 2007, Pt B, Ch 3, App 1.

[2] Edward V. Lewis, Principles of Naval Architecture 2nd Revision Volume 1.

[3] H.C Mendes, José Márcio do Amaral Vasconcellos, Inclinometer Is Device for Ship Stability

Evaluation, University Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

[4] Robert L. Mott, Applied Strength of Materials, 5th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall 2008, pp 16-21.

[5] Rolls Royce, Steering and Stabilisation, Rolls Royce plc 2007.

[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Density_Polyethylene, 9 May, 2011. 5:15:42 PM

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ABSTRACT

A new Lattice Boltzmann model for shallow water equation with turbulence modeling (LABSWETM),

based on the multi-relaxation-time (MRT) formulation is reviewed. Together with it, dissipative term

is introduced where it is incorporated into the LABSWETM in maximizing the capability of the new

model named LABSWEDTM for nonlinear shallow water flow.

Keywords: Lattice Boltzmann method; shallow water equations; LABSWE; multi-relaxation-

time; dissipative; nonlinear shallow water flow.

INTRODUCTION

The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) proposed about decades ago has been developed and

applied to simulate various complex fluids. It has become an alternative powerful method for compu-

tational fluid dynamics (CFD). Although most research on the LBM focuses on the Navier-Stokes

equations, the method has also been developed to solve other flow equations such as the shallow wa-

ter equations [6]. In this paper, the lattice Boltzmann models for the shallow water equations with

turbulence modeling (LABSWETM) [1] where the large eddy simulation is incorporated into the

LABSWE [18] for turbulent flow have been improved and applied with dissipative term (named

LABSWEDTM).

REVIEW ON MULTI-RELAXATION-TIME LATTICE BOLTZMANN METHOD

(LABSWEMRT) AND INTRODUCTION OF LABSWETM WITH DISSIPATIVE TERM

(LABSWEDTM)

M. I. S. IBRAMSAH1, M. A. H. M. SAAD1, S. H. SHAFIAI1, M. F. A. AHMAD2

1Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, iis-

[email protected]

2Universiti Teknologi Petronas, [email protected]

Received 21 August 2013; Revised 7 September 2013; Accepted 7 September 2013

___________________________________________


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In this work, both the dissipating and multi-relaxation-time models were developed and re-

viewed based on the D2Q9 lattice respectively. Multi-Relaxation-Time (MRT) model was introduced

by d’Humieres in 1992 based on the matrix formulation of Higuera and Jimenez in 1989. Many re-

searchers [7,8,9] agreed that MRT model consume more time which is approximately 15% to 20%

slower than the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook model (BGK) where uses single relaxation time. MRT also

requires higher cost of computation [13]. Although the disadvantages are noticeable, those research-

ers have the same opinion that almost any problem modelled with MRT performs better than the

BGK model.

S. H. Shafiai (2011) [11] who presented an improved model of the LABSWETM for solving

2D long wave resonance in parabolic-shaped basin [10] recommended that a dissipative term should

be incorporated in the lattice Boltzmann model for nonlinear shallow water equations due to its sensi-

tivity to gravitational force [11]. In addition, she also recommended to use multi-relaxation time mod-

el in future to obtain results that are more accurate [10]. Therefore, the efficiency of MRT model of

lattice Boltzmann method for shallow water flow done by Y. Peng (2012) [5] will be explored and

reviewed. Furthermore, in this paper, LABWETM with dissipative term (named LABWEDTM), by us-

ing Zhou’s force model [1] is described.

Lattice Boltzmann Method with Turbulence Modelling

The most well-known formed of lattice Boltzmann equation in use today is the following

equation;

where, fα is the distribution function of particle; e=dx/dt is the lattice size; Fi is component of the

force in i direction; eα is velocity vector of article in the α link; Nα is the lattice constant given by the

lattice pattern.

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The stated equation is the LB equation with BGK approximation of shallow water recovery

with no turbulence flow incorporated or LABSWE by Zhou [18]. In order to simulate flows with rela-

tively higher Reynolds number, LABSWE is extended to the shallow water equations with turbulence

modelling (LABSWETM) which is once again proposed by Zhou [1] in this section. LABSWETM in-

cludes the eddy viscosity term which is not present in the LABSWE. Because the kinematic viscosity

is determined only by the relaxation time with constant time step and space step, this means that a

new relaxation time τt can be defined by

(2)

which yields a total viscosity νt

(3)

and the Equation (1) can be written as,

(4)

This is consistent with the idea of the lattice Boltzmann model with subgrid-scale stress de-

signed by Hou et al. [2]. Therefore, the flow turbulence can be predicted easily by the standard lattice

Boltzmann equation (4) with the total relaxation time τt.

Multi Relaxation Time

The multi-relaxation-time lattice Boltzmann equation is developed by d’Humieres [3], which

overcomes the disadvantage of LBM with BGK (BGK-LBM) as indicated in [4]. Lallemand and Luo

in year 2000 [5] studied the stability of MRT-LBM and showed that the MRT-LBM is much more

stable than BGK-LBM because of the use of different relaxation times which can be tuned for optimal

stability.

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Based on the works of Y. Peng [6], if the D2Q9 model is adopted, the evolution equation for

the MRT-LBM without external force term is:

Where Trf , f=Tr -1 m and S is the relaxation matrix, S = diag (s0,s1,s2,s3,s4,s5,s6,s7,s8), Tr is the trans-

form matrix defined in [5].

The equilibrium values of moments meq is

Using Chapman-Enskog procedure, the Navier-Stoke equations can be recovered with the kinematic

viscosity,

The other relaxation parameters can be chosen freely in the range of 0~2 in order to achieve most

stable LBM [5].

Compared with the BGK scheme, the multi-relaxation-time is less used in the lattice Boltz-

mann model for shallow water flows. In order to improve the stability of the method, the collision

operator of multi-relaxation-time is incorporated into the LABSWE (named LABSWEMRT) in next

section. Many authors [7,8,9] uses Lallemand and Luo [5] method because of their paper portray the

best in term of simplicity and also high accuracy in calculation. These make their work the most pop-

ular approach in MRT.

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LABSWEMRT

Lattice Boltzmann method is improved in stability by incorporating the collision operator of

multi-relaxation-time into LABSWE (named LABSWEMRT). The improvement of the stability of

computation makes the multi-relaxation-time parallel with recent computer technology. The shallow

water equations are recovered by Chapman-Enskog analysis. If the D2Q9 model is adopted, the lat-

tice Boltzmann equations with the MRT for shallow water equations are as follows:

As described in section 2, Lallemand and Luo [5] produces the relaxation matrix, S=diag

(s0,s1,s2,s3,s4,s5,s6,s7,s8) where:

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where the velocity vector of particles [1],

After all calculation has been done for each velocity, transformation matrix Tr is defined as:

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The relaxation parameters s7 and s8 is chosen according to fluid viscosity determined by

Equation (7), and the other parameters can be chosen freely during the range of 0~2 for maximum

stability. The equilibrium values of moments meq is,

(21)

Y. Peng uses the Chapman-Enskog expansion where the shallow water equations are recovered cor-

rectly from LABSWEMRT.

Dissipative Term

To improve in accuracy and make the simulation realistic, LBM should be incorporated with

other important terms like dissipative [10]. Here, the dissipative terms are incorporated into

LABSWETM.

Momentum Equation of SWE

The general 2D governing equations for shallow water flows can be derived based on the

general flow equations such as the continuity and momentum equation. For water flow on the earth,

there are two body forces: gravity in vertical direction and Coriolis acceleration in horizontal plane

due to the earth’s rotation.

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Where g=9.81m/s2 is the gravitational acceleration: u and v are the velocity components in x

and y directions, respectively: fc=2ωsinϕ is the Coriolis parameter. In simulate the moving wave

with dissipative effects, a quadratic dissipative force is incorporated into the momentum equation

[10]. Integration of x component in the momentum equation over depth gives: The first term Coriolis

force, on the right hand side of (22) can be integrated as,

(23)

The second term related to the pressure p can be derived from the momentum equations. Since in

SWE flows the vertical acceleration becomes unimportant compared with the horizontal effects, the

momentum equation in the vertical direction is reduced with w~0 to,

which can be integrated, giving

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c0 is called integration constant,

Using the boundary condition that the pressure at the free surface is the atmospheric pressure pα,

when p=pα when z=h+zb , can get

Substitutes (28) into (27) lead to

pα is almost constant in the modeling area and its normally set to zero, pα=0 , since the difference in

atmospheric pressure at water surface is often insignificant in most coastal, estuarine, hydraulic engi-

neering [17], then the (29) becomes,

This is usually referred to the hydrostatic pressure approximation in shallow water flows. Differenti-

ate (30) with respect to x results

Neither the water depth h nor the bed height zb is dependent on vertical direction. They are function

of the horizontal coordinates x and y only, indicating dp/dx is a function x and y only, hence we have,

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Substitute (31) into above equation,

We introduced the following approximation,

And

The last term on the right hand side (22) can be calculated as,

Usually, the terms on the right hand side of the above expression can be approximated with the sur-

face wind shear stress and the bed shear stress in x direction

(36) then becomes

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Substitute several equation from [1] and (33)-(35), and (37) into (22) results in the x momentum

equation for shallow water flows,

Similarly, we can derived the momentum equation in y directions

Here we uses the momentum factors θ1,θ2 and θ3 where θ1=1, θ2 =1 and θ3 =1 are widely used in nu-

merical analogue for shallow water flows and it is found that they can provide a good approximation

in most situation [19,20,21,22]. Then resulting new equation from (39) and (40)

And

After all overbars in the above two equations are dropped for convenience, the momentum equations

(41) and (42) can be simplified as

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Fi is called force term in this paper and defined as

Where τwx is a wind shear stress, τbx is a bed shear stress and Ei is a Coriolis that given

Di is a dissipative force that given

DISCUSSION

The lattice Boltzmann method based on a Single Relaxation model (BGK) is limited by nu-

merical instabilities, unsteadiness and the porous media viscosity dependence on relaxation time [18].

MRT models operate with multi parameters in the collision operator. Additional free parameters al-

low tuning the model. The MRT collision operator works with hydrodynamic moments not distribu-

tion function populations; therefore the tuning of the parameters for the model to restore the hydrody-

namic limits of the Navier-Stokes equation [19] becomes straightforward and simple. The model

shows better numerical stability [5], the ability to simulate the hydrodynamics problems with bulk

and shear viscosities [19]. For dissipative term, we produced a derivation to resolve inconsistent and

inaccurate results are produced. This derivation is an improvement of the LBM that make the results

more accurate. So, the combination of MRT and dissipative is believe increases the capability of

LBM in simulating fluid flow.

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SUMMARY

As a relative new method for simulating flows, the lattice Boltzmann has been applied wide-

ly and improved greatly over the past twenty years. Like other conventional CFD methods, LBM has

its shortcomings and advantages. For example, LBM is only second-order accurate in space and time;

and unstructured grid is difficult to incorporate into the standard LBM. However, the LBM becomes

more and more popular for simulating flows because its algorithm is simple and efficient, and easy

for parallel computation [4]. Furthermore, it is easy to implement different boundary condition for

complex geometries [6].

The LBE with a dissipative terms as well as the non-equilibrium part of the distribution

function is derived. We found that the derivation that we proposed in this paper produces an improved

LBM, and hence any analytical results will be more accurate. This is due to the fact that the Zhou’s

force term produces inconsistent and inaccurate results when the simulation was run. In this paper,

two kinds of the lattice Boltzmann method for shallow water, namely LABSWEDTM, and

LABSWEMRT respectively, are derived and discussed and future work is recommended.

The lattice Boltzmann method with multi-relaxation-time is derived and discussed in detail

by [6]. The shallow water equations are recovered correctly from LABSWEMRT by using the Chap-

man-Enskog expansion for the first time. Compared to the LABSWE, the LABSWEMRT formulation

has better stability and is capable of simulating flows with higher Reynolds number. Although it costs

more computational time (about 15%), it is beneficial for some flows problems [6].

REFERENCES

[1] Zhou, J.G., (2004). Lattice Boltzmann Methods for Shallow Water Flows.: Springer.

[2] Hou, S. , Sterling, J., Chen, S., and Doolen, G. D., (1996). A lattice Boltzmann subgrid model for

high Reynolds number flows. Fields Inst. Commun.

[3] d’Humieres, D., (1992). Generalized lattice Boltzmann equations. In Rarefied gas dynamics:

theory and simulations (ed. B. D. Shizgal & D. P.Weaver), in Prog. Aeronaut. Astronaut.

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[4] d'Humieres, D., et al., (2002). Multi-relaxation-time lattice Boltzmann models in three dimension

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series a-Mathematical Physical and

Engineering Sciences, 360(1792).

[5] Lallemand, P. and Luo, L.-S., (2000). Theory of the lattice Boltzmann method: Dispersion,

dissipation, isotropy, Galilean invariance, and stability. Physical Review E,.

[6] Y. Peng, (2012). Lattice Boltzmann Simulations of Environmental Flow Problems in Shallow

Water Flow, University of Liverpool,

[7] Paul. J.Dellar (2002). Incompressible limits of lattice Boltzmann equations using multi relaxation

times. International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics.

[8] Kuzmin A. (2010). Multiphase simulations with Lattice Boltzmann Scheme. , Calgary, Alberta,

[9] Liu H. (2009). Lattice Boltzmann simulations for complex shallow water flows. ,

[10] Shafiai, S.H. (2011). Lattice Boltzmann Method for Simulating Shallow Free Surface flows

involving Wetting and Drying. , University of Liverpool,

[11] Lynett P. J., Wu T., Liu P. L. (2002). Modeling wave runup with depth-integrated equations.

Coastal Engineering., 38 (4):307-327.

[12] I. Ginzburg. (2005). Generic Boundary Conditions for Lattice Boltzmann models and their

Applications to Advection-Dispersion equations. Adv. Wat. Res.,

[13] Paul. J. Dellar (2002). Incompressible limits of lattice Boltzmann equations using multi

relaxation times. International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics.

[14] Celso Grebogi, Edward Ott, James A.Yorke (1992). Numerical Procedures For Analyzing

Dynamical Processes.

[15] Livija Cveticanin (2009). Oscillator With Strong Quadratic Damping Force.

[16] Vladimir Dragovic (2004). Dissipative Force In Lagrangian Mechanics.

[17] Zhou J. G., (1997) A mathematical model for shallow water flows with sediment transport, PhD.

thesis, The University of Leeds, UK,

[18] Zhou, J.G., (2002) A lattice Boltzmann model for the shallow water equations. Computer

Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering.

[19] J. Kuipers and C. B. Vreugdenhil, (1973). Calculations of two-dimensionals horizontal flow.

Tech. rep. s163 part 1, Delf Hydraulics Laboratory, Delf, the Netherlands.

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[20] J. J. McGuirk and W. Rodi, (1978). A depth-averaged mathematical model for the field of the

near side discharges into open-channel flow.

[21] C. B. Vreugdenhil and J. H. Wijbenga, (1982). Computation of flow patterns in rivers.

[22] A. G. L. Borthwick and G. A. Akponasa, (1997). Reservoir flow prediction by contravariant

shallow water equations.

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ABSTRACT

BIMP EAGA is one of the three important economic growth areas of ASEAN. In an effort to improve

connectivity among the ASEAN countries within the growth area, SSS concept that has been success-

fully employed in Europe and North America will be introduced to operate within the ASEAN Nauti-

cal Highway network. However, to enable for a sustainable SSS service, the challenges and barriers

from legal, commercial, technical and environmental aspects need to be overcome. This paper will

examine whether there is a potential of overcoming such barriers to enable the introduction of a feasi-

ble SSS service in the sub-region.

Keywords: BIMP EAGA, ASEAN, Shor t Sea Shipping, Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity,

Ro-Ro.

INTRODUCTION

Short Sea Shipping (SSS) involves the transportation of cargo and passengers by ships along

the coasts, to and from nearby islands, within lakes and rivers but without crossing an ocean and en-

compasses a large variety of maritime transportation activity, including a wide range of vessel types,

cargoes, port infrastructures, policies and regulations, as well as opinions and perceptions (Higginson

& Dumitrascu, 2007).

THE CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FEASIBLE SHORT SEA SHIPPING

PROJECT IN BIMP EAGA SUB-REGION

A. M. AROF

Department of Maritime Management and Operations


Received 21 October 2013; Revised 23 October 2013; Accepted 23 October 2013

___________________________________________



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As land-based transportation systems are becoming congested and the general public contin-

ues to be more concerned on the negative impact of road transportation to the environment, SSS has

gained renewed interest in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe and North America. Since

maritime transport offers higher fuel economy and lower emissions of harmful pollutants, SSS has

been considered as one of the most sustainable and economically competitive modes of transport

(Medda & Trujilo, 2010). Considering the above factors, the Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity

(MPAC) in its endeavour to establish an Association of South-east Asian Countries (ASEAN) com-

munity by 2015 has recognised SSS as an imperative to improve connectivity within and between its

member countries (ASEAN, 2011).

In an effort to enhance SSS and its own concept of ASEAN Nautical Highway (ANH),

ASEAN leaders have identified Davoa-Bitung, Zamboanga-Sandakan and Muara-nearby ports as

three emerging and potentially important international sea routes within BIMP-EAGA sub-region

(ASEAN, 2010). In addition to the three shipping routes identified in MPAC, the transport ministers

of Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (BIMP) in their first BIMP-East

ASEAN Growth Area (EAGA) Transport Ministers Meeting (TMM) have also identified additional

routes that are eligible for feasibility studies to allow BIMP-EAGA shipping operators to carry car-

goes and passengers on a reciprocal basis (BIMP-EAGA Secretariat, 2006).

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Although SSS was historically a prominent mode of transportation, most domestic and cross

border trades are now primarily served by the land highway. Due to the many negative effects pro-

duced by road transportation, SSS could be a viable alternative to road transport from one point on

the mainland to another such as from Pontianak to Kuching or from Muara, Brunei to Menumbok,

Sabah. However, in connecting one point of an island to another island such as from Sandakan to

Zamboanga, SSS would be the only option.

In spite of the potentials of using SSS to enhance the physical connectivity within BIMP-

EAGA sub-region, a study on the European Motorways of the Sea concept has identified 4 barriers

that need to be overcome in order to enable the SSS service to be competitive and sustainable over the

long run.

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The barriers are legal and regulatory environment, the market structure (commercial), in-

compatibility of equipment and resources (technical) and environmental consideration (Baindur &

Viegas, 2012). In fact, it has been theorized that if the myriad of issues inherent in the transportation

network could be addressed, SSS program is capable to add value to a national and international

transportation network and increase the affected economy’s efficiency as well as the societal standard

of living (Lombardo, 2004).

Similarly, these barriers or issues should be addressed in the BIMP-EAGA sub-region before

the ports identified could be feasibly connected into the ANH system. Hence, it is imperative to con-

duct a study of SSS services in BIMP EAGA sub-region by examining its ability to overcome the

challenges or barriers identified earlier.

AIM

The aim of this paper is to identify the challenges and prospects of SSS in BIMP EAGA sub-region.

ASEAN SINGLE SHIPPING MARKET

In support of the MPAC to ensure a well-connected ASEAN Economic Community by 2015,

the member countries of ASEAN are committed to pursue an ASEAN Single Shipping Market in

order to contribute towards the realisation of a single market and production base (ASEAN, 2008).

Among the 15 prioritised projects that involved SSS are Melaka-Pekan Baru Inter-connection; West

Kalimantan – Sarawak Interconnection; Study on Ro-Ro network and SSS; and operationalization of

the ASEAN agreements on Transport Facilitation (ASEAN, 2010).

The inland waterways transport has been identified as having a large potential in reducing

freight transport costs especially in Thailand and the CLMV (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vi-

etnam) countries.

However, this natural infrastructure is currently under-utilised due to issues related to poor

river ports and facilities and poor intermodal connectivity. ASEAN governments have undertaken

efforts to address these issues and improve rules and governance for managing the connected inland

waterways transport system (ASEAN, 2010). For maritime transport, ASEAN has designated 47 ports

as the main ports in the trans-ASEAN transport network.

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Among the ports that lie in the BIMP-EAGA sub-region are Kuching, Bintulu, Kota Kinaba-

lu and Sandakan in Malaysia; Muara in Brunei; Batangas, Cebu, Cagayan de Oro, Davao, General

Santos and Zamboanga in the Phillippines; and Pontianak, Banjarmasin, Balikpapan, Makassar and

Bitung in Indonesia (ASEAN, 2010).

The prospect of a sustainable SSS as part of single ASEAN single shipping market seems

feasible looking at the significant increase in intra-ASEAN trade in recent years. Intra-ASEAN trade

as a share of total ASEAN trade increased from 19.4% during 1990-1991 to about 24% in both peri-

ods of 1995-1996 and 2000-2001, and 27% during 2007-2008 (ASEAN, 2010).

BIMP EAGA SUB-REGION

BIMP-EAGA was established to address the economic and social development of the less

developed and more remote area of the member states (except for Brunei Darussalam) with initial

focus primarily through increased trade, investment and tourism, and ultimately through economic

diversification beyond resource extraction. It is a sub-national growth area which is not contiguous

and is significantly less physically connected as it consists mainly of island economies and trade

much more with the rest of the world, usually via capital ports, than within the sub-region.

Due to the nature of its geography, Norojono and Lidasan (2005) describe the intermodal

transport system of the BIMP-EAGA sub-region as being anchored more on maritime transport. From

an observation on the map of the sub-region, it could be discerned that the sub-regional intermodal

transport system is primarily maritime-based and supported by a land-based transport system in the

island of Borneo that links the EAGA provinces of Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.

Geographically, the sub-region covers the entire sultanate of Brunei Darussalam; nine prov-

inces in Kalimantan and Sulawesi, the island chain of Maluku and Papua (Indonesia); the federal

states of Sabah and Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan (Malaysia); and the entire province of

Mindanao and the island province of Palawan (Philippines).

These areas are among the poorest in their respective countries; but they are linked by a long

history of trade and economic relations which has been going on for centuries with barter as a major

form of trade until a few decades ago (BIMP-EAGA, 2012).

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In 2007, the EAGA leaders designated BIMP-EAGA as the test bed for the implementation

of ASEAN agreements particularly with regard to transport and trade facilitation. The BIMP-EAGA

Transport Ministers signed four important agreements on air, land and sea transport since 2007 to

further connectivity within the sub-region. However, the various modes of transportation have not

improved significantly over the years.

In fact, the key challenges to connectivity in BIMP-EAGA have been identified as low load

factors of sea, land and air routes; little intra-sub-regional investment flow, the requirements for Cus-

toms, Immigration, Quarantine and Security (CIQS) reform programme; and institutional gap in

BIMP-EAGA structure supporting project planning and implementation (ASEAN, 2010). Further-

more, it was revealed that infrastructure requirements of BIMP-EAGA are usually not taken up by the

relevant national agencies and often excluded from the list of national infrastructure development

priorities (ASEAN, 2010).

Some of the more pressing challenges identified in BIMP-EAGA are: (i) continued depend-

ence on primary resource-based economic activities and little sub-regional investment flows in agro-

industry which is the BIMP-EAGA focus; weak private sector with equally weak capacity to capital-

ise on opportunities; (iii) high incidence of poverty in the sub-region; and (iv) lack of vital infrastruc-

ture particularly in the Indonesia and Philippines components of EAGA which are major bottleneck to

private sector investment (ASEAN, 2010).

In addressing the first challenge, it is the aspiration of ASEAN and the EAGA countries to

foster their economic cooperation by increasing the processing of natural resource products within the

sub-region, where efforts to establish production network and value chains in selected commodities

have been started since 2006. However, progress has been slow mainly due to other factors such as

the lack of efficient intra-EAGA transport services that allow for better movement of goods across

borders (ASEAN, 2010).

On the other hand, in addressing the fourth challenge, ASEAN recognised that BIMP-EAGA

could not expect to receive significantly larger public sector resources for its development. Hence, for

development to happen, it is imperative that conditions have to be created to encourage more private

sector investments in infrastructure development (ASEAN, 2010).

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In spite of the preceding expectation, a study on the Ro-Ro (Roll on-Roll off) network and

SSS that will involve a technical and feasibility study on adopting a Ro-Ro network in ASEAN and

an assessment of options available for ASEAN member states to encourage the development of SSS

has been listed as the top 6 prioritised projects for ASEAN connectivity (ASEAN, 2010).

The ASEAN Ro-Ro Concept

In support of the ASEAN Ro-Ro concept, the 5th BIMP EAGA Transport Ministers Meeting

(TMM) welcomed the conduct of a study on BIMP-EAGA Ro-Ro network which may form part of

an ASEAN Ro-Ro network (ASEAN, 2010). The 2nd BIMP-EAGA TMM (2007) had acknowledged

the accomplishments of sea routes linking (1) Zamboanga-Sandakan; (2) Nunukan-Tawau; (3) Tara-

kan-Tawau; (4) General Santos – Bitung; (5) Sandakan-Tawi-Tawi; (6) Labuan-Muara; and (6)

Muara-Menumbuk. In furtherance to the above achievements, the TMM are committed to intensify

cooperation to realize the following sea linkages priority projects:

1. Muara (Brunei) – Menumbok (Malaysia) RoRo/Passenger Ferry.

2. Labuan (Malaysia) – Muara (Brunei) RoRo/Passenger Ferry.

3. Pontianak (Indonesia) – Kuching (Malaysia)

4. Pare-Pare (Indonesia) – Tarakan (Indonesia) – Nunukan (Indonesia) – Tawau (Malaysia)

– Sandakan (Malaysia)

5. Makassar (Indonesia) – Bitung (Indonesia) – General Santos (Philippines)

6. Port Glan (Philippines) – Tahuna (Indonesia) – Bitung (Indonesia)

7. Brooke’s Point (Philippines) – Kudat (Malaysia)

Figure 1 Ro-Ro Vessel

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As for Malaysia, all the ports identified are relatively smaller ports and except for Senari

Port (part of Kuching Port), all are multi-purpose ports where different types of cargo vessels have to

share berthing facilities that could lead to congestion and port inefficiency. Nevertheless, most of the

ports have deep anchorage depth ranging from 7.9 to 18.2 metres and could easily accommodate ves-

sels of more than 12,000 DWT (Ang, 2012). With such facilities and available depth, it could be fore-

seen that it would not take much investment to assign those ports with an additional task of handling

the BIMP EAGA SSS operations. Ang (2012) also argues that the tariffs for ports in Sabah and Sara-

wak are low and have not been adjusted for many years. These would augur well with SSS operations

particularly in an effort to be more competitive and attractive vis-a-vis land transportation that could

exclude port charges from their internal cost.

The Philippines Nautical Highway

In its effort to enhance intra-ASEAN connectivity particularly within the BIMP EAGA sub-

region, ASEAN was convinced with the results of the initial impact assessment of the Philippines

Nautical Highway that had demonstrated significant benefits in terms of reduction in transport costs,

the creation of new regional links and expansion of regional markets, more efficient shipment of

goods and people that have particularly benefited the poorer provinces in the maritime routes, acceler-

ation of local area development, realignment of logistical practices with more frequent deliveries, and

greater competitive pressure on the domestic shipping industry (ASEAN, 2010).

Prior to the inception of the Ro-Ro policy in the Philippines, the predominant method of

shipping was the load-on load-off (Lo-Lo) system (ADB, 2010). In the Lo-Lo and conventional liner

systems, goods are shipped in containers and are loaded and off-loaded by cranes and other dock

equipment. This presented significant cargo handling and wharfage costs. Usually, cargo handling

charges are priced on a per unit basis such as per sack, per crate, etc. while wharfage is the fee paid by

the ship operator or shipper for using the port area and still commonly used by conventional vessels

today. On the other hand, Ro-Ro is a system designed to carry rolling stock cargo which does not

require cranes for loading and off-loading. Since the cargoes are rolling cargoes – eg. cars, trucks etc.,

which simply roll on and off the vessel, Ro-Ro does not require cargo handling services. This elimi-

nates the requirement of labour and equipment for cargo handling and reduces the amount of time in

port that may lead to a considerable reduction in sea transport cost.

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A number of studies were conducted since the early 1990s and have recommended the exten-

sive use of Ro-Ro shipping as the most appropriate mode of an inter-island transport for an archipe-

lagic economy like the Philippines. The studies include those prepared by Nathan Associates under

USAID (1991), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (1991), and SHIPDECO from Nor-

way in 1992 (ADB, 2010). The studies identified both the cost and inefficiency of cargo handling

charges as a major factor in the high cost of domestic logistics transportation. As a result, a Ro-Ro

Policy Executive Order was issued on January 22nd, 2003.

Other additional policy changes, included the creation of dedicated lanes for Ro-Ro Ferry

Terminal System (RRTS) shipping service providers to ensure efficiency at the terminals, covered

passenger terminal and waiting areas provided in the port for the safety and comfort of passengers,

and the establishment of a quick method for determining the appropriate lane meter classification of

rolling vehicles and cargoes (ADB, 2010). In September 2005, another amendment was issued to the

Ro-Ro policy allowing the conversion of private non-commercial ports into commercial ports under

the RRTS (ADB, 2010).

Prior to the Ro-Ro policy, the regulation of shipping routes and rates created a domestic

shipping industry that was inefficient and unreliable. Since most of the routes were monopolised as a

result of government regulation, companies serving these routes lost initiative or interest to enhance

the quality of their services.

The poor quality of services and the government’s rate-setting policy on the low rate for

transportation of agriculture products, led to the decline of inter-regional movement of cargoes and

passengers (ADB, 2010). Since its introduction in 2003, the Ro-Ro policy has changed the structure

of Philippines maritime industry. For example a Ro-Ro service called 2GO is marketed as a better and

simpler service that gives shipper control over the movement of goods. This has led to faster delivery

lead time and reduced costs.

Furthermore, the 2GO service has reduced transport and logistics activities from what used

to be nine whole steps to just three steps – reducing delivery time to 3 days down from an average of

9 days (ADB, 2010). As a result, there has been rapid growth in cargo volumes on the Ro-Ro network

(ADB, 2010).

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LEGAL CHALLENGES

In order to ensure that the SSS operation introduced in this sub-region would be sustainable

for the long term, BIMP EAGA governments are not only required to ensure that the SSS operations

are economically feasible but also viable from the safety and environmental aspects. This is so, be-

cause the challenges for navigation at sea are much more demanding as compared to the challenges

for land transportation.

In this regard, it is imperative for all vessels to adhere to domestic regulations that are con-

sistent with important international maritime conventions particularly the International Convention

for the Safety of Life at Sea 1974 (SOLAS), International Convention on Load Lines 1966 (Load

Lines), Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972

(COLREG) and International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973/1978

(MARPOL). The qualification and employment of crew should as well be in compliance with the

International Convention on Standard of Training, Certificate and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1978

(STCW) to ensure all vessels are handled by personnel whose qualification, experience and certifica-

tion are in compliance with the standards accepted internationally.

However, unlike foreign going or unlimited voyage vessels that must strictly adhere to the

various international requirements, vessels that would be involved in SSS operations are mostly

smaller cargo vessels that are less than 500 tons and would not be governed by the above IMO’s con-

ventions. According to Williams & Hoppe (2001), international conventions developed by the IMO

that have contributed to a considerable reduction in accidents to ships subject to them, have had little

direct impact on ships to which they are not applicable. In addition, most of the ships involved in SSS

operation, be it cargo or passenger vessels, are near coastal in nature involving in “voyages in the

vicinity of a party as defined by that party” (IMO, 2010).

Although many may think that near coastal voyages are limited to the waters of the vessel’s

flag state, in many instances it is not necessarily so. For instance, Malaysia’s near coastal waters as

defined by the Merchant Shipping (Near Coastal Trade) Voyage Limit Rules 1994 covers most of the

waters of Southeast Asia including all the waters associated with BIMP EAGA sub-region (Marine

Department, 1994).

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Unlike unlimited voyages that must strictly adhere to IMO’s conventions, flag states may

prescribe training, experience and certification requirements that do not exceed the requirements of

the STCW Convention to seafarers serving on board near coastal vessels (IMO, 2010). Hence, the

harmonization of suitable regulations concerning vessels involved in short sea operations across the

BIMP EAGA waters is imperative to ensure that the vessels involved could operate safely and are

environmentally friendly over the long run.

Figure 2 Near Coastal Waters for Malaysian vessels

(Source: Malaysia Marine Department)

CONCLUSION

In summary, there are huge challenges to the development of SSS and ANH network within

the BIMP EAGA sub-region. From the success story of the Philippines Nautical Highway concept,

the commercial and technical barriers could be overcome by adopting a Ro-Ro concept that would be

able to improve the waiting time in port, reduce cargo handling activities and reduce the requirement

of an extensive port infrastructure and machineries. However, a dedicated terminal for SSS is impera-

tive in every port to avoid delay that could make SSS a less attractive option to customers. On the

environmental aspects, it has been proven in earlier research that maritime transport is much more

environmental friendly than road transportation. The introduction of a feasible SSS service on routes

that could be alternately connected by road transport will minimize road congestion, reduce road con-

struction and maintenance costs and improve the surrounding environment.

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Hence, SSS would be able to reduce government expenditure that could be channeled for the

improvement of port infrastructure or as operating subsidies that would contribute in developing SSS

as a more attractive and sustainable service. From the legal aspect, the laws and regulations govern-

ing smaller and non-convention vessels that will be involved in cross border operations between the

four BIMP EAGA countries need to be harmonized to be as close as possible with recognised interna-

tional standards in order to enable consistent law enforcement efforts between flag states and the port

states. It is hoped that these barriers would be addressed by the four member countries to enable for

an economically feasible Ro-Ro SSS network to be introduced in order to enhance connectivity and

economic interaction among the four BIMP EAGA countries.

REFERENCES

[1] Ang, Margaret (2012), Secondary Ports in Sabah and Sarawak – Potential for Greater Growth,

MIMA Bulletin Vol 19 (3) 2012, Maritime Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.

[2] Asian Development Bank – ADB (2010), Bridges Across Oceans: Initial Impact Assessment of

the Philippines Nautical Highway System and Lessons for Southeast Asia, ADB and Asia

Foundation.

[3] Association of Southeast Asian Nations (2008), ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint,

ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta.

[4] Association of Southeast Asian Nations (2010), Master Plan on ASEAN Connectivity, ASEAN

Secretariat, Jakarta. Baindur.

[5] Baindur, Deepak & Viegas, Jose (2011), Challenges to implementing motorways of the sea

concept – lessons from the past, Maritime Policy & Management, Vol 38, Nov 7, Dec 2011,

Routledge, pp 673-690.

[6] BIMP-EAGA Secretariat (2006), Joint Statement of First BIMP-EAGA Transport Ministers

Meeting, 5 June 2006, Bandar Seri Begawan at www.bimp-eaga.org (Accessed: July 5th, 2012).

[7] BIMP-EAGA Secretariat (2007), Joint Statement of Second BIMP-EAGA Transport Ministers

Meeting, 26 July 2007, Davao City at www.bimp-eaga.org (Accessed: July 5th, 2012).

[8] BIMP-EAGA (2012), Implementation Blueprint 2012-2016, BIMP-EAGA Secretariat.

http://www.bimp-eaga.org

http://www.bimp-eaga.org

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[9] Denisis, Athanasios (2009), An economic feasibility study of Short Sea Shipping including the

externalities with Fuzzy Logic, A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Michigan, Proquest Dissertation and

Theses.

[10] Higginson, Jame & Dumitrascu, Tudorita (2007), Great Lakes Short Sea Shipping and the

Domestic Cargo-Carrying Fleet, Transportation Journal, Winter, American Society of

Transportation & Logistics Inc., 38-58.

[11] International Maritime Organization (2010), The 2010 Manila Amendment to the International

Convention on Standard of Training, Certificate and Watchkeping for Seafarers (STCW) and

Code, Jabatan Laut Malaysia, Pelabuhan Klang.

[12] Lombardo, Gary A. (2004), Short Sea Shipping: Practices, Opportunities and Challenges,

TransportGistics Inc. at http://www.insourceaudit.com/WhitePapers/Short_Sea_Shipping.asp

(Accessed: Oct 12th, 2012).

[13] Marine Department (Malaysia) (1994), Merchant Shipping (Near Costal Trade) Voyage Limit

Rules 1994 at http://www.marine.gov.my/jlm. (Accessed: Feb 2nd, 2013).

[14] Medda, Francesca & Trujillo, Lourdes (2010), Short-sea Shipping: An analysis of its

determinant, Maritime Policy & Management Vol. 37 No. 3, Routledge, London, 285-303.

[15] Norojono, Olly & Lidasan, Hussein, S. (2005), Policy Directions for Harmonizing Subregional

Cross Border Procedures: The Case of the BIMP-EAGA, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia

Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, EATS, 1728-1741.

[16] Williams, Ian & Hoppe, Heike (2001), Safety Regulations for Non-Convention Vessels. The

IMO Approach at www.imo.org/knowledgecentre/papersandarticlesbyimostaff

(Accessed: Nov 30th, 2012)

http://www.insourceaudit.com/WhitePapers/Short_Sea_Shipping.asp

http://www.marine.gov.my/jlm

http://www.imo.org/knowledgecentre/papersandarticlesbyimostaff

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ABSTRACT

The adsorption process is being widely used by various treatment plants either for treating water or

wastewater, for removal of contaminants such as heavy metals, organic and inorganic chemicals. Rice

husk ash is a type of activated carbon derived from a biomass agricultural waste material. There are

several research about using rice husk ash as adsorbent. This study has to identify the capability of

rice husk ash to be used as activated carbon to be use as filter for bilge water seperator. A biomass

agricultural waste material, rice husk was used for preparation of activated carbons by chemical acti-

vation using zinc chloride. Adsorption potential of rice husk ash for the removal of colour, suspended

solids, iron, copper, ammonia nitrogen and phosphate has been studied. So in this case of study will

identify wether this rice husk ash have the potential to seperate oil and water in bilge water system.

Keywords: Rice Husk, Bilge water, Oil adsorbent

INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the resources that is important for life especially for living. People use water for cook-

ing, drinking, washing, and others. A life without water can be assume as a life without energy.

Where every people really need water in order to life.The life being much difficult without water.

A REVIEW OF RICE HUSK ASH FILTER TO TREATMENT

BILGE WATER

M. R. Zoolfakar1 and M. S. M. Shukor1


[email protected]

[email protected]

Received 25 July 2013; Revised 10 September 2013; Accepted 21 October 2013

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Even so, people still have alot of trouble according to obtain the fresh water. Even the water

can be issued with some of the country that lack of water resources. This is according to people that

less morality in order to care about the cleanliness of the water resources arounds them.

Water is a natural solvent so the water surface usually contains of organic and inorganic sub-

stances, chemical and other contaminants. People should aware of the subtances that can be harmful

for health. Every kind of work, process, and others that related in using water as medium must free

from subtances that can make water been contaminated either river or sea. This is according to some

industry that less care about the waters around them. Especially industry that located nearby sea and

river. Since river and sea is the most important resources of water that we will use daily to obtain a

fresh and clean water and other kinds of works.

If we look closely for this case, the most important part of the water resources comes from

sea. This is because, 70% of the part of world are sea. People nowadays have a varieties kind of ship

that sail on the sea in order to get the mineral resources located inside the sea bed, making platform,

transporting cargo, and others. Every type of ship need a fuel, and also fresh and clean water during

that kind of works. This is because the time travel for every single ship will need at least a week or

sometimes for several week for sailing purpose. So that fresh and water is important for their kind of

job

BILGE WATER

Almost every single ship will have a bilge water system. The water that does not drain off

the side of the deck drains down through the ship into the bilge. This water may be from rough seas,

rain, leaks in the hull or other interior spillage. The water that collects in the bilge must be pumped

out to prevent the bilge from becoming too full and threatening to sink the ship. Depending on the

design of the ship and function, bilge water may contain water, oil, urine, detergents, solvents, chemi-

cals, pitch, particles, and other materials. As for simple process will define in figure 1.

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By housing water in a compartment as shown in figure 2, the bilge keeps these liquids below

decks, making it safer for the crew to operate the vessel and for people to move around in heavy

weather. People noticed that some of the substances in bilge water contain an oil that cannot be leak

out from ship to avoid from pollution. So the bilge water will be filter before pumped out to sea.

Bilge water consists of drippings of various liquids that accumulate in the bottom of a boat.

Although bilge water is not comprised of any particular petroleum product, it is worth mentioning

here since it most often contains a mixture of petroleum products found onboard a given vessel .

Figure 1 Bilge water flow

Figure 2 Bilge water system in vessel. (Source: Dynamic-ews, 2010).

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As such, the chemical fingerprint of any oily waste contained withing the bilge water will

reflect the collective features of the fuels, lubricants, and solvents in use on a given vessel. The

discharge of oil in bilge water is prohibited in navigable waters of many countries (Zhendi & Scott,

2010).On a ship, oil often leaks from engine and machinery space or from engine maintenance activi-

ties and mixes with water in the bilge, the lowest part of the hull of the ship. Bilge water also may

contain solid wastes and pollutants containing high amounts of oxygen demanding material, oil and

other chemicals. A typical large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 tons of oily bilge water for

each 24 hours of operation. To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous condition

from oil vapors in these areas, the bilge space need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. How-

ever, before the bilge can be pump out and discharge the water, the oil that has been accumulated

needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated,

and offloaded in port (Sarah V. Thomas 2008).

A lot of method had been process in order to treat the contaminated water. However, several

research had been studied in other to identified which are the best and more efficient in case of treat

the contaminated water, the best in cost preparation, and the easiest way. Nowadays, after several

research had been done, people noticed that some of inorganic material, have a possibility of carbon

contain that usually use in filter equipment. So some of people are use to choose rice husk as an inor-

ganic material as the medium to treat the contaminated water by making the risk husk ash as the filter

equipment.

RICE HUSK ASH (RHA)

Rice husk ash holds a potential to be used in water treatment process, for removing physical,

chemical or biological impurities in water. Rice milling do generates a by product know as husk

which is surrounds the paddy grain. About 78% of weight is received as rice, broken rice and bran. So

another 22% weight of paddy received as husk. Normally people do this husk as a fuel to generate

steam for parboiling process. This husk contains about 75% of organic volatile matter and another

25% of the weight of this husk is converted into ash during the firing process which is known as rice

husk ash ( RHA ) as shown in figure 3 (Silpozz, 2008).

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There are about 20 million tones of RHA is produced anually in India which is major rice

producing country. RHA is a great environment threat that can damage the land and the surrounding

area. So there are lots of thought for disposing them by making commercial use of this RHA. Rice

husk contains approximately 20% silica that is a good adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals,

phenols, pesticides, and dyes (Ahmaruzzaman & Gupta, 2011). These ashes have a potential as a

source of activated carbon that can be used as adsorbent in water treatment. The physical characteris-

tics of rice husk ash such as its ash content and moisture content, as well its chemical characteristics

which is chemical composition and presence of functional groups affect its adsorption capabilities.

Rice husk ash have a potential to be used in water treatment process, for removing physical,

chemical or biological impurities in water. There are some of previous researches in the application of

rice husk ash as an adsorbent for different type of contaminants. The research done according to the

adsorption capacity of rice husk ash in various type of substance. It was suggested that the rice husk

ash is a good adsorbent..

A study done by Feng, et al., (2004) is about removal of heavy metals ions such as

chromiom, lead, mercury, arsenic and others from wastewater by using rice husk ash. It is about to

understand the effect of pH to the adsorption capacity which is the higher the pH of the solution, the

more lead and mercury are adsorbed by rice husk ash. The result obtain maximum adsorption at con-

stand temperature of 15oC for lead is 10.86 mg/g at initial pH of 5.83 and for mercury is 3.23 mg/g at

initial pH of 5.82.

Figure 3 Rice husk after burning as rice husk ash (RHA). (Source : Silpozz, 2008).

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For chromiom, Cr, a study by Srinivasan, et al., (1998) state that chemically activated rice

husk ash by sulfuric acid and CO2 has a maximum adsorption of chromium which is over than 90% at

a pH value of 12. It is also state 88% removal of total chromium and over than 99% removal of hexa-

valent chromium. Base on this study also state that the capacity of adsorption by using rice husk ash

is better than other commercial activated carbon where adsortion capacity from rice husk ash is

9.8mg/g but for commercial carbons is 6.3mg/g.

Base on Daifullah, et al., (2003) study, they have characterized and evaluated two different

types of adsorbents made from rice husk ash and being used in small waste water treatment plants.

The efficiency of both sorbents in the removal of the complex matrix containing of six type of heavy

metals was nearly 100% (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb) which are found in drain containing the agricul-

tural and sewage wastewater.

A study about removing the colour contains in wastewater are done by Oidde, et al., (2011)

by using rice husk ash and Methylene Blue as subjected colour (dye). The study found that the ad-

sorption efficiency varies with the variation in adsorbate concentrations and adsorbent dose. Colour

removal efficiency stated to be 88% to 94% at the dose of 20 g/l for activated rice husk and 80% to

95% at the adsorbent dose of 2.5 g/l for rice husk ash.

The study about the use of rice husk ash as an adsorption of humic acids from water done by

Imyim, et al., (2010). The study was investigated the adsorption behavior of modified rice husk ash

with functionality of 3 – aminopropyltriethoxysilane (RHA-NH2). This study found that there are

optimum conditions for humic acids adsorption were 30 minutes equilibrium time with initial pH

range of 3-4. It was found that the maximum adsorption capacity of humic acid for RHA-NH2 was 8.2

mg/g at pH 6.

Other than heavy metal ions present in wastewater, some organic anions such as fluoride,

phosphates also can exist and could harm human health. Although fluoride is good for teeth protec-

tion, but if the amount of fluoride in exceed on desirable stage, it can be harmful. the efficiency of

removal of fluoride by using aluminum hydroxide coated rice husk ash was studied by Ganvir, et al.,

(2011). The studies indicate 15.08 mg/g of adsorption capacity while column studies shows 9.5 mg/g

capacity where the maximum removal of the fluoride by aluminum hydroxide coated rice husk ash

was observed when pH reac mixture was kept at 5.0 plus minum 0.5.

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RICE HUSK ASH AS FILTER TO TREATMENT BILGE WATER

After several reaserch and studies, there are possibility that rice husk ash (RHA) also can

remove oil contain in bilge water tank. As stated previously, bilge water can be considered as oily

water. In order to separate the oil and water before discharge the clean water into sea, they need one

seperator to do that work.

Oils present in bilge water contain many additives. Bilge water must be pumped out. Be-

cause of the complexity of bilge waters, there is, as yet no meaningful characterization scheme. In

undiluted bilge water, the ratio of oil to water is higher than in ballast water. Therefore, multiple

emulsions are probably present. The rate at which a ship generates bilge depend on the age, condition,

and maintenance (O. Fidelis and A. Robert, 1978).

RHA comes after from two kind of process. Which is from physical activation or chemical

activation. The process is by activate the carbon for the rice husk by heating process. Physical or ther-

mal activation is method of activation, entirely within the gas phase where after the carbon produc-

tion, further process of modifications to a carbon by making use single or together the two gasifying

agents which is carbon dioxide and water vapor, where this agents precipitate the carbon atoms from

the structure of the porous carbon high temperature which is over than 800˚C,thus creating more

pores and enlarging the existing pores (Marsh &Reinoso, 2006).

The endothermic reactions are according to the following stoichiometric equations:

C + CO2 = 2CO

C + H20 = CO + H2

Most of oil in bilge tank can be considered as crude oil that are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes

and various aromatic hydrocarbons while others are organic compounds contrain nitrogen, oxygen

and sulfur. There also some trace amount of metals (iron, nickel, copper and vanadium). There are

about 83 to 87% of carbon contain in crude oil. So the possibility of RHA as activated carbon to treat

or filter the oily water in bilge water tank is quite high.

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CONCLUSION

For the conclusion, this study aims to examine the capability of RHA as a filter using to sep-

arate the oil and water in bilge water tank. Thus, if this study is successful, it will has a good impact

on economy where the RHA as the source of low cost activated carbon and this will help to reduce

cost or may be the simplest system to operate as bilge water seperator. Besides, it will help to produce

a clean environment by optimize the use of agriculture source while reducing the agriculture waste for

land and pollution cause by open burning of the waste.

REFERENCES

[1] Ahmaruzzaman, M., & Gupta, V. K. (2011). Rice Husk and Its Ash as Low-Cost Adsorbents in

Water and Wastewater Treatment. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, pg.13589-

13613.

[2] Daifullah, A., Girgis, B., & Gad, H. (2003). Utilization of Agro-Residues (Rice Husk) in Small

Waste Water Treatment Plans. Materials Letters, pg. 1723–1731.

[3] Fidelis A. Osamor, Robert C. Ahlert (1978). Oil/Water Separation. Industrial Environmental

Research Laboratory. Characterization of Oily Wastewaters, pg. 13-15.

[4] Feng, Q., Lin, Q., Gong, F., & Shoya, M. (2004). Adsorption of Lead and Mercury by Rice

Husk Ash. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, pg. 1–8.

[5] Ganvir, V., & Das, K. (2011). Removal of Fluoride from Drinking Water using Aluminum Hy-

droxide Coated Rice Husk Ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials, pg. 1287–1294.

[6] Imyim, A., & Prapalimrungsi, E. (2010). Humic Acids Removal from Water by Aminopropyl

Functionalized Rice Husk Ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials, pg. 775–781.

[7] Marsh, H., & Reinoso, F. R. (2006). Activated Carbon. United Kingdom: Elsevier Science Ltd.

[8] Oidde, M., Dutta, J., & Jadhav, S. (2011). Comparative Adsorption Studies on Activated Rice

Husk and Rice Husk Ash by Using Methylene Blue as Dye. International Congress on Environ-

mental Research at Bits Pilani Goa, pg. 1-11.

[9] Srinivasan, K., Balasubramaniam, N., & Ramakrishna, T. (1998). Studies on Chromium Remov-

al by Rice Husk Carbon. Indian Journal Environmental Health, pg. 376-387.

[10] Sarah V. Thomas (2008). Water pollution issues and developments. Cruise Ship Pollution:

Background, Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues, pg. 1-7.

[11] Zhendi Wang, Scott Stout (2010). Oil Spill Environmental Forensics. Oily Waste / Bilge Water

Discharges, pg. 28-30.

http://www.google.com.my/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Zhendi+Wang%22

http://www.google.com.my/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Scott+Stout%22

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ABSTRACT

Fatigue from the perspective of material science refers to the progressive and localized structural

damage that occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are

above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the surface. The crack will propa-

gate according to the frequency of loading until final catastrophic failure. The objective for this pro-

ject is to determine the safe load where the failure will not occur. Fatigue failure experiment is to find

the relationship between the duration of failure for varies applied load, then plot the Stress (S) versus

Number of loading Cycle (N) graph. Tensile Test Experimental determined the maximum load that

fail in one cycle. For the Fatigue Failure Test, the test sample is loaded at from 90%,

80%,50% ,40%,35% and 25% of the Tensile load and the duration of cycle load that cause Fatigue

Failure is recorded. Fatigue failure stress is inversely proportional to frequency of cyclic load. The

endurance limits or threshold value shows the maximum load where the weld will never fail for un-

limited time. It is found that the endurance limit for the weld joint is about 25% of the tensile load.

Keywords: Catastrophic failure, Endurance limit, Weld joint, Sinusoidal loading

ANALYSIS OF FATIGUE FAILURE OF BUTT JOINT SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC

LOADING

M. F. A. RAZAK


Received 16 September 2013; Revised 6 November 20133; Accepted 11 November 2013

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INTRODUCTION

Fatigue is the progressive, localized and permanent structural damage that is occur in a mate-

rial that subjected to repeating load (George, 1965) [1]. Fatigue may culminate into crack and causes

fracture after certain number of fluctuations. Fatigue damage is caused by simultaneous action of cy-

clic stress, tensile stress, and plastic strain. If anyone from these three is not present, fatigue will be

not initiate and propagate. The plastic strain is resulting from cyclic stress initiates crack; the tensile

stress promotes crack growth (propagation).

Microcracks may be initially present due to welding, heat treatment, or mechanical forming.

If the alternating stress amplitude is high enough, plastic deformation takes place, leading to slip steps

on the surface, continued cycling leads to the initiation of one or more fatigue cracks. Alternately, the

dislocations may pile up against an obstacle, such as an inclusion or grain boundary, and form a slip

band, a cracked particle, decohesion between particle and matrix, or decohesion along the grain

boundary (Bannantine, 1990) [2].

Fatigue failure can be due to wave loading of a ship or offshore structure, the rotation of a

shaft, emptying and filling operations in pressure vessels. The different sources of cyclic loading in-

clude (Bannantine, 1990) [2]:

Fluctuating loads

Acceleration forces in moving structures

Pressure changes

Temperature fluctuations

Mechanical vibrations

Environmental loading (wind, currents and waves)

SCOPE OF PROJECT

This project emphasized an experimental study and analysis of fatigue failure of weldment

subjected to cyclic loading. The test sample is butt joint design hollow section low carbon steel weld-

ed in butt joint.

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METHODOLOGY

Figure 1 shows the basic experimental process to study the relationship between tensile strength and

threshold value for fatigue free design. This relationship is best explained by the S-N chart for a par-

ticular joint configuration and material.

Figure 1 Process flow for experiment and analysis

Figure 2 Force direction applied to the specimen

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TENSILE TESTING

A standard test piece is gripped at either end by suitable apparatus in a testing machine. An

axial pull is exerted slowly so that the steel is stretched until it breaks. The test provides information

on proof stress, yield point, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area (ASM Handbook, p124)

[4].

The test specimen will be subjected to axial load, as shown in figure 2, and if the load is in-

creased from zero to the point of fracture, stress and strain will be computed at each step. A stress-

strain curve can be plotted.

FATIGUE TESTING

Fatigue cracks generally start at stress concentration section or notches of the weldment. As

a general rule, the sharper the notch the shorter the fatigue life. By testing a series of identical speci-

mens it is possible to develop S/N curves. The data is obtained by subjecting the specimens with pro-

longed cyclic loading until failure. The usual procedure is to test the first specimen at tensile stress,

then reduce the stress for subsequent specimen.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Tensile Test Result

Based on the graph of load versus extension, it shows the typical stress-strain profile for duc-

tile material. The graph shows that the material undergoes elastic and plastic behavior before fracture.

In the elastic region, the specimen will return to its original shape if the load is removed. When load

is increased further, the specimen enters the yielding region, which means that a slight increase in

stress above the elastic limit will result in elongation of the material and cause it to deform perma-

nently. The point where this begins is called yield stress. Plastic deformation starts here, if the load is

removed, the material will not return to its original length. Increased the load beyond yield stress, the

load - extension graph is a curve reaching maximum point, the ultimate load. For this specimen the

maximum load is 11.737 kN.

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The curve seems to be decreasing after the ultimate load, while the specimen begins to form

a neck. This phenomenon is caused by slip planes formed within the material and the actual strains

produced are caused by shear stress. Based on the graph, the load will decrease until fracture. The

specimen shows a “neck” is formed before fracture. The load value at this point is the fracture load.

Fatigue Failure Test Result

After conducting the experiment, S-N graph is developed. In service, welded structures may-

be subjected to load with variable amplitude, such as earth quake or wind loading. It is difficult to

predict accurately the loading conditions although some general patterns can be found. For the pur-

pose of experiment, the amplitude of 10 HZ is used for the fatigue failure testing. Maximum and

minimum load is setup using the data from tensile test. Each load cycle has may cause the growth of

the crack and reduces the life of the structure. Fatigue loadings cause cracks to propagate within the

structure until catastrophic failure. In non-welded materials, the fatigue life is marked by three succes-

sive stages initiation, propagation followed by failure. The crack initiation period may also refer to

the time necessary to detect a fatigue crack visually.

Figure 3 Tensile Test Graph

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In welded joints the initiation period can be very short and has significant effect in reducing

the fatigue life of the weld. Welding defect such as that located close to the weld toe and weld root

such as inclusions, porosity, lack of fusion, lack of penetration and at the weld toe microscopic intru-

sions, undercuts may become crack initiator and shorten the fatigue life of the joint Fatigue crack may

initiate at stress concentration points with the stress much lower than the yield stress. Before fatigue

testing, the specimen is inspected visually to be free from surface defect particularly defects that are

visible such as poor weld profile and undercut. Only the toe at HAZ (at stress concentration) is al-

lowed to be the initiator of fatigue crack.

The S-N graph shows that there is a fatigue limit, where if the applied stress is lower that the

limit, no fatigue failure will take place. This is also called endurance limit of the material. The fatigue

limit (or endurance limit) of the material is the minimum stress range which can still develop a fatigue

crack. Below this limit, fatigue crack will not propagate.

Based on Figure 4 the endurance limit is a horizontal line, where the percentage of loading/

stress is about 25% of the tensile stress, it is seen that the number of loading cycle will go to infinity.

But in reality the weld joint may failed due internal weld defect, such as lack of fusion, internal

cracks etc. The existence of weld defect actually reduces the effective cross-section area of the throat.

The stress has therefore increased to the extent that it actually higher than the fatigue limit.

Figure 4 Graph for Fatigue Failure Test

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CONCLUSION

From this experiment, the endurance limits for mild steel butt joint welded hollow section is success-

fully identified. The actual fatigue life can be predicted at 25% the tensile strength. Hence in fabrica-

tion that apply the similar joint design and prolonged exposed to cyclic loading, the design load

should be lower than 25% of tensile strength.

REFERENCES

[1] George E. Linnert. “Welding Metallurgy Carbon and Alloy Steels”. American Welding Socie-

ty, New York

[2] J.A. Bannantine, J.J. Comer, and J.L. Handrock, Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis,

Prentice-Hall, 1990

[3] ASTM E 1150-1987, “Standard Definitions of Fatigue”, 1995 Annual Book of Standards,

ASTM, 1995, P 753-762

[4] ASM Handbook, Volume 19, “Fatigue and Fracture “ASM International Handbook Commit-

tee, P 124


tee, P 235


tee, P 272


tee, P 355


tee, P 587


tee, P 681


tee, P 691


tee, P1060

[12] P.J.E. Forsythe. “The Physical Basis of Metal Fatigue”. Blackie, 1969

[13] J.A Ewing and J.C.W. Humfrey, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A, Vol 200, P241

[14] S.Hirose And M.E. Fine, Metal. Trans. A, Vol 14A, P1189 Fracture,” WES 2805, Japan Welding Engineering Society

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[15] Elements of Strength of Materials by D.R. Malhotra and H.C. Gupta; Satya Parkashan, New

Delhi

[16] D.Wabber, Constant Amplitude and Cumulative Damage Fatigue Tests On Bailey Bridges,

Effects of Environment and Complex Load History On Fatigue Life, STP 462, ASTM, 1970,

15-39

[17] Neville W. Sachs, P.E., Sachs, Salvaterra & Associates, Understand the surface features of

fatigue fracture, Volume 5(2) April 2005.

[18] ASM Handbook, Volume 19, “Mechanical Testing and Evaluation “ASM International Hand-

book Committee, P1595

[19] “The Method of Assessment for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints with Respect to Brittle Frac-

ture,” WES 2805, Japan Welding Engineering Society

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ABSTRACT

The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Fishing

Vessel Personnel, 1995 (STCW-F 1995), has entered into force on 29 September 2012, after the re-

quired 15 ratifications were reached on 29 September 2011, with ratification by the Republic of Pa-

lau. STCW-F Convention addresses training and certification standards for skippers and watch keep-

ers on fishing vessels of more than 24m, for engineers on vessels of more than 750 kW and for crew

in charge of radio communication. National administrations are encouraged by IMO to address the

training and certification standards for crew of smaller vessels. It sets the regulatory framework for

the training and certification of personnel employed on board fishing vessels with a view to improve

the safety of life and property at sea in the fishing industry. This is the first attempt to establish inter-

national mandatory training standards for crew manning and operating fishing vessels and we all hope

that it will indeed have the desired impact and effect.

Keywords: STCW-F, IMO, Safety

INTRODUCTION

Fishing vessel incidents (including accidents and near misses) are considered as the most important

contributor to fatalities in the maritime sector worldwide (FAO 2001) .

A REVIEW OF STANDARD OF TRAINING, CERTIFICATE, AND WATCHKEEPING

FOR FISHERMAN 1995

M. R. ZOOLFAKAR1 AND M. T. A. RAHMAN1


[email protected]

[email protected]

Received 25 July 2013; Revised 23 October 2013; Accepted 23 October 2013

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An estimated number of more than 24,000 lives being lost over a decay worldwide during

fishing operations is a substantial number, which overshadow any related occupational accidents and

fatalities in onshore industries (ILO 1999). The later prompted the International Maritime Organiza-

tion (IMO) to initiate various efforts in order to address the issue. However, fishermen and workers

onboard fishing vessels are still high up in the list of being employed in one of the most dangerous

job in the world (E.Rizzuto, 2012).

The main purposes of establishing IMO are to improve maritime safety and to prevent pollu-

tion of marine environment. There are many conventions regarding safety. However, the following

are the most related to this study:

1. Torremolinos International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels (or SFV),

1977

2. The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-

Keeping for Seafarers (or STCW), 1978.

HISTORY OF STCW-F

It started in 1993 with the introduction of the Protocol relating to the 1977 Torremolinos International

Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels as shown in figure 1:

Figure 1 1993 Torremolinos Protocol

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Then, 1977 Torremolinos Convention:

Safety regime for fishing vessels of 24m in length

Has not enter into force

Next, 1993 Torremolinos Protocol:

Updates 1977 Torremolinos Convention

Entry into force requirements. 15 ratifications, aggregating 14,000 fishing vessels

over 24m

Later, 1995 STCW-F convention:

Stipulate training and certification for fishing vessel of 24m

Basic Safety Training (BST) for all fishing vessel personnel that is for certification

of skippers, officers, engineer officers and radio operators and watchkeeping.

Entry into force requirements: 15 ratifications

Current status: 6 ratifications

STCW-F CONVENTION

The STCW-F Convention is comparatively short and consists of 15 Articles and an annex con-

taining technical regulations in four chapters. The associated regulations to the Convention which

apply to these fishing vessels cover (STCW-F, 1995):

Chapter I – General Provisions

Chapter II – Certification of skippers, officers, engineer officers and radio opera

tors.

Regulation 1 – Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of skippers on

fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over operating in unlimited waters;

Regulation 2 - Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of officers in

charge of a navigational watch on fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over

operating in unlimited waters;

Regulation 3 - Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of skippers on

fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over operating in limited waters;

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Regulation 4 - Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of officers in charge of a

navigational watch on fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over operating in limited

waters;

Regulation 5 – Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of chief engineer officers

and second engineer officers of fishing vessels powered by main propulsion machinery of

750 kW propulsion power or more.

Regulation 6 - Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of personnel in charge of

performing radiocommunication duties on board fishing vessels;

Regulation 7 – Mandatory minimum requirements to ensure the continued proficiency and

updated of knowledge for skippers, officers and engineering officers;

Regulation 8 - Mandatory minimum requirements to ensure the continued proficiency and

updated of knowledge for GMDSS radio personnel;

Chapter III – Basic safety training for all fishing vessel personnel

Regulation 1 – Basic training for all fishing vessel personnel.

Chapter IV – Watchkeeping

Regulation 1 – Basic principles to observe in keeping a navigational watch on board fishing

vessels;

The STCW-F Convention will contribute to the reduction of casualties, and will go a long way to

improve the present poor safety record of the global fishing industry. The STCW-F Convention will

apply to crew onboard seagoing fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and above. It sets the regulato-

ry framework for the training and certification of personnel employed on board fishing vessels with a

view to improve the safety of life and property at sea in the fishing industry. This is the first attempt

to establish international mandatory training standards for crew manning and operating fishing ves-

sels and we all hope that it will indeed have the desired impact and effect.

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CONCLUSION

As a conclusion, the safety of fishermen and fishing vessel forms an integral part of the IMO’s man-

date but the instruments on fishing vessel safety, which have been adopted by the IMO, have not

come into force in Malaysia due to a variety of technical and legal obstacle and unfortunately the fish-

ing sector is still experiencing a large number of fatalities every year. Now, the entry into force of

STCW-F Convention on 29th September 2012 and the ongoing work to bring into force the Torremo-

linos Protocol as a binding international safety regime, are expected to play a part in helping reverse

that trend.

REFERENCES

[1] IMO (2012) International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep-

ing for Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F), 1995. IMO Publication

[2] IMO (2012) International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep-

ing for Seafarers (STCW) .Available from http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/

listofconventions/pages/international-convention-on-standards-of-training,-certification-and-

watchkeeping-for-seafarers-(stcw).aspx Adoption: 7 July 1978; Entry into force: 28 April 1984;

Major revisions in 1995 and 2010. IMO Publications (Accessed 22nd April 2013)

[3] E.Rizzuto, G. S. (2012). Sustainable Maritime Transportation and Explotation of Sea Re-

sources. In G. S. E.Rizzuto, Sustainable Maritime Transportation and Explotation of Sea Re-

sources (p. 747). CRC Press/Balkema.

[4] Maritime Trends: Ruminations and Conversations (2011) ,New STCW -F regime for fishing

crews (Accessed on 24th April 2013)

[5] European Commission (2012), Tripartite seminar on IMO STCW -F Convention and fishing

training in Europe. Available from http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/maritimeday/

conference_2012/22_may/workshops/workshop26_en.htm (Accessed 22nd April 2013).

http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/listofconventions/pages/international-convention-on-standards-of-training,-certification-and-watchkeeping-for-seafarers-(stcw).aspx



http://www.marine-cafe.com/new-stcw-f-regime-for-fishing-crews/

http://www.marine-cafe.com/new-stcw-f-regime-for-fishing-crews/

http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/maritimeday/conference_2012/22_may/workshops/workshop26_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/maritimeday/conference_2012/22_may/workshops/workshop26_en.htm

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ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to review some of the standards applicable to the construction of steel

ship based on the rules, requirements and recommendations established by the Ship Classifica-

tion Societies and their association, IACS. It focuses mainly on the requirements and recom-

mendation of shipbuilding quality standards for the hull structure during new construction. The

author attempts to correlate these standards applicable to a typical scenario of shipbuilding con-

struction process. The paper outlines and highlights on points pertaining to the materials for

steel hull, hull structural survey/ inspection requirement and planning, shipyards’ workshop and

welding preparation prior to commencement of construction; hull inspections during construc-

tion stages, acceptance criteria, typical defects and its remedial based on a typical hull construc-

tion method and process flow and in accordance to IACS Recommendation.

Keywords: Ship, Hull Structure, IACS, Quality, Inspection.

INTRODUCTION

Background

The shipbuilding industry has been identified as a crucial sector to support the development of the

Malaysian’s shipping sector and the growth of its trade, the offshore oil and gas exploration and pro-

duction related activities as well marine tourism.

STEEL HULL CONSTRUCTION IN RELATION TO CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY AND

IACS SHIPBUILDING STANDARDS

F. AYOB

Department of Marine Engineering Technology,

Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur

[email protected]

Received 1 August 2013; Revised 25 October 2013; Accepted 25 October 2013

___________________________________________


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The number of shipyards in Malaysia with manufacturing licenses has grown over the years

with some moderate size yards are capable of building and servicing vessels of considerable size that

could build patrol vessels, Offshore Support Vessels (OSVs), passenger vessels and leisure craft for

the export market, producing reliable vessels at very competitive costs. Large fabricators can build

specialised vessels such as Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) and provide high-end

services for the offshore oil and gas sectors [1].

Notwithstanding the above, small shipyards that are many in number especially in East Ma-

laysia, labour-intensive and inefficient shipbuilding methods and processes are still employed. Weld-

ing techniques and processes are still done manually or with semi-automated machines. At some of

these small shipyards, quality system almost does not exist, hence, without shipbuilding quality stand-

ards, shipyards’ workers and subcontractors are lacking in the awareness on quality and not properly

trained on inspection processes and the relevant shipbuilding quality standards. These resulted in high

frequency of product reworks, which also mean high cost of reworks. These render them uncompeti-

tive and inhibit the production of high quality vessels.

To enlighten the above problems faced by local shipyards and Malaysia shipbuilding indus-

try in general, the Association of Marine Industries of Malaysia (AMIM) and UniKL-MIMET are

currently developing a short course module entitled ‘Hull Inspection’ with the aim to offer training on

quality and inspection of hull structure during construction to the shipyards and their subcontractors

especially to those involved in the production and quality control activities. International Association

of Classification Societies (IACS) Recommendation, Rec. No. 47, Part A- “Shipbuilding and Remedi-

al Quality Standards for New Construction” will be the main standards to be used for this training

besides promoting this standard to the shipyards where this standard may become a common standard

for shipbuilding in Malaysia..

It is also one of the objectives of writing this paper so that it could be a reference for local

shipyards to get themselves prepared for engaging projects of ship built “under class” and enhance

their quality awareness level and competitiveness especially those small shipyards without a proper

quality system and shipbuilding quality standards.

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CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY AND IACS

Ships are built by shipyards to ship owners/ shipping company’s demands/ specifications/

requirements or in accordance with a Contract Building Specification. Seagoing ships are built in ac-

cordance with Rules and Regulations of a Ship Classification Society (referred here as Society). The

Rules published by the Society underline the requirements for the assignment and the maintenance of

classification for seagoing vessels in complying with the requirements of International Conventions,

such as Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), International Load Lines, Maritime Pollution (MARPOL),

International Labour Organization (ILO) or of International Maritime Organization (IMO) Assembly

Resolutions. IMO may establish the broad requirements and then leave it to the Classification Socie-

ties to develop the detailed Rules that will allow industry to meet those targets.

The main Societies are American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), Bureau Veritas (BV), Det

Norske Veritas (DNV), Germanischer Lloyd (GL), Lloyd’s Register (LR), Nippon Kaiji Kyokai

(NKK), Korean Register (KR), China Classification Society (CSS), Russian Maritime Register of

Shipping (RS) and Registro Italiano Navale (RINA).

The purpose of a Classification Society is to provide classification and statutory services and

assistance to the maritime industry and regulatory bodies as regards maritime safety and pollution

prevention, based on the accumulation of maritime knowledge and technology. These classification

societies published rules and regulations which are principally concerned with the strength and struc-

tural integrity of the ship, the provision of adequate equipment, and the reliability of the machinery.

The society approves the relevant drawings, and checks the actual constructions. Classification is con-

trolling strength and quality of materials and workmanship in connection with the ship, when built

‘under class’. The Classification Society issues a certificate upon completion of construction: the cer-

tificate of Class for Hull and Machinery.

Dedicated to safe ships and clean seas, the International Association of Classification Societies,

IACS was formed in 1968 by seven leading Societies, makes a unique contribution to maritime safety

and regulation through technical support, compliance verification and research and development.

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Currently more than 90% of the world's cargo carrying tonnage is covered by the classifica-

tion design; construction and through-life compliance Rules and standards set by the thirteen Member

Societies of IACS [2]. The main purpose of IACS as recommended by the IMO is to nurture collabo-

ration between Classification Societies to secure as much uniformity as possible in the development

and application of the Rules and standards. Certain Unified Requirements have been agreed by IACS

Members and transposed into the individual Members’ Rules which become common rules.

IACS also published standards, guidelines and recommendation, not necessarily on matters of

class such as IACS Recommendation No. 47 and other related standards that provide guidance and

requirements on shipbuilding quality standards for the hull structure during new construction and the

remedial standard where the quality standard is not met. The standard generally applies to conven-

tional merchant ship types, parts of hull covered by the rules of the Classification Society, hull struc-

tures constructed from normal and higher strength hull structural steels, and does not generally apply

to special types of ships such as gas tankers, structures fabricated from stainless steel or other, special

types or grades of steel.

OVERVIEW OF SHIPBUILDING

Definition of Shipbuilding

Shipbuilding normally involves the following activities:

The construction of ships and floating vessels.

Normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard.

Shipbuilders, also called ship wrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to

before recorded history.

Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as "naval engi-

neering".

The construction of boats is a similar activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships

is called ship breaking.

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In the 20th century, shipbuilding (which includes shipyards, marine equipment manufactur-

ers, and many related service and knowledge providers) grow as an important and strategic industry

in a number of countries around the world. This importance is derived from:

The large number of skilled workers required directly by the shipyard, along with

supporting industries such as steel mills and engine manufacturers.

A country's need to produce and repair its own navy and merchant vessels that sup

port its main industries.

Leading Nation and Shipbuilding Company [3]

South Korea

The world's largest shipbuilding nation in 2011.

The global leader in the production of advanced high-tech vessels such as cruise

liners , super tankers , LNG carriers , drill ships, and large-sized container ships.

China

An emerging shipbuilder that briefly overtook South Korea during the 2008- 2010

global financial as they won new orders for medium and small-sized container

ships based on their cheap prices, although its current production is limited mainly

to basic vessels.

Japan

Lost its once industry leading position to South Korea in 2003, and its market share

has since fallen sharply.

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TOP 10 SHIPBUILDING COMPANIES IN THE WORLD IN 2012:

Top shipbuilding companies in the world in 2012 are shown in Table 1.

STEEL HULL CONSTRUCTION

IACS Shipbuilding Quality Standard

IACS Recommendation, Rec. No. 47, Part A- Shipbuilding and Remedial Quality Standards

for New Construction, is a standard that provides guidance on shipbuilding quality standards

for the hull structure during new construction and the remedial standard where the quality

standard is not met [4].

The application of this standard together with other relevant IACS standards (i.e. Unified

Requirements and Recommendation) as well the classification Rules from materials through to a typi-

cal construction method and stages are outlined below. Shipyard is recommended to use this standard

where established and recognized shipbuilding or national standards accepted by the Classifica-

tion Society do not exist [4].

Table 1.Top 10 Shipbuilding Companies in the world in 2012 [3]

Ranking Shipbuilding Companies Country

1 Hyundai Heavy Industry Ulsan, South Korea

2 Daewoo Shipbuilding Okpo, South Korea

3 Samsung Heavy Industry Geoje, South Korea

4 Hyundai Samho Samho, South Korea

5 Mitsubishi Heavy Industry Nagasaki, Japan

6 Tsuneisi Shipbuilding Numakuma, Japan

7 Oshima Shipbuilding Oshima, Japan

8 Hyundai Mipo Ulsan, South Korea

9 Imabari Shipbuilding Marugame, Japan

10 Shanghai Waigaoqiao Shanghai, China

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MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Approval of Materials

All materials to be used for ships are to be manufactured at works which have been approved by the

Classification Society for the type and grade of steel which is being supplied. The suitability of each

grade of steel for forming and welding is to be demonstrated during the initial approval tests at the

steelworks, according to IACS unified requirements [5] and shipbuilding quality standard [4].

NORMAL AND HIGHER STRENGTH HULL STRUCTURAL STEEL

Normal Strength Steel

Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel of normal strength. Normal strength

steels are divided into four grades A, B, D and E. The letters A, B, D and E mean impact properties at

+20, 0, −20 and −40°C, respectively. These steel grades are having the same tensile strength but hav-

ing different toughness (impact strength) with greater values in the letters ascending order.

High Strength Steels

Steels having a higher strength than that of mild steel are employed in the more highly

stressed regions of large tankers, container ships and bulk carriers. Higher strength steels are divided

into four grades identified by the letters AH, DH, EH and FH followed by a number related to the

yield strength level. For higher strength steels, the letters AH, DH, EH and FH mean impact proper-

ties at 0, −20, −40 and −60°C, respectively.

Identification, Marking and Certification of Materials

Prior to delivery to shipyards, products, which have satisfactorily undergone the required

inspection and tests of the Classification Society, are to be appropriately marked (stamped or painted)

by the Manufacturer in at least one easily accessible location. Steel plates should usually be marked

with the e.g. name or initials of Manufacturer, material, grade and heat number, code for calendar

year, Society's brand, etc. For products tested with satisfactory results, the Society issues a certificate

signed by the Surveyor stating that the products have been tested in accordance with the Society's

Rules.

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HULL STRUCTURE SURVEY AND INSPECTION

Scope of Hull Structure

The scope of hull structure as defined by IACS unified requirements, UR Z 23 “Hull Survey for New

Construction” requirements is as follows: [6]

a. Hull envelope including all internal and external structures;

b. Superstructures, deckhouses and casings;

c. Welded foundations, e.g. main engine seatings;

d. Hatch coamings, bulwarks;

e. All penetrations fitted and welded into bulkheads, decks and shell;

f. The fittings of all connections to decks, bulkheads and shell, such as air pipes and

ship side valves – all International Load Line Convention (ILLC) 1966, as amend-

ed, items;

g. Welded attachments to shell, decks and primary members, e.g. crane pedestals, bitts

and bollards, but only as regards their interaction on the hull structure.

Hull Survey and Inspection Requirements and Planning

A survey of ship under construction as per IACS requirements [6] involved the:

a. Examination of the parts of the ship covered by classification rules and by

applicable statutory regulations for hull construction, to obtain appropriate evi-

dence that they have been built in compliance with the rules and regulations, taking

account of the relevant approved drawings.

a. Appraisal of the manufacturing, construction, control and qualification procedures,

including welding consumables, weld procedures, weld connections and assem-

blies with indication of relevant approval tests.

b. Witnessing of inspections and tests as required in the classification rules used for

ship construction including materials, welding and assembling, specifying the

items to be examined and/or tested and how (e.g. by hydrostatic, hose or leak test-

ing, non-destructive examination, verification of geometry) and by whom.

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Prior to commencement of surveys for any newbuilding project, the society will discuss with

the shipbuilder at a kick off meeting on the list of surveyable items for the hull structure as in Table 1

of IACS unified requirement on hull survey for new construction [6]. The purpose of the meeting is to

agree on how the list of specific activities in the Table 1 [6] is to be addressed. The meeting is to take

into account the shipbuilder’s construction facilities and ship type including the list of proposed sub-

contractors. Shipbuilding quality standards for the hull structure during new construction are to be

reviewed and agreed during the kick-off meeting. Structural fabrication is to be carried out in accord-

ance with IACS Recommendation 47, “Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standard”, or a recognized

fabrication standard which has been accepted by the Classification Society prior to the commence-

ment of fabrication/construction [6].

The contents of surveyable items list of Table 1 [6] are:

a. Description of the shipbuilding functions;

b. Classification and statutory survey requirements;

c. Survey method required for classification;

d. Relevant IACS and statutory requirement references;

e. Documentation to be available for the classification surveyor during construction.

f. Documents to be inserted into the ship construction file.

g. A list of specific activities which are relevant to the shipbuilding functions

From the discussion at the kick-off meeting and the list of surveyable items, the shipbuilder

is to provide plans of the hull structural items which are intended to be examined and tested. This plan

which is known as “examination and test plans’ [6] or ‘Inspection and Test Plan” (ITP), and any mod-

ifications to them are to be submitted to the surveyors in sufficient time to allow review before the

relevant survey activity commences. An ITP for hull construction is usually developed in accordance

to the construction method and process flow. This ITP becomes the master plan and the main refer-

ence for conducting inspection and testing throughout the construction stages.

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A typical ITP contents are:

a. Quality related activities/ Inspection items

b. Characteristic to be verified/ Check points

c. Reference documents, Acceptance Criteria (e.g. drawing, specifications, standards

i.e. shipbuilding quality standards, procedures i.e. Welding Procedure Specification

(WPS), Welder Qualification Test (WQT), welding schedule/ sequences, etc.)

d. Parties involve in the inspection and their responsibility and authority

The list of documents approved or reviewed by the classification society for the specific new con-

struction are as follows: [6]

a. Plans and supporting documents

b. Examination and testing plans/ ITP

c. Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) plans

d. Welding consumable details

e. Welding procedure specifications

f. Welding plan or details (weld schedule)

g. Welder’s qualification records

h. NDE operator’s qualification records

WELDING PREPARATION

Approval and Requirements for Welding Shops

Shipyards and welding shops, including branches and subcontractors, wishing to perform

welding work covered by Society Rules must have been approved for this work by the Society prior

to start work. The preconditions for this approval are that the shops satisfy certain requirements and

have been inspected by the Society [7]. The Society rules shall be referred for the details.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Test (WPQT)

Welding operations are to be carried out in accordance with work instructions accepted by

the Classification Society. Welding procedure qualification tests are intended to verify that a ship-

yard/ manufacturer is adequately qualified to perform welding operations using a particular procedure

known as welding procedure specifications (WPS) [8] . Welding procedure specifications are to refer

to the test results achieved during welding procedure qualification testing (WPQT). Welding proce-

dures are to be qualified in accordance with IACS unified requirement, UR W28 “Welding Procedure

Qualification Tests of Steels for Hull Construction and Marine Structures” or other recognized stand-

ard accepted by the Classification Society [4].

Welder Qualification Test (WQT)

Welding of hull structures is to be carried out by qualified welders. Welders are to be

qualified in accordance with the procedures of the Classification Society or to a recog-

nized national or international standard. Recognition of other standards is subject to sub-

mission to the Classification Society for evaluation. Subcontractors are to keep records of

welders’ qualification and, when required, furnish valid approval test certificates [4].

WELDING CONSUMABLES

Weld consumables to be used for the welding of structural members are to be

approved by the Classification Society as per IACS unified requirements, UR W17 “Approval of

Consumables for Welding Normal and Higher Strength Hull Structural Steels” for the said grades of

steels [4]. The manufacturer's plant, methods of production and quality control of welding consuma-

bles are to be such as to ensure reasonable uniformity in manufacture. The concerned welding con-

sumables are divided into several categories as follows: [9]

a. Covered electrodes for manual welding and gravity welding,

b. Wire/flux combinations for two run or multirun submerged arc welding,

c. Solid wire/gas combinations for arc welding,

d. Flux cored wires with or without gas for arc welding,

e. Consumables for use in electroslag and electrogas vertical welding

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Welding Equipment, Environment and Supervision

According to a class Rule, welding shops must have at their disposal suitable workshops,

equipment, machinery and jigs on a scale necessary for proper performance of the welding work. This

includes, for example, the provision of storage facilities and baking equipment for the welding con-

sumables and auxiliary materials, preheating and heat treatment equipment, testing equipment,

and means of weather protection for carrying out welding work in the open air. Necessary welding

equipment are to be correctly calibrated and maintained [7].

Welding operations are to be carried out under proper supervision by the shipbuilder. The

working conditions and environment for welding are to be monitored by the Classification Society in

accordance with IACS unified requirements, UR Z 23 “Hull Survey for New Construction” [4]

According to a class Rule, welders are to be supervised and assisted, in the course of the

welding operation, by an adequate number of competent supervisors, such as to ensure efficient con-

trol of the welding production. Certification of the welding inspectors is not compulsory and is left to

the discretion of the shipyard/ Manufacturer, except in particular cases where it may be required by

the Society [7].

Qualification of NDE Operators

Personnel performing non-destructive examination for the purpose of assessing

quality of welds in connection with new construction covered by this standard are to be qualified in

accordance with Classification Society rules or to a recognized international or national qualifi-

cation scheme. Records of operators and their current certificates are to be kept and made

available to the Surveyor for inspection [4]. Further detail refer to IACS Recommendation No. 20

“Non-destructive testing of ship hull steel welds” for requirements of personnel involved in Non-

Destructive Testing (NDT).

INSPECTION DURING CONSTRUCTION STAGES

Generally inspections are carried out based on a quality system developed and for a ship-

building project specifically referred to the ITP as discussed earlier. Below passages describe about a

typical inspection processes of hull structure based on a typical construction method and samples on

the inspections and the application of IACS shipbuilding quality standard [4].

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Materials Receiving Inspection

All incoming materials to shipyard are to be inspected and verified against the relevant specifications

and client requirements. Figure 1 shows a shipyard marshalling and inspection area.

Materials Identification and verification

Steel plates and sections should be delivered together with the mill and test certificate. Shipyard qual-

ity control is to verify the certificate (i.e. signed by surveyor), identify and tally the details (e.g. name

or initials of Manufacturer, material, grade and heat number, code for calendar year, Society's brand,

etc.) marked on the e.g. plate in figure 2 below against the mill/ test certificate and the construction

drawing.

Figure1 Marshalling and inspection area

Figure 2 Plate marked with identifications

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Material conditions

Surface Conditions

Minor Imperfections: Pitting rolled-in scale, indentations, roll marks, scratches and grooves.

Defects: Cracks, shells, sand patches, sharp edged seams and minor imperfections not exceeding the

limits of Table 1 [4] in case that the sum of the influenced area exceeds 5% of the total surface in

question.

Acceptance without Remedies

Minor imperfections, in accordance with the limits described in Table 1 [2] are permissible and may

be left as they are.

Remedial of Defects

Defects are to be remedied by grinding and/or welding in accordance with an IACS recommendation

[10].

Marking, Gas Cutting and Part Fabrication Stage

The roughness of the cut edges is to meet the requirements as specified in IACS recommendation [4].

Beside roughness dimensional check is also carried out at this fabrication stage.

Dimension After Cutting:

General members compared with correct sizes …… +- 5 mm

Depth of floor and girder of double bottom compared with correct sizes …….. +- 4 mm

Typical a part dimensional is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3 Gas cutting and part fabrication process

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Minor Assembly (Part Assembly) Stage

During minor assembly stage, Figure 6 is a typical item inspected and its specification,

Breadth of flange:

Standard: +- 3 mm,

Limit: +- 5 mm

Figure 4 Flanged Longitudinal and Flanged Brackets

Figure 5 Minor assembly process

Standard: + - 1.5 mm

Limit: +- 3 mm, per 100

mm of a

Figure 6 Built Up Sections: Frames and longitudinal

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Panel Assembly Stage: Flat Plate & Curved Plate

Typical items inspected at this panel assembly stage and the specifications use based on IACS [4] are

shown in Table 2.

Sub- Block and Block Assembly Stage: Flat Cubic & Curved Cubic

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show a typical construction at sub-block and block assembly stages.

Figure 7 Panel assembly process i.e. deck panel

Table 2.Flat Plate Assembly

Figure 8 Sub-block assembly process Figure 9 Block, Grand Block/Module assembly pro-

cess

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Typical items inspected at this block assembly stage and the specifications use based on IACS [4] are

shown in Table 3.

Block/ Module Erection Stage

Typical items inspected at this block erection stage are leveling, alignment, dimensions and the weld

joints before and after welding.

Fairing Work

Table 3. Curved Cubic Assembly

Figure 10 Block/ Module erection process

Figure 11 Fairing work Figure 12 Fairness of Plating between frame

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Parts of hull structure inspected for fairness and the specifications use are as in IACS [4]

Alignment and Fitting

Figure 14 is a typical example of an assembly misalignment (defect) and remedial

Welding

Figure 13 Alignment and Fitting Process

Figure 14 Butt connection

Butt connection misalignment, remedial:

Strength member; a > 0.15t1 or a > 4 mm,

release and adjust

Other a > 0.2t1 or a > 4 mm, release and

adjust

Figure 15 Welded hull structure

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Typical example butt weld defect and remedial [4]:

NDT

IACS Rec. No.20 – “Non-destructive testing of ship hull steel welds” is an IACS’s standard

that gives guidance on the minimum requirements on the methods and quality levels that may be

adopted for the nondestructive testing (NDT) of ship hull steel welds during new building and ship

repair. The nondestructive testing is normally to be performed by the shipbuilder or its subcontractors

in accordance with these requirements and the Classification Society’s surveyor may require to wit-

ness some testing. The methods mentioned in this document (IACS Rec. No.20), for detection of sur-

face imperfections are visual testing (VT), liquid penetrant testing (PT) and magnetic particle testing

(MT). The methods mentioned for detection of internal imperfections are ultrasonic testing (UT) and

radiographic testing (RT). The extent of testing should be planned by the Shipbuilder according to the

ship design, ship type and welding processes used. Particular attention should be paid to highly

stressed areas. Shipbuilder should submit a plan (NDT Plan) for approval by the Classification Socie-

ty, specifying the areas to be examined and the extent of testing with reference to the NDT procedures

to be used [11].

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The author has managed to review and correlate the relevant society and IACS requirements,

recommendations and standards pertaining to shipbuilding quality to a typical construction of a steel

hull. This effort hopefully will be a reference especially for the shipyards and the academic fraternity

in search of materials related to shipbuilding quality.

Figure 16 Butt weld defect

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In order to be competitive, shipyards in Malaysia need to reduce it reworks rate, which

would mean a reduce cost of reworks. This will inevitably increase quality and productivity, hence

reduce price, deliver projects on time and meet the expectation of the customers. One way of achiev-

ing this is by developing a good quality system including systematically train own workers and sub-

contractors on quality and inspections based on classification societies rules and IACS requirements

and recommendations especially IACS shipbuilding quality standard, IACS Recommendation No. 47,

“Shipbuilding and Repair Quality Standards”. Last but not least, it is highly recommended for this

quality standard to become a common shipbuilding quality standard for all shipyards in Malaysia.

REFERENCES

[1] Nazery Khalid (May, 2010). Full Speed Ahead! : The curious case of Malaysian shipbuild

ing industry. Feature/ Opinion, www. Baird Maritime.com.

[2] http://www.iacs.org.uk/

[3] http://www.marineinsight.com/marine/marine-news/headline/top-10-shipbuilding-companies

-in-the-world-in-2012.

[4] IACS (May, 2012). IACS Recommendation No. 47, Part A- “Shipbuilding and Remedial

Quality Standards for New Construction”.

[5] IACS (Feb, 2009). IACS Unified Requirement W11 “Normal and higher strength hull struc

tural steel”

[6] IACS (August, 2012). IACS Unified Requirement Z23 “Hull survey for new construction”

[7] Germanischer Lloyd (2004), Rules and Guideline 2004, Volume 2- Part 3- Section 2 Re

quirements for Welding Shops, Approval.

[8] IACS (Mar, 2012). IACS Unified Requirement W28 “Welding procedure qualification tests

of steels for hull construction and marine structures’

[9] IACS (June, 2005). IACS Unified Requirement W17 “Approval of consumables for welding

normal and higher strength hull structural steels”

[10] IACS (1983). IACS Recommendation No. 12 “Guidelines for surface finish of hot rolled

plates and wide flats”.

[11] IACS (December 2007). IACS Recommendation No. 20 “Non-destructive testing of ship

hull steel welds”.

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ABSTRACT

The main problem facing the marine consultant or the ship builder is to evaluate the exact perfor-

mance of the fuel related to the heating element in the fuel oil tank. The problem is, as the use of fuel

as the main combustion element in the vessel, it is essential for marine engineer to evaluate the per-

formance of fuel oil in term of the factors that are affecting it. The variables affecting this heat trans-

fer for the fuel plays an important role for the purpose of the efficiency of the main engine. Thus, this

paper will focuses on finding the effect parameter of heat transfer of the fuel oil in the fuel oil tank to

regulate its allowable condition for combustion purpose of the ship’s engine.

Keywords: Heat transfer , Parameter , Fuel Oil Tank, Heavy Fuel Oil, Mar ine Diesel Oil.

INTRODUCTION

The art and science of seamanship has developed from the experience of maritime nations

over many centuries. Sea travel has passed through the days of propulsion by oars, the discovery days

of sail, through the advances of steam on the age of oil, and finally to the atomic period of advanced

technology. The art of mastering the means of transportation on water, having seen the excitement of

discovering new worlds and the conquering of new boundaries, settled for the advance of trades in all

directions of compass.

HEAT TRANSFER IN FUEL OIL TANK: AN INTRODUCTION

M. R. ZOOLFAKAR1 AND A. K. RAJAB1


[email protected]

[email protected]

Received 25 July 2013; Revised 7 November 2013; Accepted 12 November 2013

___________________________________________


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The ship, once stored and provisioned, becomes the ideal in self- sufficiency, capable of the

transport of cargo, livestock, troop, passenger’s gas, fluid, minerals etc. The fact that the vessel pro-

vides a sources of power which can cope with varying degrees of emergency and still be able to sus-

tain itself says a lot for the developed marine industry. The ship equipped with ancillary equipment

and system as required being able to load and offload, in safe condition, all cargoes and passengers as

the vessel is designed to accommodate or transport goods. (House, 2001)

For foreign going vessel, usually the ship owners tend to use Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) rather

than Diesel Fuel Oil to run any particular ship. The main factors that contribute toward that selection

are due to its cost consumption and other factors. Heavy fuel oils (HFO) have the highest viscosity

and density of any product sold by a refinery as fuel oil.

In many cases, the ships’ systems cannot handle these heavy residual fuel oils, so they are

blended to produce a fuel that is suitable for use. Blended residual fuel oils, or intermediate fuel oils

(IFO), are mixtures of MDO and heavy residual fuel oils and are heated first to improve the viscosity,

density, vanadium content, carbon content, or other characteristics of a heavy residual fuel before it’s

been supplied to the main engine (Harrington, 1992). The variables affecting this heat transfer for the

fuel plays an important role for the purpose of the efficiency of the main engine.

Finally, this paper will provided clear understanding to the student about the fundamental

concept of heat transfer and constitute element in the heat transfer itself. Thus, variables affecting the

heat transfer could be found and analysed.

Heat Transfer and Heat Transfer Mode

According to Rathore and Kapuno (2011), the meaning of heat transfer is referring to the

definition of heat or heat energy: Heat is a form of energy in transit due to a temperature difference.

Heat transfer is the transmission of energy from one region to another region as a result of the temper-

ature difference between them. Whenever there exist a temperature difference in media or within a

medium, heat transfer must occur. There are two types of heat transfer modes exist for this particular

research, which is convection and conduction that occur in the fuel oil tank.

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Heat Transfer by Conduction

Heat conduction refers to the transfer of heat through material. Conduction can occur within

both solids and fluids. It is considered that the energy transfer occurs through molecules which are

more or less stationary. Conduction will take place if there exist a temperature gradient in a solid (or

stationary fluid) medium. Energy is transferred from more energetic to less energetic molecules when

neighboring molecules collide. Conductive heat flow occur in direction of the decreasing temperature

since higher temperature are associated with higher molecular energy. Figure 1 defines a conduction

situation in which heat transfer is taking place across a plane-parallel wall.

Fourier's Law express conductive heat transfer as

Where d is the thickness’s difference (mm), is the rate of heat flow (W), A is the area of the coil

(m2), T is the temperature gradient (K/m) and K is the thermal conductivityof the material.

Heat Transfer by Convection

Convection is the heat transfer process which involves the mass movement of fluids. This mode of

heat transfer comprises of two mechanisms.

Figure 1 Conduction across a plane-parallel wall. (Source: Gevhane, 2008).

(1.1)

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In addition to energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion), energy is also

transferred by the bulk, or macroscopic, motion of the fluid.( Rathore and Kapuno, 2008). Figure 2

defines a conduction situation in which heat transfer is taking place across a plane-parallel wall.

The total heat transfer rate may be obtained by integrating the heat flux

Where is the rate of heat flow (W), A is the surface area of the coil (m2), h is the convec-

tion heat transfer coefficient, W/(m² K), Tw is the wall temperature (coil) (K), Tf is the fluid tempera-

ture(steam) (K).

Combined Conduction and Convection

In most practical situations, the heat transfer takes place with two events occurring together.

The process in which both heat convection and heat conduction take place are commonly occur, par-

ticularly in the fuel oil tank. In the fuel oil tank, the heat transfer processes involve convection from

the steam supply (fluid A) to the inner surface of the heating coil, conduction across the metal wall

and the convection from the outer surface of the heating coil to the surrounding fuel (Fluid B) (refer

to Figure 3).

Figure 2 Conduction situation across a plane-parallel wall. Source: Spakovszky (2007)

(1.2)

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Where ta1 is the temperature on the inlet side of the wall (steam), t1 is the inlet face temperature, t2 is

the exit face temperature and ta2 is the temperature on the exit side of the wall (fuel). By adding the

equation of conduction and convection, the formulae obtain is.

Where is the rate of heat transfer (J/s or W), ta1 is the temperature of the steam supply (K), ta2 is

the temperature of the fuel oil (K), h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, W/(m² K), K is the

thermal conductivity of the material and X or d is the cross-section distance of material (coil).

Heat Transfer from a Fluid inside a Cylinder to a Fluid outside

Figure 4 shows the cross-section through a cylinder of the heating coil whose internal radius

is r1 and the external radius is r2. We study the heat transfer from the hot fluid A (steam), having a

bulk temperature TA, inside the cylinder to the cold fluid B (fuel oil) outside at a temperature TB. The

heat is flowing, under steady condition, only in the radial direction and there is no heat conduction

along the length of the cylinder.

Figure 3 Combined conductive and convective heat transfer. (Source: Spakovszky, (2007))

(1.3)

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A method similar to that applied to the combined conductive and convective heat transfer

through a plane wall may also be used here. The only difference is that here the log-mean area (ln)

should be used in place of surface area for the conduction through the wall of the cylinder.

Where is the rate of heat transfer (J/s or W), L is the length of heating coil (m), ta1 is the tempera-

ture of the steam supply (K), ta2 is the temperature of the fuel oil (K), r1 Inner radius of the heating

coil (mm) and r2 is the Outer radius of the heating coil (mm).

Principle Approach of Heat Transfer

Heating and cooling of fluids flowing inside conduits are among the most important heat

transfer process in engineering (Kreith et. al, 2010). This show supply steam temperature inside the

heating play major role during flows of heat in the tank. From this, the amount of heat required to

heat the fuel inside the tank must be well regulate. For better understanding on how assimilate the

discussed formula above with this case study is by referring to the figure 5 below. The parameters

that affecting the heat transfer could be recognized during the flow process of the heat with this aid of

diagram.

Figure 4 Combined heat transfer through a cylinder in the radial direction.

(Source: Spakovszky, (2007))

(1.4)

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The heat flow process is been divided into four important stages, when the heat flows through;

(A) Supply steam temperature,

(B) Wall of the Coil,

(C) Fuel Oil (Closer to the wall of coil),

(D) Fuel Oil (Closer to wall of tank).

Via each of these stages, parameters that affecting the heat transfer can be determined and analysed

(A) Supply Steam Temperature, ta1

The principle approach of heat transfer is starting from the supply steam temperature where-

by the temperature is indicating as ta1. This is one of the important parameter to designate whether the

heat is capable to being transferred to the whole tank or not. The initial setting for the supply steam

temperature must be regulating properly and it is influence by other parameter that will be explained

later on.

(B) Wall of the Coil

The second stage of the flow process of the heat transfer is flowing the heat through the wall

of the heating coil. This is where the process of the heat transfer through conduction and convection

is being occurred as explained previously. For this paper, there are five selection of material available

for the construction of the heating coil, there are; (1) Aluminum, (2) Copper, (3) Cast, Iron, (4) Brass,

and (5) Steel. The effect of material toward the contribution of the heat transfer will plentiful dis-

cussed later by investigating the relationship between the materials used with other parameter. During

this flow stage, the radius of the coil is also being the parameter that more or less affecting the heat

transfers.

(C) Fuel Oil (closer to wall of coil), t2

Then, the heat is being transferred from the material coil to the fuel oil in the tank. There are

two selection of types of fuel that are available to investigate, there are; (1) Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)

and (2) Marine Diesel Oil (MDO). This temperature is symbolize as t2 representing the value of tem-

perature closer to the surface of the heating coil.

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(D) Fuel Oil (closer to wall of tank), t3

Afterward, the heat is flowing from position C to D and throughout the whole tank. The dis-

tance between position C and D is to be determined and considered as t3. The reason why there are

two separate determined temperatures (t2 and t3) although it is laid on the same region is because

these temperature variables are to be set at the same point temperature. Thus, this allowed equivalent

flows of heat transfer along the whole tank.

Simple hypothesis can be made here that is, if the distance between C and D is longer, than

the supply steam temperature should be increase and vice versa. For this particular parameter, the

distance between temperature C and D can be used as the horizontal length of the tank in general.

CONCLUSION

This presents an introduction of heat transfer in the fuel oil tank. The parameters that affecting the

heat transfer can be define and analysed by recognized the flow process of the heat from the supply

steam to the heating of the fuel oil. A continuation of this paper will later on shows the methodology

used in gaining the result and analysis in order to see each impact of parameters toward the heat trans-

fer. A brief layout of this journal is useful to acquire knowledge about an introduction of the transfer

in fuel oil tank.

Figure 5 Heat Flow in the typical Fuel Oil Tank

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REFERENCES

[1] D.J House (2001) Second Edition, Seamanship Techniques, page (1-2)

[2] Roy L. Harrington (1992) Third Edition, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers,

Marine engineering, page (448)

[3] M.M. Rathore and Raul R.A Kapuno, Jr (2011) Second Edition, Engineering Heat Transfer,

page (1-2)

[4] K. A Gavhane (2008) Eight Edition, Heat Transfer SI Units, page (2.3)

[5] Frank Kreith, Raj M. Manglik and Mark S. Bohn (2010) Seventh Edition, Principle of

Heat Transfer, page (2010)

[6] Prof Z.S. Spakovsky, web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/propulsion/notes, Thermody

namics and Propulsion, LATEX editing by D Quattrochi, retrieved on March 23, 2013

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ABSTRACT

This paper presents implementing enterprise systems (ES) considered as a major risk for organiza-

tions and institutions just like how it considered as a key value driver of real opportunities due to the

huge investments on implementation, utilization, and operation stages of ERP system within organi-

zations. Surveys show that leaders and decision-makers are tend to follow the trend and search for

best practices implemented ES by their competitors to adopt it. That happens sometimes without un-

derstanding their real organization’s needs or assessing their actual requirements and that would put

the organizations under a serious risk. The problem of the current ES is not only related to the expens-

es that should be paid over the implementation level and monthly to maintain the system, but also, the

usability of those systems still questionable. This new paradigm is referred to as extended enterprise.

Keywords: Business to Business (B2B), Enterpr ise Resource Planning (ERP), E -Hubs, Supply

Chain Management

INTRODUCTION

Transportation and warehousing logistics are activities that require strong information sys-

tems and computer support. This information technology (IT) support has expanded with the advent

of e-commerce. This has led to the development of e-commerce based systems by companies such as

FedEx and UPS which allow their customers to track and monitor the fulfillment of their service on

the Internet, provided the goods are being handled by the one corporation, with an integrated system.

It has created new modes for marketing and enabled partnerships previously inconceivable within a

wide array of business as well as other human activities.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR PRIVATE

ENTERPRISE

M. N. USTADI1 AND P. N. H. M. A. RAHMAN2


[email protected]

2University Teknologi MARA,

[email protected]

Received 24 Oct 2013; Revised 19 November 2013; Accepted 19 November 2013

___________________________________________


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A consequence of this connectivity and information richness is that one is faced with an in-

creasingly dynamic business environment and marketplace. This has created the need for new busi-

ness paradigms and organization forms that transcend the previous static, competitive models and

move to flexible open reconfigurable, often collaborative models that are able to respond to the busi-

ness environment dynamics inherent within the networked economy.

Today, logistics activities are critical to the individual firm. Market areas are national even

international in scope, but production may be limited to several points. Logistics systems provide the

bridges between the production activities and the market, which are generally separate from each oth-

er. In many countries, the concept of the logistics system and its role in any kind of organization has

come to be generally recognized. But there are still some businesses and government managers who

have not begin to accept the importance of the system and the necessity for it to be designed and man-

aged as a valuable component of the organization (Soonhong et al., 2005) [1].

OBJECTIVES

The most important functionality of logistics information system is integrating various infor-

mation resources to complete the data exchange, implement the data sharing and the information

transformation. Each information system send public data to the system following specific rules and

the system will deal with those data and store them, then provide services using those data. Data ex-

change functionality which is the system’s core functions such as logistics business data query func-

tions, logistics information publishing, online trading service management function and user manage-

ment functions.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Typically, supply chain is the process of converting raw materials to produce items and

goods by one or more factories, then shipping them to the warehouses for intermediate storage, and

after that distribute them over the retailers or directly to customers (Farris, M.Theodone, 1996) [2].

However, the integration between business management and information technologies nowadays does

reflect different meaning on supply chain management (SCM).

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Supply chain management has emerged as a significant solution to enhance today’s business

competitiveness among organizations due to its ability to manage all activities and operations that

involved in resources, information and capital such as: sourcing, procurement, and almost all logis-

tics management activities to build up a network that connects, coordinates and collaborates channel

partners like: manufactures, suppliers and customers with each other. In short, supply chain manage-

ment under ES domain and as a part of ERP systems helps coordination in both the material and fi-

nancial flows across the supply chain process using it.

SCM is very complicated processes and it should be noted that it is not an objective to cover

all SCM business models, instead, this research is aiming to focus on one of its models called ISC

(stand for: integrated supply chain) to build up four different case-studies. ISC constitutes the same

concepts of SCM; however, it is in the first place responsible to different divisions of the organiza-

tion and its business units for operating all operations involved in end-to-end supply chain processes.

That will include direct sourcing and procurement, conversion/manufacturing, and all logistics man-

agement operations (Awad and Nassar, 2010) [3].

The Trends on Logistic Management

Logistics plays a leading role in integrating and managing the supply chain, which means

managing the link between each node, and managing across traditional functional areas both within

the company and between companies (Lummus and Vokurka, 1999) [4]. Logistics has played a ma-

jor part in the development of principles of supply chain management, mainly because of the im-

portance of maintaining low inventory levels but at the same time providing stock availability. This

means that logistics managers face a situation where their decisions have to be integrated into supply

chain activities.

David Fredrick Ross (1997) [5] suggest that supply chain management has evolved from

logistics management over the past thirty years or so in the following way:

Stage 1: Fragmentation to physical distribution (1960s and 1970s)

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Different related functions include warehousing, order processing, transport and customer

service were originally fragmented and became treated in a more integrated way for various reasons

such as product line expansion, increasing transport costs or products with higher value-to-weight

ratios

Stage 2: Integrated logistics management (1970s and 1980s)

Cost savings through integrating inbound (materials management) and outbound (physical

distribution) functions were identified under the heading of “business logistics”. This process was

accelerated through greater transport deregulation, more international competition, and more over-

seas sourcing for raw materials or components. Much greater emphasis was placed on reducing in-

ventory levels. Integration within a company linked purchasing, manufacturing, warehousing, inven-

tory management, sales order processing and transport.

Stage 3: Supply chain management (1980s to present time)

Partnerships were established between different members of the supply chain, not only sup-

pliers and customers in the distribution (or marketing) channel, but also third party logistics provid-

ers. Collaboration between supply chain members enables much greater efficiency of delivery com-

bined with lower inventory levels throughout the supply chain.

Traditionally, the managers in manufacturing or shipper companies responsible for purchas-

ing logistics services have often been relatively low in the hierarchy of their company, and their

focus has been on operational details in their partnerships with logistics companies. A partnership is

a form of inter-firm relationship that can be placed on a continuum from pure arm’s-length transac-

tion to full vertical integration.

The Internet B2b Economy

Most companies today are attempting to figure out how they should approach business-to-

business (B2B) e-commerce despite the stock market gyrations positive and negative of B2B com-

panies.

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By separating the physical and information flows connected with each transaction, the Inter-

net potentially will radically change the ways in which corporations provide and trade goods and ser-

vices with each other. It is the prospect of such change that motivates companies to consider B2B.

The key effect of B2B is to change the costs (and benefits) of transacting. B2B potentially

changes transaction costs in five ways: (1) it changes / improves processes; (2) it changes the nature

of the marketplace; (3) it changes decisions; (4) it changes the degree of information incompleteness /

asymmetry; and (5) it changes the ability to commit. The choice between an Internet-based transac-

tion or marketplace and a physical one comes down to the relative transaction costs of the two alter-

natives (Fernie, J, 1999) [6].

Changes in processes: B2B e-commerce can improve efficiencies by reducing the costs in-

volved in an existing business process. Such an improvement may take place in two basic forms.

First, it may simply reduce the cost of an activity already being conducted, as when a transaction that

is currently conducted by phone or fax is automated. For example, Sony reduces the cost of pro-

cessing a purchase order for MRO purchases. Second, the Internet provides an opportunity to rede-

sign the existing process. For example, China shipping creates on-line auctions for used cars without

having to ship the cars to a physical auction. This change in the process reduces transportation costs

and time for both buyers and sellers. It should be straightforward to measure or estimate the value of

process improvements. First, describe and measure the time and costs of the activities involved in the

existing process in detail. Second, describe and measure the time and costs of the process using B2B e

-commerce. The difference, if any, is the value of the process improvement.

Changes in the marketplace: B2B e-commerce can reduce transaction costs by making a

marketplace more efficient. These reduced transaction costs or equivalently, marketplace benefits

come in some of the following forms. First, the Internet potentially reduces a buyer’s cost of finding

suppliers because it is less expensive to search for products and compare prices over the Internet than

it is to read catalogs and make phone calls. Conversely, sellers can reach more potential customers at

lower cost. As a result, buyers will find sellers they might not have otherwise found. E-Bay is an ex-

ample of this on the consumer side.

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Second, the Internet potentially provides buyers with better information about product characteristics

including prices and availability because it is less expensive to obtain. Third, the Internet potentially

provides better information about buyers and sellers. This is particularly relevant in the area of credit

(Garurd, 2005) [7].

On the other hand, conducting the transaction over the Internet may also increase these trans-

action costs, due to the buyers’ inability to physically inspect the merchandise object of the exchange.

This may be the case when buyers need to match their needs for objects based precisely on a charac-

teristic that requires physical inspection. Better information about future demand through B2B e-

commerce may allow a seller to improve its demand forecasts, and use that information to change its

production decisions to better match demand. Conversely, a buyer might obtain better information

about existing future supply, and use that information to change its inventory decisions.

Reverse Logistics

Farris (1996) define reverse logistics as “the process of collecting, moving, and storing used,

damaged, or outdated products and/or packaging from end users”. The disposal of returned goods

under environmentally controlled conditions when buying a replacement may be considered as a val-

ue added logistics activity. Another aspect of reverse logistics is the repair of returned damaged prod-

ucts or components. Manufacturers may ask logistics service providers to set up a repair area in their

distribution centres and do repair work and the exchange of components, rather than undertake the

process themselves (Farris, 1996) [2].It was presented that the top five reasons for electronically-

generated orders not meeting customer expectations are:

a) Late delivery

b) Wrong product/quantity

c) Not shipped at all

d) Technical problems

e) Returns

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It is true that 90 percent of these issues could have been avoided in the first place, and then

logisticians must focus on the root cause. In order to improve this process, companies need real-time

visibility into what is actually going to.

The concept of reverse logistics is complex to most people, but it is more important now that

it has ever been. The economic downturn has resulted in organisations seeking to reduce costs and

improve customer satisfaction usually regarded as incompatible concepts. Manufacturers cannot

maintain their high cost bases, but at the same time must not risk losing even more sales through re-

duced customer satisfaction. Retailers must focus on sales, but do not allow that to reduce the quality

of their service. Specialists in reverse logistics are there to achieve both outcomes (Pohlen, 1992)

[8]. Organisations can outsource their returns and repairs operations to specialists and achieve both

reduce fixed costs, and the service improvements that specialists can offer. Additionally, the environ-

mental effect of constant consumption is massive. Reverse logistics has a critical part to play in pro-

tecting the world by extending the life of goods and recycling after use.

Real-Time Logistics Event Management and Visibility

The combination of supply chain complexity and market conditions puts even more pressure

on manufacturers to provide the right amount of products, at the right time, for the lowest possible

price. A few factors have made this increasingly difficult. There have been many recent inventory

debacles as a result of the inability of ERP systems to properly forecast demand and prevent invento-

ry build-up. In addition, the lead times for producing products has shrunk dramatically. And finally,

most organizations now outsource manufacturing of components to third- party organizations. Logis-

tics activities are transaction intensive such as receiving, stocking, order filling and shipment that

generate large quantities of data. As a result, the logistics management departments must try to per-

form transportation miracles on a daily basis in order to meet these monumental goals (Ali, R M & el,

2008) [13].

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One additional aspect of logistics that needs to be covered is that of in-transit inventory. In-

transit inventory has gone from a taboo subject to one of strategic value just-in-time (JIT) replenish-

ment on wheels. If managed properly, in-transit inventory can reduce customer lead times and distri-

bution network costs. Many e-logistics companies and software providers state that with real-time

visibility into in-transit inventory, the enterprise can be proactive in meeting customer requirements

by:

a) Returning the load,

b) Redistributing or rerouting the load

c) Shipping the right product or short supply in expedited fashion

The result is that the customer gets what they ordered, but at a significant cost to the enter-

prise. (Ballou, 1998) [9]. Today, there is technology that exists to manage customer requirements

before the product is shipped. In logistics management, from the raw materials procurement to the

customer destination, value or cost is added along the way. To correct a deviation from the original

customer requirements as it approaches its destination is a very costly proposition that not only in

terms of money value but in terms of time. There is a best solution. It is real-time logistics event man-

agement using some of the leading edge technology solutions which are available. Only few compa-

nies can compete on price alone. Speed, accuracy and completeness with which orders are filled and

delivered are the sustaining differentiators in today’s fast-paced economy. Effectively managing

events is the main key. The solution is real-time logistics event management. Logisticians must gain

real-time pre-shipment visibility and proactive event management before shipment. But be warned

some technology providers state visibility to facilitate proactive tendering and management of all

freight through to the final destination. There are solutions available that provide visibility through a

collection of real-time, Web-based data and analytics (Roy, 1996)[10].These solutions help to manage

the logistics process between buyers and suppliers, while eliminating costly discrepancies between

purchase order, sales order and shipping information.

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More advanced technology will provide alerts on business rules and document cardinality

violations. For example, a shipping document cannot find reference to a sales order number. Or a pri-

mary key field is missing that will impact analytic views later on. In these two examples, alerts would

be sent to the appropriate individuals for review and resolution. The ability for logistics managers to

gain visibility into the buyer’s purchase order and compare that data to the pre-shipment information

from all suppliers through exception or event management is of significant value to this market. It

takes a truly proactive approach to managing logistics (Morris, 1996)[11]. In today’s volatile econom-

ic climate, logistics management is becoming more important than ever before. Getting the right

amount of goods to the right place at the right time is critical, especially in an age when budgets are

tight and customers’ demands are unpredictable and unforgiving. Internet utilization, combined with

the proliferation of reverse logistics and the impact of technology advancements in real time logistics

event management and visibility, are fundamentally changing the role of logistics management in

organizations.

DISCUSSION

Business to business integration is vital to ensure the efficient, accurate, and timely flow of

data across internal ISs and external business partners. Companies that implement B2B integration

are realizing the competitive advantage through faster time to market, reduced cycle times and in-

creased customer service. Through integration of business and technical processes, companies are

able to strengthen relationship with partners and customers, achieve seamless integration inside and

outside the enterprise, gain real time views of customer accounts, increase operational efficiencies

and reduced costs. Companies need to be able to safely and securely exchange data over the Internet.

B2B gateways provide these services. They consist of a suite of software products that support inter-

nal and external integration and business processes. B2B gateways provide a backbone for the secure

exchange of data, files and documents which relates intercompany and with external parties.

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Financial Consideration

Financial considerations will be necessary to justify an advanced order processing system in

terms of cost benefit analysis. The costs of developing the system, start-up costs can be justified by

comparing the present value of improvement in cash flows associated with the new system to the ini-

tial investment. Generally, the fixed costs associated with an advanced order processing system are

higher than those incurred by a manual system. However, the variable costs per order are significantly

less with the advanced system. Several types of transactions occur in every business and each transac-

tion results in the creation of source documents such as customer order, shipment bill of lading, sales

invoices to customers and invoices from suppliers and vendors. In addition, companies perform a

variety of internal transactions and activities that are documented. For example, trip reports for pri-

vate fleet activities and call reports from salespeople, warehouse labor time cards. With the infor-

mation from the database, management is in a position to evaluate the profitability of various seg-

ments. The database permits the user to stimulate trade off situations and determine the effect of pro-

posed strategic and system changes on total cost. The information processing capabilities, it is possi-

ble to access desired information automatically from necessary files such as inventory, customer retail

feedback data, damage reports and claims, billing and invoicing files. From these files, management

can construct a condense logistics performance database which can provide all the necessary infor-

mation required to measure overall individual activities on regular basis.

Production Control

Production control is an activity traditionally positioned under manufacturing, although a

few firms place it under logistics. Production affects the logistics process in two significant ways.

First, production activity determines the quantity and type of finished goods that are produced; this is

turn influences when and how the products are distributed to the firm’s customers. Second, produc-

tion directly determines the company’s need for raw materials, subassemblies and component parts

used in the manufacturing process. The operation manager needs direct access to the organization’s

information system to properly administer materials flow into and within organization. The types of

information needed include demand forecasts for production, names of suppliers and supplier charac-

teristics, pricing data, inventory levels, production schedules, transportation routing and scheduling

data.

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Data on inventory levels for materials, delivery schedules, pricing, forward buys and supplier infor-

mation inputs provided by operation management. The modern information technology will offer

opportunities for the fast and safe transmission and processing of extensive amounts of data, both

internally for users within the company and externally for suppliers and customers. As result, the new

information technologies offers great opportunities for linking the planning, control and processing

functions of material management that performed independently, thereby were creating the founda-

tion for the establishment of integrated materials management.

Use better Business Intelligence (BI)

Logistics companies deal with loads of data on a daily basis that can be further utilized as

information. Therefore, need a comprehensive business intelligence solution that can provide a single

view to the management enabling them to take informed decisions at the right time.

BI has become a must-have for the transportation and supply chain sector. Business intelli-

gence is the highest-ranked functionality requested by customers. Several factors are driving the de-

mand for BI within the transportation and logistics space. Companies want more granular visibility to

their transportation spend so they can manage and control it more effectively. They want to identify

negative trends in costs and performance, identify root causes as early as possible to take corrective

action. And they need to conduct 'what-if' analyses to evaluate the service and cost trade-offs of dif-

ferent transportation strategies and tactics."

Companies are most attracted to supply chain BI tools for their coveted ability to make sense

out of the seemingly endless array of data that has become available through the continuing adoption

of logistics technologies such as TMS, warehouse management solutions (WMS), and supply chain

execution systems. While access to data is main key, being able to find, understand, and use that data

to make strategic decisions that improve supply chain effectiveness is crucial.

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Today's BI tools are taking that extra work out of the equation, offering up data in easy to

understand and digest informational formats, presented in a more visual way. BI tools for supply

chain users typically fall into three categories:

A) Reporting

Business intelligence reports are far more detailed and dynamic than in the past. BI reports display

all the data about transportation providers as usable information, in a scorecard format. Factors such

as on-time delivery, tender acceptance rate, and meeting capacity commitments are assigned metrics

and weighted averages to help users determine how well carriers are performing overall.

B) Real-time dashboards

Managers and executives who want a quick, daily overview of what is happening in their

transportation or supply chain network use dashboards, which provide information in near real-time

to help users catch and solve problems as they are occur. Dashboards make it easier for users to iden-

tify trends and exceptions, and to analyze specific components of their transportation operations more

intuitively.

Dashboards also give companies the advantage of quick reaction time. Because dashboards

are updated as business is occurring, users don't have to wait for someone to compile and send re-

ports. Therefore, it reacts faster to changes in the market. For example, capacity requirements are not

being met on a certain lane, a dashboard makes it easy for users to spot tender rejects occurring within

that lane, check into the problem, and possibly rebid the lane.

C) Benchmarking

Comparing data on factors such as freight rates and on-time delivery percentages against

peers allows companies to get a more complete picture of their performance in the marketplace.

Take freight rates, for example. Rates have flexed up and down along with the economy re-

cently, so nabbing a four-percent reduction in rates may seem like a good deal, until compare it to

others in the industry. Many companies are also using BI tools to highlight patterns found in historical

data that may yield clues to future risks and opportunities in their supply chain or transportation net-

works.

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This predictive analysis capability uses real-time data-driven insights to speed decision-making and

help create a nimble and responsive supply chain.

CONCLUSION

This new paradigm is referred to as extended enterprise. A key factor in the success of such

extended enterprises is the creation of the underpinning information infrastructure to carry out the

required services. The overall distributed supply chain application architecture consists of e-Hubs that

are connected to different complies in their own geographical area of operation.

REFERENCES

[1] Soonhong M, Anthony S, Roath Patricia J, Daugherty, Stefan E, Genchev, Haozhe Chen, Aaron

D, Arndt R, Glenn R (2005). Supply chain collaboration: what's happening? Int. J. Logistics

Management, 16 (2), 237-256.

[2] Farris, M.Theodone, “Utilizing Inventory Flow Models with Suppliers.” Journal of Business Lo-

gistics 17, no.1 (1996), pp.335-61.

[3] Hussain A.H Awad, Mohammad Othman Nassar, “Proceedings of the International MultiConfer-

ence of Engineers and Computer Scientists”, 2010 Vol I.

[4] Rhonda R. Lummus, Robert J. Vokurka, “Defining supply chain management: a historical per-

spective and practical guidelines,” Industrial Management & Data Systems,Volume 99 Number 1

1999 pp. 11-17

[5] David Fredrick Ross, “Competing Through Supply Chain Management: Creating Market-

Winning Strategies Through Supply Chain Partnerships,” (1997)

[6] Fernie, J 1999, ‘Outsourcing distribution in UK retailing’, Journal of Business Logistics, vol.

21,no. 2, pp. 83-95.

[7] Garud, R., and A. Kumarasamy, “Vicious and Virtuous Circles in the Management of

Knowledge: The Case of Infosys Technologies,” MIS Quarterly, (29) (1), March 2005

[8] Terrence L.Pohlen and M.Theordore Farriss, “Reverse Logistics in Plastics Recycling,” Interna-

tional Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management 22, no.7 (1992), p.35

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[9] Ronald H. Ballou, “Planning, Organizing and Controlling the Supply Chain,” Business Logistics

Management, 1998.

[10] Roy L. G. Boyd Swartz, “With Visual Basic Application,” Computer Simulations in Logistics,

1996.

[11] Morris Ng, “Export Manager: Guide to Export Marketing and Management,” 1996.

[12] Harald Rotter, “New Operating Concepts For Intermodal Transport: The Mega Hub In Hanover

In Germany,” Transportation Planning And Technology, Vol. 27, No.5, (2004), p.347-365

[13] Ali, R M, Jaafar, H S and Mohamad, S 2008, ‘Logistics and Supply Chain in Malaysia : Issues

and Challenges’, Paper presented at the EASTS International Symposium on Sustainable Transporta-

tion incorporating Malaysian Universities Transport Research Forum Conference, Johor, 12-13 Au-

gust.

[14] Chin, F C, Bae, J H and Kim, G O 2010, ‘A Survey on the logistics service providers in Shang-

hai’, viewed 30 December 2011. Sum, C C and Teo, C B 1999, ‘Strategic posture of logistics service

providers in Singapore, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, vol.

29, no. 9, pp. 588-605.

[15] Buxbaum, P A 1994, ‘Ambiguity surrounds logistics companies’, Distribution, pp.70-4.

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ABSTRACT

Malaysian wooden fishing boats have their specific design criteria depending on the location of oper-

ations, the builders and some unique features of the traditional boats. Moreover, the previous design-

ers who designed these boats were only based on their experiences, skills and informal education es-

pecially for the boat of 24 meters and below. Due to this, there will be a variety of hull form designs,

depending on these factors. This study is carried out to evaluate the hull form design for small wood-

en fishing boat and its reliability when operates on that area. The most effective way in evaluating the

hull form design is based on the lines plan. At early stage, based on the collected data, the lines plans

for each boat are developed using Maxsurf software. The data then has been analyzed to obtain the

hydrostatics particulars, which acts as the main input in evaluating the hull form design. The result

possibly would be a great value in interpreting the hull form design trend of the boats and their rela-

tionship with the surrounding of their operation area.

Keywords: Small wooden fishing boat, design, hull form

HULL FORM DESIGN STUDY FOR TRADITIONAL WOODEN BOAT IN TERENGGANU

A. A. ROSLEE1, S. E. A. HAMID1 AND M. N. MANSOR1


[email protected]

[email protected], [email protected]

Received 5 September 2013; Revised 14 November 2013; Accepted 21 November 2013

___________________________________________


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INTRODUCTION

According to Annual Statistic from Fishery Department of Malaysia (1955 to 2007), fishing

industry has boost from a quarter-million ringgit industry in the fifties to five billion ringgit business

in 2008. As the trend does not seem to show signs of slowing down, the used of wood in boats are

becoming less popular in favour of other material. This is due to the fact that both steel and GRP

boats are thought to be more reliable and safer than the wooden boat. It is a pity to note that there is

relatively no attempt to study the wooden boat design which is constructed basically based on experi-

ence.

It is a well-known fact that current designer have all the facilities to help them in designing a

ship or boat such as test tank, high-end computer programming for analysis and modern laboratory

where every drawing or data can be adjusted effortlessly to achieve desirable result whereas tradition-

al designer do not. However, their design is still applicable and usable because of proven track rec-

ords. Therefore it is safe to assume that the traditional design can be considered fit for its purpose.

Basically, the traditional boat is used for two reasons which are fishing and transporting

goods or people. The former reason will be studied thoroughly as it is still widely used in certain are-

as. Terengganu which is situated at East Coast of Malaysia is a perfect place to study the traditional

boat as it has a well-known boat building industry and a renowned place for fishing activities. Based

on Department of Fisheries, Terengganu have 2906 registered fishing vessel which nearly half

(42.61%) of the total vessel at the East Coast. It is also important to note that Terengganu is one of

the states in Malaysia which face the South China Sea which is subjected to fears monsoon season all

the year round.

METHODOLOGY

Basically, there are two methods to document the traditional wooden boat design. Firstly, the

boat is measured point by point. Various manual measuring processes have been used such as level-

ing, marking and zoning during this process. This is to ensure that every inch of the boat is perfectly

measured and the data taken is dependable. Table of offset is also developed to check on the validity

of the data. Data that is judged to be out of the ‘fair’ line will then be measured again.

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Once the table of offset is fully developed, the lines plan of the boat will be developed using

Maxsurf software. Maxsurf will also be used for spine fitting approach to the preparation of hull plan.

Several cautionary measures needed to be taken at this stage as the process can be considered delicate

as the data need to be carefully developed in Maxsurf. In this research Maxsurf is only used to docu-

ment the existing boat design. Finally, the hydrostatics data will be extracted from Hydromax Pro as

part of analyzing the design.

The Hydrostatic data is used to evaluate the hull form characteristics while the boat is in

stationary condition. This data is the first information obtained by designers before they proceed with

further analysis such as stability, maneuvering, seakeping and resistance. As far as the hull form is

concerned, form coefficients will be used in evaluating the hull form of each boat design. There are

four (4) types of form coefficients; Block Coefficient (Cb), Midship Area Coefficient (Cm), Water-

plane Area Coefficient and Prismatic Coefficient. Block Coefficient, Cb, is the term used to deter-

mine the fullness of the hull shape where 1.00 represents a box shaped hull.

(1)

Midship Area Coefficient or Cm is the ratio to determine the fullness of the midship section.

Ratio equals to 1.00 shows that the midship have a rectangular shaped middle ship area while lower

ratio indicates a cut away area like a sailboat.

(2)

Prismatic Coefficient, Cp is the ratio to determine the distribution of the wetted volume

across the boat length. As the reference is the midship section area, the high ratio means transom or

aft area is near the same size of the midship while lower Cp defines fine aft compare to midship.

(3)

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Waterplane Area Coefficient also known as Cwp can be easily term as a ratio of a water-

plane area (plan view) at designated waterline over a rectangular box of a same length and breadth.

Therefore, the high Cwp ratio can be described as the boat has fuller ends.

(4)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

From the observation and hull design data generated in Maxsurf, nearly 80% of the boats are

V-shaped. Only two boats fall into round hull category. The first boat, measured in Kuala Kemaman

is not only used for fishing but also for carrying goods. It is also found that the fishing area is limited

to river and near coastal. The second boat, found in Pantai Teluk Mak Nik, is one of the old boats

which are not in service anymore. From the interview session, the boat is not preferred by the boat

builder although it is more stable as it is difficult to construct.

As for the V-shaped boat, it is faster, easy to maneuver and able to break wave is the main

reason why it is preferable by the fisherman in Terengganu. This is clearly been stated by Alex

Zidock (1999) [2], as the V-shape boat have good ride in rough water due to the pointed bow’s ability

to slice forward. These characteristics will reduce the up and down movement of the boat.

The V-shape hull is proven to be stable but not for a boat less than 5 meter in length. Howev-

er, one particular boat with a length of 8 meter is an exception as the boat is constructed for carrying

people apart from fishing. Table 1 below shows the data collection and its ratio.

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Table 1: Data hull shape and main particulars boats of Terengganu

All the boats have Block Coefficient, Cb in the range of 0.30 to 0.45. As the Block Coeffi-

cient, Cb is an indication of the hull shape, it can be concluded that the boats in Terengganu fall in

medium and fine category. As for the Midship Area Coefficient, Cm, the boats studied fall in the mid-

dle of the range which is between 0.5 - 0.7. It shows that all the boats have medium built midship

area. From Table 2, the Prismatic Coefficient, Cp clearly indicates that all the boats have around 0.5 -

0.7 ratio. This number represent that the boats have very high rise aft angle and/or very fine fwd area.

As for the Waterplane Area Coefficient, Cwp value, the same pattern also appears. It clearly shows

that both ends, fwd and aft, have around 60% of the total fullness of the waterplane area.

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Table 2: Hydrostatic data

CONCLUSION

Looking at the Block Coefficient, Cb and Midship Area Coefficient, Cm ratio value, it can

be concluded that all the boats in Terengganu have an average midship area with a slender hull fea-

ture. It is also important to note that based on the Prismatic Coefficient, Cp value, both ends, aft and

fwd area are fine shaped. There are two assumptions that can be made on the Waterplane Area Coeffi-

cient, Cwp values. Firstly, the boat have medium size built at both ends whilst the other is the boat

have nearly full built at the aft but very slender at the fwd end. The value also shows that all boats in

Terengganu are built to handle rough sea no matter whether it is a V-shaped or a round hull. Theoreti-

cally, the boats will encounter dynamic lift during operation. It is understandable as the boats need to

be built based on unpredictable weather condition and slightly high sea wave (around 1.5 - 2 meters).

Finally, traditional boat builders really need to understand the nature of their fishing route to be able

to come out with an effective design. It is hard to understand how they work out their design but the

need to start documenting their work is a must. However, it is essential to collect more data in order

to establish a reliable design trend and parameters that affected the design. The research needs to be

widening up as both designs collection and technical data can be studied to establish their relation-

ship.

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REFERENCES

[1]Rawson., J. and Tupper, C, 2001. Basic Ship Theory, Butterworth- Heinemann

[2]Alex, Zidock. "Boat Hull Design." Pennsylvania Angler and Boater. July 1999: 16-17.

<www.fish.state.pa.us>.

[3]Malaysia. Department of Fishery. Annual Fisheries Statistics Book. 2007. <http://

www.dof.gov.my/annual-fisheries-statistics-20072>.

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ABSTRACT

To stabilize the vessel during loading, voyage or extreme weather a ballast systems is needed. Ballast

systems play an important role in a vessel system. A study of ballast system is to understand more

about this system and how to comply with the International Maritime Organization rule (IMO). To

understand how this system causes significant threats to the environment and local economy.

Keyword: ballast system, ballast water treatment system, ballast water management, ballast

tank, ship stability

INTRODUCTION

The important aspect for the ship or barge is the stability. The term stability refers to the

tendency of a body of system to return to its original state after it has suffered a small disturbance.

When a ship in her original floating position and buffeted by wind or wave, it wants to return for her

original position as shown in figure 1. If her body is stable it will return quickly in her original posi-

tion and may avoid motion sickness. It is also to avoid from capsize when disturbance in large quanti-

ties. The stability therefore must be just right in the range of condition in which a vessel may find

itself during its operation and life, even damaged or mishandled [1].

A STUDY OF BALLAST SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION

M. R. ZOOLFAKAR1 AND M. N. MANSOR1


[email protected]

Received 15 July 2013; Revised 18 November 2013; Accepted 25 November 2013

___________________________________________


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In the design process, the designer not only provides adequate buoyancy to give support for

the ship and its contents, but also to assure the ship will float in proper attitude, or trim, and remain

upright when loaded with passengers and cargo. That means it involves gravitational stability and

trim problem. According to Lawrence L. Goldberg;

(A) Equilibrium.

In general, a rigid body is said to be in the state of equilibrium when the resultants of all forces and

moments acting on the body are zero. When the floating body is upright and at rest in a still liquid the

resultants of all gravity forces (weights) acting downward, and the resultants of buoyancy forces, act-

ing upward on the body, will act in the same vertical plane

(B) Stable equilibrium.

If a floating body initial at equilibrium, is disturbed by external moment, there will be a change in its

angular attitude. The body will return to its original position when the external moment is removed. It

can be determined in the stable equilibrium and in positive stability;

(C) Neutral equilibrium.

A floating body that assumes a displaced inclination because of an external moment remains in that

displaced position when the external moment is removed, the body is said to have been in neutral

equilibrium and has neutral stability;

(D) Unstable equilibrium.

If a floating body, displaced from its angular attitude by an external force, continues to move in the

same direction after the force is removed, it is said to have been unstable equilibrium and initially

unstable[2].

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Figure 1 ship return to her original position. (source: http://www.free-marine.com)

Method of Improving Stability, Drafts and List

Permanent ballast is one of the methods that are usually being used to improve stability or

trim, and also to remove list. Ballast systems can be used to improve the other characteristics as well

For example it can be used to decrease the metacentric high of ships for satisfactory operation. Nowa-

days liquid ballast are often used to improve drafts or correct the listing of the vessel and also lower-

ing of the ship’s center of gravity. The use of liquid ballast, such as fresh water with a rust inhibitor is

very effective and has advantages of lower material cost and easy removal. From ‘Principles of Naval

Architecture Revision 2’, in some cases, considerable expense may be involves in reinforcing the

structure to contain the ballast. For example, when it is located in cargo hold and strength of the deck

above is not adequate to withstand the head imposed when the ship rolls or heels to a large angle.

When the permanent ballast is used to improve stability, its location and effectiveness in case of un-

derwater hull damage must be considered. (Principle of Naval Architecture, Second Revision, Law-

rence L. Goldberg, 1988)

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Ballast Tank

A ballast tank is a primary compartment onboard a boat, ship, barge or other floating struc-

ture that holds the water for improving stability, draft and list. There are many forms of aquatic life

in the ballast tank such as the blowfish or Argonaut octopus. The concept of this system has been

invented and reinvented to marine species carried in ships’ ballast water as shown in figure 2. For

example, in 1849 Abraham Lincoln had patented a ballast tank system to enable cargo vessels to pass

over shoals in North America Rivers. (Source Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, ballast tank)

For the vessel, ballast tank use to provide adequate stability during voyage. It is used to

weight the vessel down and lowers its center gravity. International agreement under the Safety Life

At Sea (SOLAS) Convention requires cargo vessel and passenger ships to be constructed so as to

withstand certain kinds of damage. The international agreements rely upon the states which have

signed the agreement to implement the regulations within their waters and on vessels which are enti-

tled to fly their flag. The basic of ballast use seawater and transfer by pump into ballast tank. Ballast

tank is depending on the type of vessel as shown in figure 3. It can be double bottom (extending

across the breadth of the vessel), wing tanks (located on the outboard area from the keel to deck), or

hopper tank (occupying the upper corner section between hull and main deck). Pumps are connected

to the tank for pump in or pump out water. Ballast water also use in some extreme condition to gather

weight in order to get extra weight during heavy weather or to pass under low bridges[6].

In the submarines system, ballast tank are used to submerge the vessel. Water is pump in to

alter the vessel’s buoyancy and allow the submarines to dive. The submarines will go up to the sur-

face by blow out water from the ballast tank by using compressed air and it becomes positively buoy-

ancy again. It allows the submarine rise to the surfaces. There are two basic ballast tanks in subma-

rine. The main ballast tanks used for diving and surfacing, and trimming ballast tanks are used to con-

trol the submarine’s attitude on underwater and when surface[6].

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Figure 2 Aquatic life behind the ballast tank. (Source http://greatlakeslessons.com)

Figure 3 ballast tank model. (Source http://dmhmarine.com)

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Understand Ballast Water, Environmental Effects, and Emerging Technology

During operation the important thing for the vessel operates in safety condition is ballast

water system. But this operation may cause significant threats to the environment and local economy.

The vessel may carry millions of gallons ballast water that allow the vessel to carry light or heavy

load to maintain ideal buoyancy and handling condition in all situations. During the voyage the vessel

might discharge all ballast water tank to pass a shallow or forward tanks only to raise the bow in

rough open seas. According to researchers there are invasive species in ballast water that effected to

ecosystems and the economics of the affected areas. From the researchers they are various types of

invasive species such as: [10]

At Lake Saint Clair in 1988 they find ‘Zebra Mussels’ as shown in figure 4, when the vessel

emptied ballast water into Great Lake System. The Great Lake holds nearly twenty percent of earth’s

fresh surface water in a watershed system. Estimated about 7 billion dollars (US) in damage cause by

non-native mussels to encrusting or clogging water equipment essential to industrial and recreational

activities.

Figure 4 Zebra Mussels[10]

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Sea Lamprey as shown in figure 5 and Spiny Water Fleas that can live in fresh or salt water.

Many of the species spread into inland waterways from saline ports and harbors. These organisms

which feed off of host fish or competed young fish for food. Because of these organisms many of

species fish that had significant commercial or sport value are infected as shown in figure 6.

Figure 5 Sea Lamprey. (Source www.glsc.usgs.gov)

Figure 6 Sea Lamprey attack. (Source www.glsc.usgs.gov)

Eurasiun Milfoil was found at United Stated in 1940’s. This plant as shown in figure 7 can

travel long distances in ballast water. They can clog equipment and deter recreation where its forms

thick mat. This plan can produce a large of colonies from only one small fragment. This plant was

introduced by ballast water of the vessel.

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Figure 7 Eurasiun Milfoil or Myriophyllum spicatum [12]

Resolving Ballast Water Issues

The amateurs and researchers had done a lot of experimented to resolving ballast water prob-

lem. They had built a system for eliminate invasive species in ballast water. The gallons of ballast

water that had been discharge from vessel must be treated in short period of time. Many land – based

system for treating public supplies takes many hours or days to pass water through their treatment

systems. In the vessel situation there must discharge ballast water as quickly as cargo is loaded. For

some time, in the emergency situation the vessel must empty their ballast tank as quickly as possible

to avoid bad situation or any damage to the vessel. The millions gallons ballast water that had been

through ballast water treatment system in quick time is not enough to kill all the organisms that may

be present. According from web site marine.about.com there are a few methods for ballast water treat-

ment such as: [10]

a) No discharge or ballast exchanges rules – International, National, and Local law governs ballast

water discharge. Some areas require ballast tank to be sealed while others allow ballast to be ex-

changed. Ballast exchange allows tank to be filled with local waters. Sealed ballast tanks may

need to be emptied in an emergency situation and exchange is hindered by the fact that foreign

waters must be discharged in close proximity to sensitive area for vessels to operate safely.

b) Mechanical Filters – Filters which are fine enough to remove the small immature young and eggs

of invasive species clog quickly and require constant maintenance.

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c) Thermal Treatment – The idea is to heat ballast water to kill any unwanted organisms. Unfortu

nately heating such a huge volume of water is impractical due to time and energy constraints.

d) Other Energy Treatments – Ultraviolet, sonic, and other radiation have all been tried but

have similar problems to thermal treatment; limits on time and energy.

e) Chemical Treatments – One of the earliest and most dangerous of all the methods used to control

invasive species in ballast water. Chlorine bleach and other toxic chemicals will kill existing

organisms but the release of these chemicals on the scale necessary to treat every ship would

reach toxic levels for all aquatic life near the discharge points.

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Ballast Water Management

IMO has been at the front of the international effort by taking the lead in addressing the

transfer of aquatic invasive species (AIS) through shipping. Table 1 below, show year by year confer-

ences and convention regarding ballast water management issues by ‘IMO’.

Table 1: conferences and convention by IMO [9].

1991 MEPC adopted Guidelines for preventing the introduction of unwanted

organisms and pathogens from ships’ ballast water and sediment dis-

charges (MEPC resolution 50(31))

1992 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

(UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro, recognized the issue as a major inter-

national concern.

November 1993 IMO Assembly adopted resolution A.774 (18) based on the 1991 Guide-

lines requesting the MEPC and the MSC to keep the Guidelines under

review with a view to developing internationally applicable, legally-

binding provisions.

November 1997 continuing its work towards the development of an international treaty,

the Organization adopted, resolution A.868(20)

- Guidelines for the control and management of ships’ ballast water to

minimize the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens invit-

ing its Member States to use these new guidelines when addressing the

issue of IAS.

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Approval of Ballast Water Management Systems (IMO)

During the Convention development process, considerable efforts were made to formulate

appropriate standards for ballast water management as shown in table 2 below. They are the ballast

water exchange standard and the ballast water performance standard. Ships performing ballast water

exchange shall do so with an efficiency of 95 per cent volumetric exchange of ballast water and ships

using a ballast water management system (BWMS) shall meet a performance standard based on

agreed numbers of organisms per unit of volume.

13February

2004

A complex negotiation between IMO Member States, the International

Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and

Sediments (BWM Convention) was adopted by consensus at a Diplomat-

ic Conference held at IMO Headquarters in London.

- In his opening address to the Conference the Secretary-General of IMO

stated that the new Convention will represent a significant step towards

protecting the marine environment for this and future generations. “Our

duty to our children and their children cannot be over-stated. I am sure

we would all wish them to inherit a world with clean, productive, safe

and secure seas – and the outcome of this Conference, by staving off an

increasingly serious threat, will be essential to ensuring this is so”.

- The Convention will require all ships to implement a Ballast Water and

Sediments Management Plan. All ships will have to carry a Ballast Wa-

ter Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water manage-

ment procedures to a given standard. Parties to the Convention are given

the option to take additional measures which are subject to criteria set

out in the Convention and to IMO guidelines.

April 2004 At its fifty-first session, The MEPC approved a program for the develop-

ment of guidelines and procedures for uniform implementation of the

BWM Convention, listed in Conference resolution 1 including additional

guidance required but not listed in the resolution.

July 2005 The program was further expanded at the fifty-third session of the

MEPC to develop and adopt 14 sets of Guidelines.

October 2008 the last one being adopted by resolution MEPC.173(58)

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Table 2: standard regulation and procedure

A technical group of experts has been established under the auspices of GESAMP to review

the proposals submitted for approval of ballast water management systems that make use of Active

Substances. The GESAMP Ballast Water Working Group (GESAMP-BWWG) reports to the Organi-

zation on whether such a proposal presents unreasonable risks in accordance with the criteria speci-

fied in the Procedure for approval of ballast water management systems that make use of Active Sub-

stances. (http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/ballastwatermanagement)

Example Ballast Water Management System

SeaCURE ballast water management system are to help meet ballast water treatment man-

agement standards as outlined in the 2004 IMO Convention for the Control and Management of

Ship’s Ballast Water and Sediments. This system was developing by Seimens Water Technologies.

This system provides a reliable, environmentally sound solution that is designed to protect against the

proliferation of aquatic invasive species. The system uses a combination of physical separation and a

proprietary, on-demand treatment with biocides, produced in-situ from seawater, without the addition

of chemicals. The system is based on a proven 30+ year record and over 2,500 shipboard installations

of Siemens’ well-known Chloropac® biofouling control system. The SeaCURE system is based on

three pillars:

Regulation D-3 -BWM Convention requires that ballast water management sys-

tems used to comply with the Convention must be approved by

the Administration taking into account the Guidelines for ap-

proval of ballast water management systems (G8).

- also requires that ballast water management systems which

make use of Active Substances to comply with the Convention

shall be approved by IMO in accordance with the 'Procedure for

approval of ballast water management systems that make use of

Active Substances (G9)'.

Procedure (G9) Consists of a two-tier process – Basic and Final Approval - to

ensure that the ballast water management system does not pose

unreasonable risk to the environment, human health, property or

resources.

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• Filtration – major function of the filter are to remove or break larger organisms using a 40 micron

weave wire screen, and to provide reliable, non-stop operation at high sediment loads while minimiz-

ing backwash flow. The patent pending biofouling control provided to the filter assures its reliable

function and minimizes maintenance requirements of the system.

• Electrochlorination - uses proven technology to oxidize and eliminate aquatic invasive species (AIS)

with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Sodium hypochlorite has been used for many years to prevent

marine growth in the seawater piping and heat transfer systems of land-based, offshore and shipboard

installations. The most efficient method of hypochlorination is to produce sodium hypochlorite in-

situ, electrolytically, on demand, by using Concentric Tube Electrode (CTE). This hypochlorination

technology is well-known in the maritime industry as the Chloropac system by Siemens Water Tech-

nologies.

• Proprietary control logic - monitors the chlorine dose level necessary to provide the required effica-

cy. Biocide dosing level is variable and depends on ballast water conditions – the physical, chemical,

and biological characteristics that, cumulatively, are called chlorine demand.

The SeaCURE ballast water management system provides a technical solution designed to

comply with International Maritime Organization (IMO) Convention D-2 regulations for ballast water

management is one of the example system that had already exist in the industry to fulfill all needs[8].

Ballast Operation System

To operate the ballast and de-ballast systems the experienced and responsible officer is re-

quired. This is because these operations involve directly with the stability of the vessel. Ballast sys-

tem may differ between vessels to vessel with another one but essentially the systems remain same.

The basic operation is filling, removing and transferring water from one tank to another tank to get

required stability for vessel.

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All valves in the ballast system are normally hydraulically operated from the remote operator

station in the ship’s control center or in the ECR in manual mode or in automatic sequence. The bal-

last pump suction and discharge valves, along with other valves, have their fail safe in the OPEN po-

sition so that if any valve malfunction or get stuck, still remains open to carry out ballast operation.

The overboard discharge valves have their fail safe as fail-stay position. (www.marineinsight.com)

Ballasting or De-ballasting can be done in five following ways:

a) Transferring water between tanks using gravity.

b) Ballasting or De-ballasting tanks from sea using gravity.

c) Ballasting the tanks using the ballast pump/pumps.

d) De-ballasting the tanks using the ballast pump/pumps.

e) De-ballasting the tanks using the stripping ejectors.

The Important Thing during Handling Ballast System Operation.

To prevent overfilling, serious care should be taken in order to avoid damages on the tanks

due to high pressure of vacuum valves that produces lower capacity than the pump. When the tanks

reached their set point level, the filling valves will close automatically after pre-set.

Automated system ensures the pump will not start until all the required valve are opened to

ensure the pump is dry or close the discharge valves. To ensure the valves close automatically, it can

be put in auto mode for filling the ballast tank to the amount of water set point.

Each of the port and starboard sides, which have two separate systems that contains automat-

ic sequence for ballast and de-ballasting. While the ballast pumps the water in the ballast tanks it must

observed so that the motor are not overloaded. If overload, the opened valves to ballast tanks will

close until the current is at the range allowed.

When sea voyaging, the ship may encounter alarms on the ballast pumps at high pressure.

The suction valve will open to the sea chest and will be closed after pressure is reduced. In the heel-

ing tanks, the water level will be half of the total capacity.

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Heeling tanks also can be used as ballast tanks if required. Empty or fill the heeling tank is done by

ballast pump.

Port authorities may ask for some sample of ballast that the ship is carrying in some port.

Sounding pipe connection will be the sample for the port authorities. The ballast system plan of the

ship provides the locations of the entire sounding pipe[13].

CONCLUSION

Ballast system is one of the important methods to improve stability or trim, drafts and also to

prevent listing of the vessel. But this system may cause significant threats to the environment and

local economy because of foreign organism that lives in the ballast water from other parts of the

world that can have disastrous effect on the local fishing industry. International Maritime Organiza-

tion had taken serious of these issues. After years of discuss about this issue IMO had approve ballast

water treatments system and several procedure during ballast operation such as every ship must carry

a Ballast Water Record Book and will be required to carry out ballast water management procedures

to a given standard. Ballast operation required the experienced and responsible officer because these

operations involve directly with the stability of the vessel. Ballast system for each vessel is different

but the fundamentals of the operation still same; filling, removing and transferring water from one

tank to another tank to get required stability for vessel.

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REFERENCES

[1] Basic Ship Theory, (2001). fifth edition, K J Rawson and E C Tupper, Stability, Equilibrium and

Stability, page 91

[2] Principle of Naval Architecture,(1988). Second Revision, Volume 1, Stability and Strength Ed

ward V. Lewis, Editor

[3] Lawrence L. Goldberg, Intact Stability, section 1elementry principles, Gravitational Stability page

63

[4] Principle of Naval Architecture,(1988). Second Revision, Volume 1, Stability and Strength Ed

ward V. Lewis, Editor

[5] Lawrence L. Goldberg, Intact Stability, section 12 methods of improving stability, draft and list,

permanent ballast page 63

[6] Ballast Tank , (2013) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballast_tank , log in 12 April 2013

Hitchhikers: No Ballast On Board,(6 July 2012) http://greatlakeslessons.com, Hitchhikers: No

Ballast On Board, log in 12 April 2013

[7] DMH Marine Solutions Pte Ltd, (2013) http://dmhmarine.com, system layout, log in 12 April

2013

[8] SeaCURE ballast water treatment system,(2013) http://www.water.siemens.com / SeaCure ballast

water treatment system, log in 12 April 2013

[9] International Maritime Organization, (2013) http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/ ballast

water management, log in 12 April 2013

[10] Paul Bruno ,(2013) http://maritime.about.com / what is ballast water log in 12 April 2013

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries,(2013), www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/

zebramussels.asp, log in 12 April 2013

[11]U.S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Division, (2012), www.glsc.usgs.gov / research/

sea lamprey, log in 12 April 2013

[12] Myriophyllum spicatum, (2013), en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriophyllum_spicatum/ log in 12 April

2013

[13] Anish Wankhede,(2011) http://www.marineinsight.com/tech/proceduresmaintenance/a-detailed-

explanation-on-how-to-operate-a-ship ballast-system/ log in 12 April 2013

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CALL FOR PAPERS To inculcate the research culture amongst academics, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Marine Engineering Technology (UniKL MIMET) is publishing the Marine Frontier@UniKL Research Bulletin. For a start, the bulletin will be pub-lished four times a year, in January, April, July and October. Original research papers, which have not been published or cur-rently being considered for publication elsewhere, will be considered. Accepted Types of Research The papers accepted for the bulletins must be based on any of the following types of research:

Basic research (pure basic research and strategic basic research)

Applied research

Experimental development

Critical review

Pure basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-terms benefits other than advancement of knowledge. Strategic basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge directed into specified broad areas in the expectation of useful discoveries. It provides the broad base of knowledge necessary for the solution of recognised practical problems. Applied research is original work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge with a specific application in view. It is undertaken either to determine possible use for the findings of basic research or to determine new ways of achieving some specific and predetermined objectives. Experimental development is systematic work, using existing knowledge gained from research or practical experience that is directed to producing new materials, products or devices, to installing new processes, systems and services, or to improving substantially those already produced or installed. Critical review is a comprehensive preview and critical analysis of existing literature. It must also propose a unique lens, framework or model that helps understand specific body of knowledge or address specific research issues. Condition of Acceptance The editorial board considers all papers on the condition that:

They are original

The authors hold the property or copyright of the paper

They have not been published already

They are not under consideration for publication elsewhere, nor in press elsewhere

They use non-discriminatory language

The use of proper English (except for manuscripts written in Bahasa Melayu-applicable for selective only) All papers must be typed on A4 size page using Microsoft Words. The complete paper must be approximately 3,500 words long (excluding references and appendixes). The format is described in detail in the next section. All papers are reviewed by the editorial board and evaluated according to:

Originality

Significance in contributing new knowledge

Technical adequacy

Appropriateness for the bulletin

Clarity of presentation All papers will be directed to the appropriate team and/or track. The papers will be reviewed by reviewer(s) and/or editor. All review comments and suggestions should be addressed in the final submission if the paper is accepted for publication, copy-right is transferred to the bulletin. Please submit your paper directly to the Chief Editor- [email protected] or the Executive Editor- [email protected] for publication in the next issue of the Marine Frontier@UniKL.
