Species Richness Maps and Esri Story Maps for the biodiversity of mangrove forest for the Mangrove Action Project (MAP)

Marsha Sohn 19 August 2016

GEOG569 - Final Report

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Table of Contents Section Page 1 Recommend Course of Action 5 2 Introduction 5 2.1 Mangrove Action Project 5 2.2 Mangrove Forests 5 2.3 Ecosystems 6 2.4 Species Richness Range Maps 6 3 Design & Methods 7 3.1 Design for Species Richness Maps 7 3.2 Design for Esri Story Maps 7 3.3 Methods for Species Richness Maps 8 3.4 Methods for Esri Story Maps 8 4 Results 9 5 Discussions 13 6 Business Case and Implementation Plan 14 7.0 Literature Cited 15 Appendix A Appendix B

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List of Figures

Figure Page Figure 1: Worldwide Distribution of Mangrove Forests 6 Figure 2: Species counts vs. Species range for mammals 9 Figure 3: Species counts vs. Species range for amphibians 10 Figure 4: Species counts vs. Species range for bonefish 11 and tarpons Figure 5: Species counts vs. Species range for birds 12 Figure 6: Species count vs. Species range for Mangrove 12 species Figure 7: Comparison of scales between IUCN 13 Red List data and GFW Mangroves Figure 8: Finest, reasonable scale comparison 14 Between IUCN Red List data and GFW

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List of Tables

Table Page Table 1: Top Ten Mangrove Countries 6 Table 2: IUCN Red List 2016 Mammal Record Results 9 Table 3: IUCN Red List 2016 Amphibians Record Results 10 Table 4: IUCN Red List 2016 Bonefish and 11 Tarpon Record Results Table 5: Birds of the World Birds Record Results 11 Table 6: Unique IUCN Mammal Ranges within 12

The GFW 2011 Mangrove Areas

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1–RecommendCourseofActionTheMangroveActionProject(MAP)requestedspeciesrichnessmapsfortheworld’smangroveforestsandEsriStoryMapsforselectmegafanuatoaidintheircommunitybasedecologicalmangroverestoration(CBEMR)program.ThisprojectusedglobaldatafromtheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature(IUCN),BirdsoftheWorld(BoW),andGlobalForestWatch(GFW)forspeciesrangesformammals,amphibians,birds,andbonefishandtarpons.Withthesedata,coarsespeciesrichnessmapswerecreatedusingbestpracticesfromthefieldsofecologyandconservationbiology.Inadditiontospeciesrichnessmaps,twoEsriStoryMapswerecreatedtohighlightBengaltigersoftheSundarbanMangroveForestandtheProboscismonkeyandBorneanorangutanoftheSundaShelfMangroves,Borneo.Usingthedeliverablesfromthisproject,itisrecommendedthatMAPusethespeciesrichnessmapsasanillustrativeguidetotheimportanceofareaswithmangroveforests.TheEsriStoryMapsshouldbeexpandedandenrichedastimeanddataallow.2–Introduction2.1–MangroveActionProjectTheMangroveActionProject(MAP)isanotforprofitglobalorganizationthatisdedicatedtosavingtheworld’smangroveforest.Theyhaveprogramsthatbothactivelyfightthedestructionofmangrovesandeducatelocalcommunitiestothevalueandimportanceofmangroveforestsintheirlives.MAPhasneedsforseveraldifferentlevelsofgeographicalinformationservice(GIS)analysisfrommapsforeducationtocombiningexistingdisparatedatatoidentifyareasofgreatestneedandthreats.Thisstudyfocusesontheirneedofmapsfortheircommunitybasedecologicalmangroverestoration(CBEMR)program.ThemapsrequestedfortheCBEMRprogramaremangrovespecificspeciesrichnessrangemapsandEsriStoryMapsthathighlightsomeofthemegafaunathatmaketheirhomesinthemangroves.2.2–MangroveForestsMangroveforestsareuniqueforeststhatarefoundintherelativelynarrowinter-tidalzonebetweenseaandlandofthetropicsandsubtropicsbetween25°Nand30°Slatitude(Valielaetal.,2001).Theygrowinthesevereenvironmentofhighsalinity,hightemperatures,extremetides,highsedimentationandmuddyanaerobicsoils(Girietal.,2011).In2000,theareaofmangrovesworldwidewasapproximately137,760km2,spanning118countiesandterritorieswithapproximately75%oftheforestsfoundin15countries(Figure1,Table1)(Girietal.,2011;Valielaetal.,2001).Mangroveforestsprovideawiderangeofecoservicesandproducenumerousgoodswhileoccupyingonly0.12%oftheworld’stotallandarea(Polidoroetal.,2010).Whilethecommunitiesandecosystemsfoundwithinthemangrovesrelyheavilyupontheuniquecharacteristicsoftheforestforsurvival,mangroveforestsaredisappearingatanalarmingrate.Since1980,20%-35%ofworldwidemangroveforestshavebeenlostwithanestimated1%-8%lostannually(Polidoroetal.,2010).

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Table1–Top10MangroveCountries.SourceGlobalForestWatch2011andGirietal.,2011.Rank Country MangroveArea

(km2)%ofGlobal

Total1 Indonesia 27,076 22.62 Brazil 10,589 7.13 Australia 9,634 7.04 Mexico 7,296 5.45 Niger 6,266 4.76 Malaysia 5,585 3.77 Myanmar 5,075 3.68 PapuaNewGuinea 4,746 3.59 Bangladesh 4,456 3.210 Cuba 4,280 3.1

Figure1-Worldwidedistributionofmangroveforests.

2.3-EcoservicesMangroveforestsareamongthemostproductiveandbiologicallyimportantintheworldastheyprovidemanyecoservicesandresourcestocoastalcommunities,manyofthemindevelopingcountries.Amongtheecoservicesmangroveforestssupportare:floodprotection,nutrientandorganicmatterprocessing,sedimentcontrol,fisheries,andrenewablesourcesofwood(Alongi,2008;Polidoroetal.,2010).Theyactasabufferinthetransitionfromtheseatolandthatprovidesnurseryandbreedinggroundsforbirds,mammals,amphibians,crustaceans,andfish(Alongi,2008).Theforestsprotectinlandecosystemsfromwaves,tidalbores,andtsunamisanddampencoastalerosioncausedbytidalactivity(Alongi,2008;Polidoroetal.,2010).Inadditiontophysicalprotection,mangroveforestsalsoprovidecommunitieswithhoney,tannins,mariculturecrops,andsalt(Valielaetal.,2001).2.4SpeciesrichnessrangemapsInthefieldsofecologyandconservation,examiningcontinental-to-globalpatternsofspeciesrichnessusesspeciesrangemaps.Thecommonwaytocreatethesemapsistooverlayspeciesrangepolygonswithagridandcountthenumberofpolygonspergridcell(GrahamandHijmans,

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2006;HurlbertandJetz,2007;SoberonandCeballos2001;Sangermano2009).Thismethodprovidesacoarsewaytoviewspeciesdensitypatterns.Whenusingthismethod,thegridcellsizeandprojectionareimportantdesignfactors,asamismatchinscalewilladverselyaffectanyattempttoexaminespeciesrichness.Withadvanceddatagatheringtechniques(i.e.,LiDAR,satelliteimagery)combinedwithgeographicalmappingsoftware,thetemptationistouseafinespatialresolutionnotsupportedbytheunderlyingspeciesrangepolygons.Thismismatchmayresultinanoverestimationofspeciesrichness(HurlbertandJetz,2007).Conversely,acoarsespatialresolutionisrarelydesiredforastudyarea.Findingthecompromisebetweenresolutionandaccuracyisthetopicofmanystudies(Ceballosetal.,2005;Hengl,2006;Larsenetal.,2009;Rahbeketal.,2007;SoberónandCeballos,2011;Steinetal.,2001)andunderstandingtheaccuracyofthescaledependenceisimportantfortheanalysisofrangemapdata(GrahamandHijmans,2006;HurlbertandJetz,2007).HurlbertandJetz(2007)comparedrangemapswithspeciessurveymapsatvariousscalesthatrangedfrom>4°to0.25°andfoundat2°gridcellsizetherangemapswerestatisticallysimilartospeciessurveymaps.Hengl(2006)doesnotrecommendasetgridsizebutinsteadencouragesresearcherstofindresolutionsthatcomplywiththeinherentresolutionoftheinputdatasetsandthegridcellsizeshouldsupportthefixedareaorvolumeoflandbeingsampled.Asacompromisetothespatialresolutionissue,mostresearchersuse1°gridsforrangemaps(Ceballosetal.,2005;Larsenetal.,2009;Rahbeketal.,2007).3-Design&Methods3.1DesignforSpeciesRichnessMapsThemostcommondatasetsused,fornon-avianspecies,forspeciesrangemapsistheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature(IUCN)RedListandBirdsoftheWorld(BoW)foravianspecies.ThesedatasetprovidesspeciesrangepolygonsinEsrishapefilesthatarebasedonexpertknowledgeofspeciesrangeextent.Therangescanincludeinferredorprojectedsitesofpresentoccurrenceandinevitablyincludesomissionsduetolackofdata(IUCN,2016).ThedatasetaredistributedunprojectedinGCS_WGS_1984.Thisstudyusesthe2011mangroveforestEsrishapefilefromGlobalForestWatch(GFW)forthemangroveforestareas.ThisdatasetisalsodistributedunprojectinGCS_WGS_1984.Thescaleofthesemangrovepolygonsisfinecomparedtothecoarse,globalscaleoftheIUCNdata.Thecompromisebetweenthecoarseandfinenatureofthedatasetswastouseacoordinatereferencesystemthatwasspheroid,equalareawithreducedareadistortioninequatorialregions.ThesystemselectedwasBehrmannWorld.Thisisacylindricalequal-areaprojectionwiththestandardparallelsbetween30°Nand30°S,therebydistortingtheareasofinteresttheleast.Thegridusedtocalculatedensityaswellasmeanareawasa100kmx100kmfishnetgrid.3.2DesignforEsriStoryMapsEsriStoryMapsareaplatformdesignedtoshareinformation/stories/photos/datainanengagingmanner.TheStoryMapsforthisprojectweredesignedintheStoryMapSeriesusingtheSideAccordionlayout.Thestoriescombinefacts,photos,andwebmapsabouttheselectedmegafaunaofRoyalBengaltigersintheSundarbanMangroveForestandtheProboscismonkeyandBorneanorangutanoftheSundaShelfMangroves.

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3.3MethodsforSpeciesRichnessMapsTheoriginalmethodforcreatingthespeciesrichnessmapswastocliptheIUCNglobaldatasetstotheGFW2011mangrovedataset.Thiswasnotfeasibletoduetothescaledifferencesbetweenthedatasets,intermsofdatarepresentedandintermsofrecordsandcomplexgeometrywithinthedatasets(e.g.Mangrovedatasetn=1,386,714,Mammalsdatasetn=42,165).Therefore,theclipmethodwasabandoned.ThemethodsusedtocreatethespeciesrichnessmapsfromtheIUCNandBoWglobaldatasetsandusedtheSpatialJoinmethodinArcMap.Thestepsareoutlinedbelow.Step1–ThedatasetsfromtheIUCN,BoW,andGFWwereinthegeographiccoordinatesystemGCS_WGS_1984.ThesesetswereprojectedtoBehrmann(World).Afishnetgridwascreatedatthe100kmx100kmscale.Step2-ThefullIUCNdataset(formammals,amphibians,andbonefishandtarpons)andBoWdatabasewereopenedinArcMapandinthe‘Properties’the‘DefineQuery’wassetto‘PRESENCE’=1or‘PRESENCE’=2.ThesearethevaluesforpolygonswherethespeciesisExtantorProbablyExtant.TheProbablyExtantvaluehasbeendiscontinuedduetoambiguity;howeveritexistedinthespatialdata.Step3–The100kmx100kmfishnetwasspatiallyjoinedwitheachdataset.ThiswasdoneusingtheArcToolbox->AnalysisTools->Overly->SpatialJointool.Thetextfieldsfromthedatasetswereremovedandanewfield“MeanRange”wascreated.Tocounthowmanypolygonswereineachdegreecell,thefield“Presence”wassettoamergeruleof‘Count’.Anewfieldname“MeanRange”wascreatedasadoublewithprecision6andrange20.ItwaslinkedtotheIUCN/BoWdataset.shape_Areathroughthe‘AddInputField’rightclickmenuoption.Oncethefieldwaslinked,themergerulewassetto“Mean”.Oncethespatialjoinwascomplete,anewfieldcalled‘Mangroves’wasaddedtothenewdataset.Step4–SelectthepolygonsthatintersectwiththeGlobalForestWatch(GFW)2011mangrovedataset.Thenewspatiallyjoineddatasetwasthe‘Target’andtheGFW2011mangroveswerethesourceforthe‘SelectionbyLocation’function.Oncetheselectionwascomplete,therecordsthatwereselectedhadthe‘Mangrove’fieldpopulatedwith‘mangrovecell’.Step5–ThenewjoinedshapefilewasthenspatiallyjoinedwithaCountryshapefiletogetthenameofthecountries.The‘Target’wastheIUCN/GFWshapefileandthe‘JoinFeature’wasthecountryshapefile.Step6–Tocreatethespeciesrichnessmaps,under‘Properties’ofthenewlycreatedfilethe‘DefineQuery’wassetto‘Mangrove’<>‘’toselectthemangrovecells.The‘Symbology’wassetto‘Quantities’->‘Graduatedcolors’.TheFieldValuewas‘count’or‘presence’.Theclassificationwasfiveclassesmodifiedfrom‘NaturalBreaks(Jenks)’.Basedonthenumberbreaksanddatadistributionfrom‘NaturalBreaks’,theclassificationwasmodifiedtoanease-of–readingpattern(e.g.NaturalBreaksof0-71,72–114,115–156wasmodifiedto0-50,51-100,101–150).TheattributetablefromallresultsetswasexportedtoExcel.InExcelthespeciescountwasplottedagainstthespeciesrangemeanareaforeach100kmx100kmgridsquare.

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3.4MethodsforEsriStoryMapWebmapsTheStoryMapsweredesignedratherasaplatformtohighlightspecificmegafanunathanashowcaseforamap.FromtheprovidedtextandphotolinksfromMAP,thelayoutandwebmapweredesignedtocapturetheviewer’sattentionanddrawtheviewerthroughthestorytohighlightthespecificmangroveforests.Thewebmapscreatedusedsubsetsofthemangrovespeciesrichnessdata.TheRoyalBengaltigerStoryMaphasawebmapthatshowsthehistoricrangeandpresenttigerrange.TheIUCNdataisnotdividedintothesubspeciesofpanthertigristigris.ToillustratethepresentrangeusingtheIUCNdata,rangemapsfromthewebsitesofWorldWildlifeFund,Wikipedia,andTigerPopulationwerecomparedandmatchingpolygonswereselectedfromtheIUCNmammaldataset.ThewebmapfortheProboscismonkeyandBorneanorangutanwascreatedbyclippingthemammalspeciesrichnessdataforBoreno.4–ResultsTheIUCNmammals,amphibian,andbonefishandtarpondatasetfor‘PRESENT’=1or2resultsareTable2–4.TheBoWdataset(Table5)wasnotdividedthesameastheIUCNandthereforedoesnothavetheuniquespeciesnumbers.ThesearethevaluesfromtheIUCN/BoWdatasetstounderstandthenumberofrecordsanduniquespeciesrepresentedinthisstudy.Figures2–6showthespeciescountplottedagainstthespeciesrange.Thesevaluesareacountofpolygonsper100kmx100kmgridcell(n=51,156).Figures2–5plotbothmangrovecell-specificandnon-mangrovecellspeciestogetherandFigure6plotsthemangrovecell-specificspeciestogether(thebirddataisexcludedtoscaleinspeciesrange).TheresultantmapshighlightingthemangrovespeciesrichnessareinAppendixA.Table2:IUCNRedList2016MammalsdatasetIUCNRedList2016Code Records Unique

MammalsCriticallyEndangered‘CR’ 515 191Endangered‘EN’ 2,002 478Vulnerable‘VU’ 5,054 509NearThreatened‘NT’ 1,935 323LeastConcern‘LC’ 29,966 3,109DataDeficient‘DD’ 1,601 772Totals 41,073 5,382

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Figure2-Themammalspeciescountvsspeciesrangeforcellsthatcontainmangroveforestsvs.cellsthatdonot

Table3:IUCNRedList2016AmphibiandatasetIUCNRedList2016Code Records Unique

AmphibiansCriticallyEndangered‘CR’ 711 515Endangered‘EN’ 1,502 806Vulnerable‘VU’ 1,487 652NearThreatened‘NT’ 1,109 398LeastConcern‘LC’ 12,456 2,420DataDeficient‘DD’ 2,134 1,523Totals 19,399 5,799

Figure3-Theamphibianspeciescountvsspeciesrangeforcellsthatcontainmangroveforestsvs.cellsthatdonot.

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Table4:IUCNRedList2016BonefishandTarponsdatasetIUCNRedList2016Code Records Unique

FishCriticallyEndangered‘CR’ 0 0Endangered‘EN’ 0 0Vulnerable‘VU’ 2 2NearThreatened‘NT’ 1 1LeastConcern‘LC’ 3 3DataDeficient‘DD’ 12 12Totals 18 18

Figure4-Thebonefishandtarponspeciescountvsspeciesrangeforcellsthatcontainmangroveforestsvs.cellsthatdonot

Table5:BirdsoftheWorldAllSpeciesdataset

IUCNRedList2016Code RecordsCriticallyEndangered‘CR’ 199Endangered‘EN’ 417Vulnerable‘VU’ 741NearThreatened‘NT’ 971LeastConcern‘LC’ 7,872DataDeficient‘DD’ 61Totals 10,261

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Figure5–Thebirdspeciescountvsspeciesrangeforcellsthatcontainmangroveforestsvs.cellsthatdonot.

WhilethemethodofclippingthefullspeciesdatasetswiththeGFWmangrovedatasetswasabandoned,fourcodeswithinthefullmammaldatasetwereclippedandTable6showstheresultsofuniquespecieswhoserangeiswithintheboundariesofthemangroveforests.Table6:NumberofuniquemammalrangesthatarewithintheGFW2011MangroveareaCriticallyEndangered

‘Cr’Endangered

‘EN’Vulnerable

‘VU’NearThreatened

‘NT’65outof191 177outof478 308outof509 200outof323

Figure6-Speciescountvsspeciesrangeforonlythecellsthatcontainmangroveforests.

Themammals,amphibians,andbirddatasetspresentinterestingpatternswhenthespeciescountvs.speciesrangemeanareaisplotted.Thebonefishandtarpondatasetisthesmallestwiththeleastspeciesvariationandleasthabitatrange.Itisnotunexpectedthatthepatternissimplistic.Noneofthenumericalvaluesfromthisstudyhavebeenstatisticallyevaluated.Thepatternsshowa

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highspeciescountperspeciesrangeinthegridcellsthatalsocontainmangroveforests.Itisoutsidethescopeofthisstudytointerpretthespatialdistributionpatterns.TheresultsoftheEsriStoryMaparelocatedinAppendixB.5–DiscussionSpeciesrichnessmapsareoftenusedtoidentifyhotspotsandareasofconservationconcernandplanning.Whenusingglobaldatatoinvestigatesmallareas,cautionneedstobeexercised.Moderncomputerprogramscanallowfortheoverstretchingofdatascalesthatresearchersmustbecautioustoavoid.Themangrovesoftheworldoccupyaverysmallarea(examplesinTable1)comparedtothecurrentlyavailablespeciesrangepolygons.ThespatialresolutionofthemangrovesdataismuchfinerthanthedetailoftheIUCNRedListandBoWdata(Figure7)

Figure7–ComparisonofscaleanddetailbetweentheIUCNRedList2016andGFW2011data.ViewofsoutheasterncoastofBorneo.IUCNRedListdataisfromdividedshapefilesbasedon‘Code’.

Thismismatchprohibitsthecreationofmangrovespecificspeciesrichnessmaps.Thefinestscalethatisappropriateforanystudybetweenthesetwodatasetsisthe100kmx100km(or1-degree)gridcellsize(Figure8).

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Figure8-Finest,reasonablescaleforalldatasetstobeusedtogether.ViewofsoutheasterncoastofBorneo..IUCNRedListdataisfromdividedshapefilesbasedon‘Code’.

Theresultantmaps(AppendixA)producedfromthesedatasetsprovideanimportantvisualrepresentationofthespeciesrichnessofareasthatcontainmangroveforests.Thespeciescountvs.speciesrangeplotsmayalsoshowinsightfulpatterns.Bothhighlightthevastbiodiversitythatissupportedinsmallareasandtheneedtopreserveandconservetheseareasforthehealthandwellbeingofall.6–BusinessCaseandImplementationPlanTofurthertheanalysisthatisstartedinthisproject,theIUCNdatasetsthathighlightmangroveforestsshouldbecombinedandcomparedtomorerefinedrangemapsandspeciesstudies.FollowingamethodsimilartothespeciesdistributionmodelusedbySangermano(2009)forbirdsofSouthAmerican,thedatausedforthemangrovedatasetcanberefinedandmoreaccuraterangedatacanbeexplored.Thisstudydidnotexamthenumericalresultsthroughanystatisticallyanalysisorpresence-absencematricessuchasSoberónandCeballos(2011).Withoutfurtherrefiningoftheunderlyingrangepolygons,itisadvisedtheMangroveActionProjectusethemapsgeneratedthroughthisexerciseforguidanceandillustrativepurposesonlyintheirCBEMRprogram.TomovetheSpeciesRichnessMapsfromstaticfilestoEsriArcOnline,thespecies-specificshapefileswillneedtobereducedinsizeandfeaturesbysplittingalong‘id_no’orasimilaruniquevalue.ThetotalstorageallottedforEsriArcOnlineforallapplicationsis2GBandthesitewillonlyuploadshapefileswithlessthan1,000features.TheEsriStoryMapsthathavebeencreatedundertheMAPEsriArcOnlineaccount.Theycanbeeasilyexpandedasnewinformationisgathered.

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7.0–LiteratureCitedAlongi,D.M.,2008.Mangroveforests:Resilience,protectionfromtsunamis,andresponsestoglobalclimatechange.Estuarine,CoastalandShelfScience,vol.76pp.1-13Ceballos,G.,Ehrlich,P.R.,Soberón,J.,Salazar,I.,Fay,J.P.,2005.GlobalMammalConservation:WhatMustWeManage?Science,Vol.309,July22,2005Giri,C.,Ochieng,E.,Tieszen,L.L.,Zhu,Z.,Singh,A.,Loveland,T.,Masek,J.,andDuke,N.,2011.Statusanddistributionofmangroveforestsoftheworldusingearthobservationsatellitedata.GlobalEcologyandBiogeography,vol.20,pp.154-159Graham,C.H.andHijmans,R.J.,2006.Acomparisonofmethodsformappingspeciesrangesandspeciesrichness.GlobalEcologyandBiogeography,Vol.15pp.578-587GlobalForestWatch,2011MangroveDataset.DownloadedJune2016.Hengl,T.,2006.Findingtherightpixelsize.Computers&Geosciences,vol.32pp.1283-1298

Hurlbert,A.H.andJetz,W.,2007.Speciesrichness,hotspots,andthescaledependenceofrangemapinecologyandconservation.www.pnas.org"cgi"doi"10.1073"pnas.0704469104

IUCN2016.TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Version2016-1.http://www.iucnredlist.org.DownloadedJune2016.

Larsen,R.,Holmern,T.,Prager,S.D.,Maliti,H.,andRoskaft,E.,2009.Usingtheextendedquarterdegreegridcellsystemtounifymappingandsharingofbiodiversitydata.AfricanJournalofEcology,47,382–392.

Polidoro,B.A.,Carpenter,K.E.,Collins,L.,Duke,N.C.,Ellison,A.M.,Ellison,J.C.,Farnsworth,E.J.,Fernando,E.S.,Kathiresan,K.,Koedam,N.E.,Livingstone,S.R.,Miyagi,T.,Moore,G.E.,Nam,V.N.,Ong,J.E.,Primavera,J.H.,Salmo,III,S.G.,Sanciangco,J.C.,Sukardjo,S.,Wang,Y.,andYong,J.W.H.,2010.TheLossofSpecies:MangroveExtinctionRiskandGeographicAreasofGlobalConcern.PLoSONE5(4):e10095.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010095

Rahbek,C.,Gotelli,N.J.,Colwell,R.K.,Entsminger,G.L.,Rangel,T.F.L.V.,andGraves,G.R.,2007.Predictingcontinental-scalepatternsofbirdspeciesrichnesswithspatiallyexplicitmodels.ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,274(1607),165–174.http://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3700Sangermano,F.,2009.InferentialMonitoringofGlobalChangeImpactonBiodiverstiythroughRemoteSensingandSpeciesDistributionModeling.DissertationfromClarkUniversity,Worcester,Massachusetts,DepartmentofGeographyStein,A.,Riley,J.,Halbert,N.,2001.Issuesofscaleforenvironmentalindicators.Agriculture,EcosystemsandEnvironments.Vol.87,pp.215-232Soberón,J.andCeballos,G.,2011.SpeciesRichnessandRangeSizeoftheTerrestrialMammalsoftheWorld:BiologicalSignalwithinMathematicalConstraints.PLoSONE6(5):e19359.Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019359Valiela,I.,Bowen,J.L.,andYork,J.K.,2001.MangroveForests:OneoftheWorld’sThreatenedMajorTropicalEnvironments.Bioscience,vol.51,no.10