master english grammar. write better
TRANSCRIPT
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Master English grammar.Write better prose.
Jonathan Rogers, PhD
LECTURE NOTES & QUIZZES
Author of The Wilderking Trilogy & The World According to Narnia
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LectureNotes&Quizzes
Dr.JonathanRogers
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Copyright©2019CompassClassroom,LLC
Allrightsreserved.Thisbookoranyportionthereofmaynotbereproducedorusedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofthepublisherexceptfortheuseofbriefquotationsinabookreview.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
SecondPrinting,2021v5
CompassClassroom,LLC605WestIrisDriveNashville,Tennessee37204
CompassClassroom.com
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TableofContents
UsingGrammarforWriters..................................................................................................................................1
Module1,Lesson1:Introduction......................................................................................................................5
Module1,Lesson2:TheMainLine..................................................................................................................7 Quiz 1.2: The Main Line ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Module1,Lesson3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects...............................................................................13 Quiz 1.3: Identifying Verbs and Subjects ................................................................................................................ 17
Module1,Lesson4:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements................................................................21 Quiz 1.4 A: Identifying Objects and Complements ................................................................................................. 25 Quiz 1.4 B: Identifying Objects and Complements (Challenge) .............................................................................. 27
Module1,Lesson5:TheFiveClausePatterns...........................................................................................31 Quiz 1.5 A: The Five Clause Patterns ...................................................................................................................... 35 Quiz 1.5 B: The Five Clause Patterns (Challenge) ................................................................................................... 37
Module1,Lesson6:ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbs.............................................................41 Quiz 1.6: Actors and Actions, Subjects and Verbs .................................................................................................. 45
Module1,Lesson7:WhatisPassiveVoice?...............................................................................................49 Quiz 1.7: What is Passive Voice? ............................................................................................................................ 53
Module1,Lesson8:UsesofthePassiveVoice..........................................................................................57 Quiz 1.8 A: Uses of the Passive Voice ..................................................................................................................... 59 Quiz 1.8 B: Uses of the Passive Voice (Challenge) .................................................................................................. 61
Module1,Lesson9:Nominalization..............................................................................................................65 Quiz 1.9: Nominalization ........................................................................................................................................ 69
Module1,Lesson10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs............................................................................73 Quiz 1.10: Strong Verbs vs. Precise Verbs .............................................................................................................. 77
Module1,Lesson11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs.........................................................................79 Quiz 1.11: Keeping Subjects Close to Verbs ........................................................................................................... 81
Module1,Lesson12:CompoundsontheMainLine...............................................................................85 Quiz 1.12: Compounds on the Main Line ............................................................................................................... 89
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Module1,Lesson13:VerbTenses..................................................................................................................93 Quiz 1.13: Verb Tenses ........................................................................................................................................... 97
Module1,Lesson14:Review............................................................................................................................99
Module2,Lesson1:Introduction.................................................................................................................101
Module2,Lesson2:AdjectivesandAdverbs..........................................................................................105 Quiz 2.2: Adjectives and Adverbs ......................................................................................................................... 109
Module2,Lesson3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?...........................................................................113 Quiz 2.3: What’s So Bad About Adverbs? ............................................................................................................ 115
Module2,Lesson4:PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)............................................................................117
Module2,Lesson5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)............................................................................121 Quiz 2.5: Prepositional Phrases (Part 2) ............................................................................................................... 125
Module2,Lesson6:Participles.....................................................................................................................129
Module2,Lesson7:ParticipialPhrases....................................................................................................131 Quiz 2.7: Participial Phrases ................................................................................................................................ 135
Module2,Lesson8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases.......................................................................137 Quiz 2.8: Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases ........................................................................................................... 139
Module2,Lesson9:SubordinateClauses(Introduction).................................................................143
Module2,Lesson10:AdjectiveClauses....................................................................................................145 Quiz 2.10: Adjective Clauses ................................................................................................................................ 149
Module2,Lesson11:AdverbClauses........................................................................................................151 Quiz 2.11: Adverb Clauses .................................................................................................................................... 157
Module2,Lesson12:MoreonSubordinateClauses............................................................................161 Quiz 2.12: More on Subordinate Clauses ............................................................................................................. 167
Module2,Lesson13:MisplacedModifiers..............................................................................................169 Quiz 2.13: Misplaced Modifiers ........................................................................................................................... 171
Module2,Lesson14:Review.........................................................................................................................173
Module3,Lesson1:Introduction.................................................................................................................175
Module3,Lesson2:NounClauses...............................................................................................................179
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Quiz 3.2 A: Noun Clauses ..................................................................................................................................... 181 Quiz 3.2 B: Noun Clauses ..................................................................................................................................... 185
Module3,Lesson3:GerundsandInfinitives..........................................................................................187 Quiz 3.3: Gerunds and Infinitives ......................................................................................................................... 191
Module3,Lesson4:Appositives...................................................................................................................195 Quiz 3.4: Appositives ............................................................................................................................................ 197
Module3,Lesson5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements.............................................................201 Quiz 3.5: Essential and Non-Essential Elements .................................................................................................. 205
Module3,Lesson6:Review............................................................................................................................207 Quiz 3.6: Review ................................................................................................................................................... 209
Module4,Lesson1:Introduction.................................................................................................................213
Module4,Lesson2:Subject-VerbAgreement........................................................................................215 Quiz 4.2: Subject-Verb Agreement ....................................................................................................................... 217
Module4,Lesson3:PronounsandAntecedents...................................................................................219 Quiz 4.3: Pronouns and Antecedents ................................................................................................................... 223
Module4,Lesson4:ConnectingClauses(Part1).................................................................................225 Quiz 4.4: Connecting Clauses (Part 1) .................................................................................................................. 227
Module4,Lesson5:ConnectingClauses(Part2).................................................................................231 Quiz 4.5: Connecting Clauses (Part 2) .................................................................................................................. 235
Module4,Lesson6:Parallelism....................................................................................................................239 Quiz 4.6: Parallelism ............................................................................................................................................ 245
Module4,Lesson7:NominativeAbsolutes.............................................................................................249 Quiz 4.7: Nominative Absolutes ........................................................................................................................... 251
Module4,Lesson8:CourseWrapUp.........................................................................................................253
QuizAnswers........................................................................................................................................................255
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1
UsingGrammarforWriters
GrammarforWritersisavideo-basedcourseconsistingofforty-twolessons.Eachlessonincludesavideolectureapproximatelytenminutesinlength,aswellaslecturenotes,whichsummarizeandrestatetheimportantpointsfromthelesson.Mostofthelessonsalsoincludeaquiz(andafewincludetwoquizzes).Werecommendthatyouwatchtheshortlectureswithyourstudentsoratleastreadthroughthelecturenotesinordertobebetterpreparedtohelpyourstudentsthroughthequizzes.TheQuizzesInthistextbookyouwillfindthequizzesafterthelessonstowhichtheycorrespond.Theanswerstoeachquizcanbefoundinthelastsectionofthebook.Itisimportantthatbothstudentandinstructorunderstandthatthequizzesaremoreinstructiveanddiagnosticthanevaluative.Thatistosay,thequizzesareakeypartofthelearningprocess,notameansofevaluatingthestudentafterthelearningprocess.Thequizquestionsgivethestudentanopportunitytoapplyandpracticetheprinciplesdiscussedinthelecture.Youwillnoticethattheexplanationsintheanswerkeyarerobust.TheseexplanationsareanimportantpartoftheinstructionaldesignofGrammarforWriters.Itisimportantthatyouwalkthroughthoseexplanationswithyourstudents,oratleastallowyourstudentstowalkthroughtheexplanationsontheirown.Manyofthequestionsandanswersareframedsothattherecanbemultiple“correct”answers.Oneimportantgoalofthiscourseistogivewritersthetoolstodistinguishbetweengoodwritingandbetterwriting,evenwithintherealmof“correct”writing.TheScheduleGrammarforWritersisself-paced.However,wehaveprovidedascheduleforlearnerswhowishtospendasemesterwiththecourse:
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Week LessonorQuizTitle Completed/ScoreWeek1 Lesson1.1–Module1Introduction
Lesson1.2–TheMainLineQuiz1.2Lesson1.3–IdentifyingVerbsandSubjectsQuiz1.3
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Week2 Lesson1.4–IdentifyingObjectsandComplementsQuiz1.4AQuiz1.4BLesson1.5–TheFiveClausePatternsQuiz1.5AQuiz1.5B
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Week3 Lesson1.6–ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbsQuiz1.6Lesson1.7–WhatisPassiveVoice?Quiz1.7Lesson1.8–UsesofthePassiveVoiceQuiz1.8AQuiz1.8B
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Week4 Lesson1.9–NominalizationQuiz1.9Lesson1.10–StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbsQuiz1.10Lesson1.11–KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbsQuiz1.11
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Week5 Lesson1.12–CompoundsontheMainLineQuiz1.12Lesson1.13–VerbTensesQuiz1.13Lesson1.14–Module1Review
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Week6 Lesson2.1–Module2IntroductionLesson2.2–AdjectivesandAdverbsQuiz2.2Lesson2.3–What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?Quiz2.3
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Week7 Lesson2.4–PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)Lesson2.5–PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)Quiz2.5
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Week8 Lesson2.6–ParticiplesLesson2.7–ParticipialPhrasesQuiz2.7Lesson2.8–InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrasesQuiz2.8
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Week9 Lesson2.9–SubordinateClauses(Introduction)Lesson2.10–AdjectiveClausesQuiz2.10
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Week10 Lesson2.11–AdverbClausesQuiz2.11Lesson2.12–MoreonSubordinateClausesQuiz2.12
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Week11 Lesson2.13–MisplacedModifiersQuiz2.13Lesson2.14–Module2Conclusion
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Week12 Lesson3.1–Module3IntroductionLesson3.2–NounClausesQuiz3.2AQuiz3.2BLesson3.3–GerundsandInfinitivesQuiz3.3
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Week13 Lesson3.4–AppositivesQuiz3.4Lesson3.5–EssentialandNon-EssentialElementsQuiz3.5Lesson3.6–Module3ReviewQuiz3.6
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Week14 Lesson4.1–Module4IntroductionLesson4.2–Subject-VerbAgreementQuiz4.2Lesson4.3–PronounsandAntecedentsQuiz4.3
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Week15 Lesson4.4–ConnectingClauses(Part1)Quiz4.4Lesson4.5–ConnectingClauses(Part2)Quiz4.5
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Week16 Lesson4.6–ParallelismQuiz4.5Lesson4.7–NominativeAbsolutesQuiz4.7Lesson4.8–CourseWrap-Up
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson1:IntroductionFormanywriters,thekeytobetterwritingisn’tnewskillssomuchasclearingawaytheclutterofbadhabitstogetbacktofundamentalskillsthathavebeenthereallalong.Humanlanguagegivesyoucountlesswaystoinsertmoreandmoreinformationintoasentence—nominativeabsolute,nounclauses,adjectiveclauses,participialphrases.Subordinatingconjunctionsconveyallkindsoflogicalrelationshipsbetweenideas.Ifyou’reolderthanaboutsevenyearsold,youcanalreadyuseallofthesegrammaticalconstructions.Youareprobablyquitegoodatcramminglotsofinformationintoasentence.However,atitsheart,good,vividlanguage—whetherwrittenorspoken—isn’tjustaboutconveyinginformation.Itisn’taboutweedingoutthegrammarandstyleerrorsfromyourprose.It’saboutrenderingexperience.Thatissomethingthatyouunderstoodwhenyouwereatoddler,evenifyouhavesinceforgottenit.Whenyoulearntotalk,youstartwithconcretenouns—thingsyoucanseeandhearandtouch:Mama,Daddy,kitty,milk,car.Prettysoonyouaddverbs:Kittysaysmeow.Milkspilled.Daddyisfunny.Cargoesfast.
Asyougrow,youlearntouseincreasinglycomplicatedgrammaticalstructures.Throughmostofyoureducation,yourparentsandteachersencourageyoutoexpressmoreandmorecomplexideaswithmoreandmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Yougetrewardedforshowingthatyoucanthinkinabstractterms.YouDOneedtobeabletothinkabstractly,andyouneedtomasterthegrammaticalcomplexitiesthatallowyoutocommunicateabstractideas.Abstractthinkingisanimportantpartoftheeducationalprocess.Inthiscourse,however,Iamgoingtoworkfromtheassumptionthatyouarealreadyfullycapableofabstractthought—thatyouhavenothingtoproveinthatregard.Good,vivid
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writingtendstomovetowardtheconcrete,pullingbigideasandconceptsdownfromtherealmoftheabstractandintotheworldwhereweliveandmoveandhaveourbeing.SointhisfirstmoduleofGrammarforWriters,we’regoingtogoallthewaybacktothesimplest,moststraightforwardwaysofrenderingexperience:Subjects.Verbs.Objects.Complements.WHODIDWHAT?Or,WHODIDWHATTOWHOM?Writingthatconnectswithareaderhastobesolidatthatlevel.That’sthewayinformationcomestousintherealworld.Weseewhodidwhattowhom.Writingthatisstrongattheverysimplelevelofsubject,verb,object,andcomplementfeelstruetoyourreader.Inthismodule,we’restrippingawayallthemodifiers,allthesubordinateclauses,everythingbutthemainactionthatasentencedepicts:whodidwhat?We’regoingtobuildbackallthoseotherconstructionsinthesubsequentmodules,butfornow,we’regoingallthewaybacktosomeofthefirstthingsyoulearnedtodowithlanguagewhenyouwereatoddler.Therearetwelvelessonsremaininginthisfirstmodule.Hereiswhatyoucanexpecttogetfromthoselessons:
• Toolsforidentifyingtheverbandthesubjectofaclause.• Toolsforfindingdirectobjectsandindirectobjects.• Toolsforidentifyingpredicatecomplementsandseeingthedifferencebetween
actionverbsandlinkingverbs.• Thefivepossiblepatternsforthestructureofaclause.• Passivevoice—howtoidentifyit,whytoavoidit,andwhenit’sgoodtouseit.• Nominalization—thepracticeofturningverbsintoabstractnouns(andwhyitisa
dangerouspractice).• Strongverbs—andwhythatadvice“USESTRONGVERBS”canbemisleading.
Wewilldevotealotofattentiontoaligningtheactionofasentencewiththegrammarofthesentencebymakingsurethatactionsgetexpressedasverbs,andtheactorsarethesubjectsofthoseverbs.That,really,isthecentralideaofthiswholemodule.Everythingelseinthismoduleisjustaspecificand/ortechnicaloutworkingofthatideaofturningactorsandactionsintosubjectsandverbs.Onceyougraspandapplythatidea,yourwritingwillbetransformedimmediately.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson2:TheMainLine
Everysentencehasamainclause.Itmayhavealotofotherthingstoo,butitalwayshasamainclause.Themainclauseanswersthequestion,WHODIDWHAT?Eachofthesesentencesconsistsofonemainclause.
• Thebearslept.• Lindakickedaball.• Persimmonsgivemeabellyache.• Thatcakesmellsdelicious.• TerencecalledRosariaagenius.
Insentencediagramming,themainclauseisrepresentedonthemainline.Ineachofthesediagrams,thereisonlyamainline,withnothing(exceptonearticlepersentence)branchingfromtheline.
ThefivepatternsrepresentedinthesefivediagramsaretheonlypossibleclausepatternsintheEnglishlanguage.WewilllookmuchmorecloselyatthesepatternsinLesson5ofthismodule.
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Many(ifnotmost)sentencesyouwritewillbeconsiderablymorecomplicatedthanthesamplesentencesabove.Thediagramsforthosesentenceswillhavelinessproutingoffthemainlineandbranchingindifferentdirections,asinthissentence:
Unconcernedbytheraucousactivityjustoutsidehiscave,thebearsleptlikeababy.
Everythingthatbranchesoffthemainlineisamodifier.Modifiersinclude(butarenotlimitedto)adjectives,adverbs,prepositionalphrases,participles,infinitives,andadverbialandadjectivalclauses.Adverbialmodifiersanswerquestionsabouttheaction:
• How?• When?• Where?• Why?
Adjectivalmodifiersanswerquestionsaboutnouns:
• Whatkind?• Whichone?• Howmany?
Thismoduleofthecourseisallaboutthemainline—themainclause,thatmainquestion:WHODIDWHAT?Mostoftherestofthecourseisabouteverythingthatbranchesoffthemainline.SkillstoworkoninthislessonareidentifyingthatmainlineandSEPARATINGitfromallthemodifiers.Considerthissentence:Theraccoonrattledthetrashcan.
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Thisisastraightforwardclausewithasubject(raccoon),averb(rattled),andadirectobject(trashcan).Whodidwhattowhom?Theraccoonrattledthetrashcan.Here’sthediagram:
Now,considerthissentence:
TheraccoonthatIwastellingyouabout,withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytail,rattledthetrashcanbehindmygaragewithaninsistencethatborderedonobsession.
Ifweweretodiagramthissentence,itwouldlooklikethis:
Comparedtothefirstraccoonsentence,thisoneisimpressivelycomplicated.Butperhapsthemostimpressivethingaboutthesetwodiagramsistherealizationthatthemainlineisexactlythesame.Whodidwhat?Theracoonrattledthetrashcan.Thisistrueforthefirst,simpleraccoonsentence,anditistrueforthesecond,complicatedraccoonsentence.Themainlineisfivewords(ifyoucountthetwothe’s).Inthesecondsentence,theother25wordssproutingoffthemainlineareallmodifiers.Theytelluswhichraccoon.Theytellwhichtrashcan.Noticealsothatsomepartsofthemodifiershavetheirownmodifiers.Onceyougetoffthemainline,languageallowsforinfinitecomplexity.Butonthemainline,theoptionsareNOTinfinite.Infact,thereareonlyfivepatterns,andtheyareeasytomemorize,andwithalittlepractice,youcangetgoodatrecognizingthem.
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Quiz1.2:TheMainLine
I.Ionceworkedataplumbingcompany.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?II.Ihavegreatadmirationforplumbers.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?III.Plumbersconfrontproblemsthatmostofusrunawayfrom.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?
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IV.Icannotimagineacivilsocietywithoutindoorplumbing.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?V.Nevertheless,myplumberfriendswerenotalwayssocivil.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?VI.Plumbersconductanongoing,oftenbitterfeudwithroofers.Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?VII.Ifyouseeaplumber,youshouldhughisorherneck.Whatisthemainlineofthemainclauseinthissentence?Inotherwords,whodidwhat,withoutanymodifiers?
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects
Aclauseisaunitofgrammarthatdescribesabitofaction.AclauseALWAYSincludesasubjectandaverb.Itmayalsoincludeotherthings,likeadirectobject,anindirectobject,apredicatenominative,apredicateadjective,oranobjectivecomplement.Thisistrueofeveryclause,whetherit’samainclause(independentclause)orasubordinateclause(dependentclause).Whenyouanalyzethegrammarofasentence,startbyfindingtheverb(orverbs).Verbsexpressactionorastateofbeing.TheVerbFinderprovidesaruleofthumbthatwillhelpyoufindtheverb(s)inanyclause.Theverbofanyclausewillfitintooneormoreoftheseblanksandformagrammaticallycorrectsentence:
I__________.YOU________.HE/SHE/IT__________.
Inthesentence,Lindakickedtheball,onlyonewordfitsintheVerbFinder:
ILinda.Ikicked.Ithe.Iball.
Ikickedisasentence.Theotherthreecombinationsarenonsensical.
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NotethatifI_________doesn’tyieldaverb,YOU________orHE/SHE/IT_________should,asinthisexample:
Thecakesmellsdelicious.Ithe. YOUthe. HE/SHE/ITthe.Icake. YOUcake. HE/SHE/ITcake.Ismells. YOUsmells. HE/SHE/ITsmells.Idelicious. YOUdelicious. HE/SHE/ITdelicious.
TheVerbFinderworksforalltenses,includingthemorecomplextenses,likepast-,present-,andfuture-progressiveandpast-,present-,andfuture-perfect.TheVerbFinder,however,isnotfool-proofifyoudon’tapplysomecommonsense.EveryverbwillfitintheblankoftheVerbFinder,butsometimesnon-verbswillalsofitintheblank.Consideroursentencefromthelastlesson:
Theracoonrattledthetrashcan.WhenyouapplytheVerbFinder,youquicklyseethatrattledisaverb:
Irattled.YOUrattled.HE/SHE/ITrattled.
Butthewordcanalsofitsintheverbfinder:
Ican.YOUcan.HE/SHE/ITcan.
Itonlytakesalittlecommonsensetoseethat,althoughcansometimesservesasaverb,itisnotservingasaverbinthissentence.Here’sasomewhatharderexample:
Rattledbymyexperiencewiththealligator,Igaveupwaterskiing.Rattledlooksverymuchlikeaverb(indeed,itwasourverbinthepreviousexample),anditfitsintheVerbFinder,buthereit’sactuallyaparticiple,averbthathasbeenturnedintoamodifier.Theactualverbhereisgaveup,which,ofcourse,alsofitsintheVerbFinder.
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AWordAbouttheToBeVerbThemostcommonverbinanylanguageisthetobeverb.It’sagoodideatomemorizetheformsoftobe:
AM WAS BEARE WERE BEINGIS BEEN
Anytimeyouseeoneofthesewords,youhavefoundtheverb.Itmaybethewholeverb,asin
Fernandoisadeepseadiver.Oratobeverbmaybeahelpingverb,asin
Fernandowasswimmingwiththesharks(partofthepastpresentformwasswimming).
Or,
Fernandowasstungbyjellyfish(partofthepassiveverbwasstung).IdentifyingSubjectsOnceyouhaveusedtheVerbFindertoidentifytheverbs,youcanusetheSubjectFindertoidentifythesubject.TheSubjectFinderisasimplequestion.HavingusedtheVerbFindertoidentifytheverb,droptheverbintotheblankofthisquestion:
WHOORWHAT__________?Theanswertothatquestionisyoursubject.Considerthefollowingsentence:
Lindakickedtheball.Theverbiskicked,sotheSubjectFinderisthequestion“Whokicked?”Lindakicked.Lindaisthesubject.
Thatcakesmellsdelicious.Whatsmells?Cakesmells.
Youareasweetheart.Whoare?Youare.
OneofthebonusfeaturesoftheSubjectFinderisthatitcanhelpyoudiscoverifyouhavemistakenlyidentifiedaverb.If,inthesentenceTheraccoonrattledthetrashcanyouweretomistakenlysaythatcanisaverb,youwillseeyourproblemonceyouapplytheSubjectFinder.Whocan?Well,nobodycan.That’snotwhatthesentenceisabout.
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Toreview:
• EveryclausehasBOTHasubjectandaverb.• YoucanidentifytheverbusingtheVerbFinder:
I_______.You_______.He/She/It_________.
• Theverbofaclausewillalwaysfitinthatblank.• Unfortunately,someotherwordsmayfitintheblanktoo,soyouhavetobecareful.• Onceyou’vefoundyourverb,youcanplugthatverbintotheSubjectFinderto
identifythesubject:Whoorwhat______________.
• Aclausealwayshasaverbandsubject,anditmayhaveanobjectoracomplement.Identifyingtheseelementswillbethesubjectofournextlesson.
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Quiz1.3:IdentifyingVerbsandSubjects
I.Theangrymobchasedthepirate.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.angry B.mob C.chased D.pirateII.Manyyears'roughwisdomshonefromhisonegoodeye.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.years’ B.rough C.wisdom D.shone E.good F.eyeIII.Manyyears'roughwisdomshonefromhisonegoodeye.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.many B.years’ C.rough D.wisdom E.shone F.good G.eye
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IV.JohnBarber,frightenedbythepossuminhisdriveway,criedlikeasmallchild.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.frightened B.possum C.criedV.Thepiratewaschasedbytheangrymob.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.pirate B.was C.chased D.waschased E.angry F.mobVI.Thepiratewaschasedbytheangrymob.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.pirate B.angry C.mobVII.Chasingcarsismydog'sfavoriteactivity.WhatistheVERBinthissentence? A.chasing B.cars C.is D.dog’s E.favorite F.activityVIII.Chasingcarsismydog'sfavoriteactivity.WhatistheSUBJECTinthissentence? A.chasing B.cars C.is D.dog’s E.favorite F.activity
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IX.Iarrangemymashedpotatoesjustso,andyoudestroyitallwithyourspoon.Acompoundsentencewillhaveatleasttwomainsubjectsandtwomainverbs.Whatarethetwomainsubject/verbcombinationsinthesentenceabove? A.Imashed,youdestroy B.Iarrange,youdestroy C.Iarrange,destroyitall D.mashedpotatoes,withyourspoon
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson4:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements
Grammarisaboutrelativelysimpleunitsorganizedininfinitelycomplexways.Aclauseisoneofthoserelativelysimpleunits.(Iamspeakinghereofthemainlineofaclause,notitsmodifiers.)Aclausetellswhodidwhat.Ithasasubjectandaverb.AnditmayhaveTWO(andonlytwo)otherthings:OBJECTSandCOMPLEMENTS.AnOBJECTisaNOUN—aperson,placeorthingthatRECEIVEStheactionofaverb.ThesubjectPERFORMStheaction,theobjectRECEIVEStheaction(atleastinanactiveconstruction;passiveconstructions,aswewillsee,areadifferentmatter).
Lindakickedtheball.
Lindaisthesubject—shedidthekicking.Theballistheobject.Itgotkicked.ItRECEIVEDthekick.FindingDirectObjectsJustaswehadaVerbFinderandaSubjectFinder,thereisalsoaDirectObjectFinder.Onceyouhavefoundyourverbandyoursubject,youplugthemintothisquestion:
SUBJECTVERBwhoorwhat?
Ifthatquestionhasananswer,theanswerisyourdirectobject.InthecaseofLINDAKICKEDTHEBALL,theDirectObjectFinderisthequestion,
Lindakickedwhat?Theball.Ballisthedirectobject.
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InthecaseofAgoatatemycellphone,theDirectObjectFinderisthequestion,Goatatewhat?Mycellphone.
Cellphoneisthedirectobject.FindingIndirectObjectsIFyouhaveadirectobject,youmayALSOhaveanindirectobject—anothernounthatdoesn’tdirectlyreceivetheaction,butFORWHOMorTOWHOMtheactionisperformed.Thisindirectobjectalwaysappearsimmediatelybeforethedirectobject.Solet’slookatthissentence:Iwillpouryouaglassofwater.First,usetheDirectObjectFinder:Iwillpourwhat?Becarefulhere:don’tsayYOU.I’mnotpouringYOU.Iwillpouraglassofwater.Nowthatwe’vefoundtheDirectObject,wecanapplytheIndirectObjectFinder.TheIndirectObjectFinder,liketheSubjectFinderandtheDirectObjectFinder,isafill-in-the-blankquestion:
SUBJECTVERBDIRECTOBJECTtoorforwhom?Iwillpouraglassofwatertoorforwhom?You.
Youistheindirectobject.
GrandpareadCindyabook.
Grandpareadabooktoorforwhom?Cindy.
Cindyistheindirectobject.DirectandIndirectObjectReview
• Anobjectisalwaysanounoranounequivalent.• Youcan’thaveanindirectobjectwithoutadirectobject.• Theindirectobject,ifyouhaveone,alwayscomesimmediatelybeforethedirect
object.• Anindirectcanalwaysberephrasedasaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithtoor
for.KengaveBarbieflowers=KengaveflowerstoBarbie.GrandpareadCindyabook=GrandpareadabooktoCindy.
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PredicateComplementsAcomplementeitherrenamesthesubject,ordescribesthesubject.Thefollowingsentencescontainpredicatecomplements:
• Myheroeshavealwaysbeencowboys.(Heroesrenamescowboys.)• Youareasweetheart.(Sweetheartrenamesyou.)• Mydogislazy.(Lazydescribesmydog.)• Mydogsmellsfunny.(Funnydescribesmydog.)
Apredicatenominativeisanounthatrenamesthesubject.Apredicateadjectiveisanadjectivethatdescribesthesubject.Theverbthatconnectsorlinksthesubjectandthecomplementiscalledalinkingverb.Thinkofalinkingverbasan‘equalsign’:
• Myheroes=cowboys• You=sweetheart• Mydog=lazy• Mydog=funny(asregardsherodor)
Themostcommonlinkingverb(byfar)istobe:AM,IS,ARE,WAS,WERE,BE,BEING,BEENThereareotherlinkingverbs:
• YouLOOKlovely.• LutherSMELLSstrange.• ThattestPROVEDdifficult.
Thereisnoreasontotrytomemorizeallthelinkingverbs.Ifthenounafteraverbrenamesthesubject,orifanadjectiveafteraverbdescribesthesubject,thatverbisservingasalinkingverb.DistinguishingObjectsfromComplementsWhat’sthedifferencebetweenanOBJECTandaCOMPLEMENT?Anobjectisanounthatisseparatefromthesubject.Thesubjectdoessomethingtoorfortheobject.AcomplementISthesubject(or,rather,itISthesubjectifit’sanoun,itDESCRIBESthesubjectifit’sanadjective).
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Considerthesetwosentences:
• Mydogsmellsfunny.• Mydogsmellsahamburger.
Thesesentenceslookalotalike,butoneofthemhasadirectobject,andoneofthemhasacomplement.Toputitanotherway,inoneofthesesentences,SMELLSisanactionverb,andinoneofthesesentences,smellsisalinkingverb.Inthefirstsentence,funnyisacomplement.Itdescribesthedog.Sosmellsisoperatingasalinkingverb.Inthesecondsentence,hamburgerisaDIRECTOBJECT.Thedogisnotahamburger.Inthiscase,smellsisanactionverb;ittellssomethingthatthedogisdoingTOthehamburger.Toreview:
• Onthemainlineofaclause,youMUSThaveasubjectandaverb,andyouMAYhaveanobject(possiblytwo—directandindirect)oracomplement.
• Therearetwokindsofobjects.Thedirectobjectreceivestheaction.Theindirectobjectistheentitytowhomorforwhomtheactionisperformed.
• Therearetwotypesofcomplements:predicatenominatives(nounsthatrenameasubject)andpredicateadjectives(adjectivesthatdescribeasubject).
• Acomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject,butanobjectisanounthatisseparatefromthesubject.
• Alesscommontypeofcomplement,theobjectivecomplement,renamesordescribesadirectobject,justasapredicatecomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject.Wewillseeexamplesofobjectivecomplementsinthenextlesson.
Incredibly,wehavenowlookedateverythingthatcanhappenonthemainlineofaclause:subjects,verbs,objects,complements.Theseelementscanonlyoccurincertaincombinationsandincertainorders.Thereareonlyfivesuchcombinations—thefiveclausepatternsofthenextlesson.
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Quiz1.4A:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements
I.ThemostfascinatingyearofVincent’scareerwasthelastyearofhislife.Identifythesubject,verb,andpredicatecomplementforthissentence.II.Animportantsteptowardrecoveryofhealthyself-esteemisdeeperself-awareness.Thisquestionhastwoparts:a)Whatisthegrammaticalsubject?b)Isself-awarenessadirectobjectorapredicatecomplement?III.Iwonderediftheyweretalkingaboutme.Doesthissentencehaveadirectobject?Ifso,whatisit?(Hint:You'reprobablygoingtoneedtousetheDirectObjectFinderforthisone.)
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IV.InfrontofherwasanoldmanwhoturnedouttobeGeorgeJones.Whatarethesubjectandverbofthissentence?(You'regoingtoneedtouseyourSubjectFinderonthisone.)
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Quiz1.4B:IdentifyingObjectsandComplements
(Challenge)I.Mikeleanedforwardontherailthatseparatedtheporchfromthedescendinghillside.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?II.Hemakeshisslow,gloatingtrotaroundthemisshapendiamondsqueezedintothebackyard.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?III.MyfamilymovedtoPhoenixfromChicagowhenIwasseven.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?
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IV.Thetruckhasbeensittinginmydrivewayformonths.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?V.Goingwest,myfamilytradedtornadosfortumbleweedsandtheoccasionalaftershockofanearthquake.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?VI.TheyhadnottouchedthebirdfeederIhungtwoweeksago.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?VII.Asthemistsofmydullnessgraduallycleared,thetruthbrokewithalightthatpiercestothisday.Whatisthe"mainline"ofthissentence?Inotherwords,whatisthemainaction,withoutanymodifiers?Whodidwhat?
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VIII.Theworstwaterwasinthemiddleofthechannel,butthatwasalsothesafestplace.Thissentenceisacompoundsentence.Ithastwoindependent(main)clauses.Identifythesubjectandverbforeachofthetwoindependentclauses. IX.Itwasourthirddayout,andwehadcampednearby,severalmilesfromwhereourtripbegan.Thissentenceisacompoundsentence.Ithastwoindependent(main)clauses.Identifythesubjectandverbforeachofthetwoindependentclauses.X.Fiveofthemboundtogetherattheirbasewherethestemholdsthemtogether,overlapping.Anupside-downcup.Likethebackofmygrandmother’shands,thedelicateveinsarevisible.Onethickpurplelineextendingfrombasetotipwithdozensofthinneronesstretchingoutfromcentertoedges.Inthatgroupoffour"sentences,"onlyoneisactuallyasentence,withasubjectandaverb.Whichoneisit?
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XI.ThetwoofusstandinginhertinykitchenwiththeavocadoandpumpkinhuedaccentsandstainedTupperwarecupsthatmademesqueamisheverytimeIhadtodrinkfromone.Whatisthemainline(subject,verb,andobject(s)orcomplement)ofthissentence?
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson5:TheFiveClausePatternsAswesawwiththetrash-can-rattlingraccoonfromafewlessonsago,onceyoustartaddingmodifierstothemainclauseofasentenceandmodifierswithinmodifiers,youcanquicklyhaveaverycomplicatedsentence.ThepossiblevariationsforthestructureofanEnglishsentenceareeffectivelyinfinite.However,thepossiblevariationsforthestructureofaclauseareactuallyVERYlimited.Thereareonlyfivepossiblepatternsforaclause.LearningthesefivepatternswillgetyouaLONGwaytowardmasteryofEnglishgrammar.Youcan’tbegintomasterEnglishgrammarwithoutthem.Thesefiveclausepatternsareworththetroubletomemorize:
• SUBJECT-VERB• SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECTOBJECT• SUBJECT-VERB-INDIRECTOBJECT-DIRECTOBJECT• SUBJECT-VERB-DIRECTOBJECT-OBJECTIVECOMPLEMENT• SUBJECT-LINKINGVERB-PREDICATECOMPLEMENT
Theelementsofthesesentencepatternsalwaysappearintheorderabove(withafewexceptionsmentionedbelow).WordorderisextremelyimportantinEnglish.EnglishisanSVOlanguage.SVOstandsforsubject-verb-object.Inagivenclause,thesubjectcomesbeforetheverb,andtheverbcomesbeforetheobject.Themeaningofthesentencedependsontheorderofthewords.ThehunterstalkedthepanthermeanssomethingverydifferentfromThepantherstalkedthehunter.Asalways,thereareexceptionstotheSVOrule.Herearethetwobiggest:
• Exception1:Whenyouformaquestion,youmovepartoftheverbinfrontofthesubject.InsteadofIdowanticecream,yousay,DoIwanticecream?
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• Exception2:Certainkindsofdependentclausesmonkeywiththewordorder.Wewillgettothoseinsubsequentmodules.
TheFiveClausePatternsPattern1:S-V.Subject-Verb,NOobjectsorcomplements.
• Charlesiseating.• Wendyslept.• Thesquirrelwasclimbing.• Thecardied.• Mydogsmells.
Youcanattachmodifierstoanyitemonthemainline,soasentencecanbequitelongandstillbeanS-Vsentence—thatis,havenothingmorethanasubjectandverbonthemainline.ThissentenceisactuallyanS-Vsentence:
Exhaustedbyalongday’shikeontheAppalachianTrail,Wendysleptlikeababyintheraggedyoldtentthatsheborrowedfromherbrother.
WhenyouapplytheVerbFinder,youseethattheonlyverbsinthislongsentencearesleptandborrowed.Borrowedispartofanadjectiveclause(thatwillmakesenseinafewlessonsifitdoesn’trightnow).SothemainlineofthatsentenceissimplyWendyslept.Andsleptdoesnothaveadirectobject.SothisisanS-Vsentence.Hereisthediagram:
Youcanaddthiskindofcomplexitytoanyofthefiveclausepatterns.(I’mnotgoingtokeepdoingitfortheotherfourpatternsinthislesson,butbearinmindthatyoucould.)Pattern2:S-V-DO.Subject-Verb-DirectObject.
• Thehunterstalkedthepanther.• Thepantherstalkedthehunter.• Thesquirrelclimbedthetree.• Charlesiseatingboiledpeanuts.
Ineachoftheseexamples,thesubjectisdoingsomethingtosomethingelse.
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PATTERN3:S-V-IO-DOSubject-Verb-IndirectObject-DirectObject.
• KengaveBarbieflowers.• Pleasepourmeaglassofwater.
IfyouhaveTWOnounsaftertheverb,youmayhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobject.Thereisnosuchthingasasentencethathasanindirectobjectbutnodirectobject.There’snosuchthingasasentenceinwhichanindirectobjectcomesafterthedirectobject.(Thereare,however,sentencesinwhichaprepositionalphraseidentifiestheentityforwhomortwowhomtheactionisperformed.PleasepourmeaglassofwatercanbephrasedasPleasepouraglassofwaterforme.Logicallyspeaking,thereisnodifferencebetweenthetwosentences.Grammatically,however,inthefirstsentencemeisanindirectobjectappearingbeforethedirectobject,andinthesecondsentencemeistheobjectoftheprepositionFORandappearsafterthedirectobject.)Pattern4:S-V-DO-OC.Subject-Verb-DirectObject-ObjectiveComplement.Thispatternisalittlelesscommonthantheothers.Rememberfromthelastlessonhowapredicatecomplementrenamesordescribesthesubject?Anobjectivecomplementrenamesordescribesthedirectobject.Itmightbeanounrenamingthedirectobject,oritmightbeanadjectivedescribingthedirectobject.Considerthesentence,Wepaintedthetownred.UsingtheDirectObjectFinder—Wepaintedwhoorwhat?—itiseasytoseethattownisthedirectobject.Butwhatdowetowithred?Reddescribestown.It’sanobjectivecomplement.
• WeelectedMiriamclasspresident.(Classpresident=Miriam)• WejudgedJohnaGrade-A-Rat.(Grade-A-Rat=John)
Afewthingstoknowaboutobjectivecomplements:
• Theymaybenouns,ortheymaybeadjectives.• TheyalwayscomeimmediatelyAFTERthedirectobject.• Youcan’thaveanobjectivecomplementwithoutadirectobject
Soifyou’vefoundyourdirectobjectandthere’sanothernounoradjectivelurkingaroundafterit,askwhetherthatnounoradjectiverenamesordescribesyourdirectobject.Ifso,youhavefoundanobjectivecomplement.Pattern5:S-V-PC.Subject-Verb-PredicateComplement.ThepredicatecomplementcomesAFTERtheverb,anditrenamesordescribesthesubject.Thisisprobablythemostcommonofthefiveclausetypes.Wethinkofverbsasbeingwordsthatdescribeactions,butjustasimportantly,verbsdescribestatesofbeing.
• Roslynisamail-carrier.(Roslyn=mail-carrier)• Thispopsicletastesfunny.(Popsicle[‘sflavor]=funny)• Allenhasbeenkind.(Allen=kind)
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TheverbinthissentencepatterniscalledalinkingverbbecauseitLINKSthesubjecttothepredicatecomplement.ThesefivepatternsaccountforEVERYgrammaticallycorrectclauseintheEnglishlanguage.Fourelements—subjects,verbs,objectscomplements—canappearinfivecombinations,andeachofthosefivecombinationshastobeinaspecificorder.Soonwewillstartcombiningclausesandmodifiersinwaysthatwillgetverycomplex.Butfornow,celebratethetruththatthegrammaticalpiecesthemselvesareshockinglysimple.Therigidityofonlyfourelementsarrangedinonlyfivecombinations,eachwithaveryspecificorder,isahugegift.Languageiscomplicatedandflexibleenough.WecanmakesenseofthatcomplexityandflexibilityONLYbecausehereatthislevel,languageissimpleandrigid.
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Quiz1.5A:TheFiveClausePatterns
I.JohnBarberismynemesis.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCII.JohnBarbersoldmeafakeelevatorpass.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIII.IcalledJohnBarberasneakymonkey.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC
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IV.JohnBarberslappedmewithaglove.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCV.Icouldnotignoretheinsult.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVI.Wefoughtinthevestibule.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVII.IvanquishedJohnBarbereasily.Towhichpatterndoesthisclauseconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC
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Quiz1.5B:TheFiveClausePatterns(Challenge)
I.MickeyMantlejusthitanotherhomeruninthebottomoftheninthintheSundayafternoongame.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCII.Sheistwenty-nine-yearsoldwithboxblondehairpulledintoasidebraid.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIII.Runningbearsareanoddsight,buttheyarefast.Thissentenceconsistsoftwoindependentclauses.Thesetwoclauseshappentoconformtothesameclausepattern.Whichclausepatternisthat? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC
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IV.Onecaretakerwithaverykindfaceandshoulder-lengthblackhairshowedmehowtochangethebedsheetsandclothdiapersofthechildren,manyofwhomweredisabledordisfigured.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCV.Whenhereachedthetrail,heturnedupandawayfromme.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVI.Theirhomequicklybecamethegatheringplacefordozensofnephewsandnieceseverysummer.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCVII.UncleJimlaughedmorethananyadultinmylife.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC
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VIII.MyAuntNancytoldmeasecretthatIhaveneverforgotten.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCIX.Thepiratecalledtheship-captainablackguard.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PCX.Wendellbuilthisdaughterahouse.Towhichofthefivepatternsdoesthemainclauseofthissentenceconform? A.S-V B.S-V-DO C.S-V-IO-DO D.S-V-DO-OC E.S-V-PC
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LectureNotesModule1,Lesson6:ActorsandActions,Subjectsand
Verbs
Wegotprettytechnicalinthoselastfewlessons,andwehaveafewtechnicallessonsaheadofus,sointhislessonwearetakingastepbacktotalkaboutoneortwobig-pictureprinciplesthatinformeverythingwearedoinginthisunit.Theseprinciplescoveramultitudeofsins.Evenifyoudon’tgetsomeofthetechnicalities,oryouforgetsomeofthetechnicalities,you’llbefineifyourememberacoupleofprinciples.Thebigoneisthis:
Everytimeyouwriteasentence,thinkaboutwheretheactionisinthatsentence.Whatistheaction,andwhoistheactor?WHODIDWHAT?
Onceyouhavedeterminedtheactionandtheactor(oractionsandactors)yourdefaultsetting—yourhabit—shouldbetoexpresseachactionasaverb,withtheactorasthesubjectofthatverb.IsayDEFAULTandHABITbecausethereareplentyofsituationsinwhichitmakessensetoexpressactioninotherways.Butyourfirstgo-toshouldbetoexpressactionasverbsandactorsassubjects.InthislessonIwanttoapplythisprincipleinafewexamplesusingaslittletechnicallanguageaspossible.Insubsequentlessons,we’llputthetechnicaltermstotheseideas,butfornow,I’mgoingtotrytosticktocommon-senselayman’sterms.EXAMPLE1Thiscomesfromastoryaboutsiblingsridinginthebackseatonalongcarride:
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Anyaimlesswanderingpastthecenterlineofthebackseatwasgroundsforanelbowtothechestorakicktotheleg.
Whatarethethreeactionsinthissentence?
• Onekidwanderspastthecenterlineofthebackseat.• Onekidelbowsanotherkidinthechest.• Onekidkicksanotherkid.
Butwhataretheverbs?(Remember,anactionisn’tthesamethingsasaverb.)
• Theonlyverbis“was.”Youcanseethemismatchherebetweentheactionofthesentenceandthegrammarofthesentence.
• Therearethreeactions.• Thereisoneverb,andthatverbhasnothingtodowithanyofthethreeactions.
Howdoyoubegintoalignthegrammarwiththeaction?Thereismorethanonecorrectanswer,butIwantyoutoseewhathappenswhenyoustartthinkingintermsofactorsandactionsandsubjectsandverbs.
• Aimlesswanderingisaverbthathasbeenturnedintoanabstractnoun.It’snottoohardtoturnitbackintoaverb:wandered.
• Nowthatyouhaveaverb,youneedasubject.WHOwandered?Wecan’tactuallyknow,thoughthewriterwouldknow.Forthepurposesoftheexample,wewillsay,Iwandered.(Asyoucansee,thinkingintermsofverbsandsubjectsforcestheissue;itmakesyouconsiderWHOisdoingwhat.)
• Inthesameway,changing“elbow”and“kick”backintoverbsforcesthewritertothinkaboutWHOiselbowingandkicking.
Obviously,onlythewritercangetthisright.Sincenoneofuswasinthecarwiththeseunrulychildren,wedon’tknowwhowasdoingwhat.Butaversionthatalignsactorsandactionswithsubjectsandverbsmightlookmorelikethis:
AnytimeIwanderedoverthecenterlineoftheseat,mysisterputanelbowinmychest.Andeverytimemysisterputanelbowinmychest,Ikickedher.
Therearetimes,ofcourse,whenthat“abstractified”versionofthings—Anyaimlesswanderingpastthecenterlineofthebackseatwasgroundsforanelbowtothechestorakicktotheleg—mightbeagoodwaytoexpresstheidea.ItneedstobeyourDEFAULT,yourHABIT,toalignactorsandactionswithsubjectsandverbs.Ifyoutrythatalignedversionandchooseinsteadtodosomethingelse,that’sfine.
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EXAMPLE2
Iwassix,andthiswasthebeginningofquestioningtheexistenceofSantaClaus.Whataretheactionshere?
• Somebodyissix.(Thisisnottechnicallyanactionsomuchasastateofbeing.)• Thissix-year-oldpersonbeginstoquestionsomething.• SantaClausexists(orfailstoexistasthecasemaybe).
Whataretheverbs?
-was(Iwassix.)-was(Thiswasthebeginning)
Thesearenotveryinterestingverbs.Actually,thereisnothingwrongwiththefirstwas.There’snobetterwaytoexpressIwassix.Butwhataboutthatsecondclause?
…thiswasthebeginningofquestioningtheexistenceofSantaClaus.
Inthatoneclausetherearethreeabstractnouns—beginning,questioning,existence.Allthreeoftheseabstractnounsstartedoutlifeasverbs.Thereisnogoodreasontoturnthesethreeactionsintoabstractnounsandusetheanemic“was”astheoneverb.Howcouldyoumakethisclausemore“verbish”?Here’soneway:
WhenIwassix,IbegantoquestiontheexistenceofSantaClaus.or,ifyoureallywanttobestrictaboutbeingas“verbish”aspossible,withnoabstractnouns:
WhenIwassix,IbegantowonderwhetherSantaClausereallyexisted.Overthenextfewlessons,we’regoingtoputsometechnicallanguagetosomeoftheseideas,butthebig,non-technicalpictureisthis:
Everysingletimeyoucomposeasentence,thinkaboutwheretheactionis—WHODIDWHAT?—andmakeityourhabittoexpressthatactionintheformofaverb,andmaketheactorthesubjectofthatverb.
Thereareplentyofreasonstobreakthatrule,tostrayfromthathabit.Butbeconsciouswhenyoubreaktherule,andhaveagoodreasonfordoingso.
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Quiz1.6:ActorsandActions,SubjectsandVerbs
I.Ifyouplayedonthefloornearhim,hewouldreachhisfootoverandpinchyouwithhislongtoes,thenlaughwhenyouyelped.Irenewouldcallout"Jimmy,stopit!"whichjusttriggeredmorelaughter.Howisthegrammarinthesecondsentenceoutofalignmentwiththeactionitdepicts?Howmightyoubringthesubjectsandverbsinlinewiththeaction?II.Finefurniture,qualityclothing,privateeducationmadeherwillingtostretchourlimitedmeanssothintheysometimesdisappearedaltogether.Thesentenceisaboutamotherwhosometimesspenttoomuchmoneyonherchildren.Howmightyoureworkthesentencetobringthegrammarofthesentenceintoalignmentwiththeactionthesentencedepicts?
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III.Stabbedthroughbothfrontpawsarewoodenskipoles.Oneskipoleisstillfirmlygrippedinthebear’sleftpaw.Therightskipolesnappedoffatsomepointandneverreattachedisnowpresumedlosttothetundra.Inthepassageabove,thewriterdepictsafigurineofasnow-skiingbearwithabrokenskipole.Havealookatthatlastsentence.Whataretheactions?Whatis(are)theverb(s)?Howmightyoubringsubjectsandverbsinlinewithactorsandactions?IV.Themomentprecedingeverysneezefilledwiththedreadofthesurgeofpainthatwasabouttoensue.Whatarethesubjectsandverbs?Whataretheactionsandactors?Rewritethissentencesothatthegrammaralignsmorecloselywiththeaction.V.Buttherewasascarcityoftheseeventsandvenuesinourtown,sothecostofaroadtriptothecitywasapricemymothergladlypaid.Whataretheactorsandactions(orstatesofbeing,asthecasemaybe)?Whatarethesubjectsandverbs?Reworkthissentencesothatthesubjectsandverbsalignmorecloselywiththeactorsandactions.
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VI.Herimmediateandenthusiastic,“Yes!”wasn’tsurprisingwhenasa7thgraderIbeggedtogoseeaplayattheTivoliTheatre.Thisisthesamemotheranddaughterfromtheprevioussentence.Again,whataretheactionsandactors,whatarethesubjectsandverbs,andhowcanyoubringthegrammarofthesentenceintocloseralignmentwiththeactionofthesentence?
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson7:WhatisPassiveVoice?
I’vebeentalkingaboutmakingitahabit,oradefault,tolineupthegrammarofasentencewiththeactionitdepictsbyexpressingthatactionasaverbandmakingtheactororagentthegrammaticalsubjectofthatverb.Onesentencestructurethatdeviatesfromthisdefaultisthepassivevoice.Andtheparticularwaythatitdeviatesisbymovingtheactorofanactionoutofthesubjectpositionandmovingadirectobject(orperhapsanindirectobject)intothesubjectposition.Technicallyspeaking,youdothisbywayofthesesteps:
• Moveanobject(eitherdirectorindirect)intothesubjectslot.• Changetheverbtothefourthprincipalpart(ate,eat,orwilleatàeaten;wanted,
want,orwillwantàwanted)• Stickatense-appropriateformofto-beinfrontofthefourthprincipalpart(was
eaten,iseaten,willbeeaten,hadbeeneaten,isbeingeaten,abouttobeeaten,willhavebeeneaten,etc.)
• Maketheactortheobjectofa“by”phrase(or,ifyouprefer,losetheactoraltogether).
Ifthereisasecondobject,therearerulesforwhattodowiththat,butI’mnotgoingtogetintoitbecauseyouhaveknownhowtoformthepassivevoicesinceyouwereachild.Evenifyoudon’tknowwhatafourthprincipalpartis,evenifyoudon’tevenknowwhatadirectobjectis,youdon’thaveanyproblemgettingfromIbrokethelamptoThelampwasbroken.Toreturntoasentenceyouhaveseenbefore:
KengaveBarbieflowers.Thissentenceisinactivevoice.Kenistheactor—theonegivingtheflowers—andKenisthegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence.
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• Subject=KEN• Verb=GAVE• DirectObject=FLOWERS• IndirectObject=BARBIE.
Intheactiveformofthissentence(KengaveBarbieflowers),thesubjectisperforminganaction(giving)andtheobjects(flowers,Barbie)arereceivingthataction.ButEnglishgrammardoesn’tREQUIREthattheactorbethegrammaticalsubject.Ifyouwant,youcanmoveBarbietothesubjectposition:
BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.Youcanevenmaketheflowersthegrammaticalsubjectifyouwantto:
FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen.Youcandothiswithanysentencethathasadirectorindirectobject.
Itookthebullbythehorns.àThebullwastakenbythehornsbyme.Marthaatethecake.àThecakewaseatenbyMartha.
Youdon’thaveanytroublemakingthisswitchfromactivetopassive.Youdon’thavetothinkaboutto-beverbsorfourthprincipalparts.Ifyougetinthehabitofthinkingintermsofactionsandactors,andifyouclearlydistinguishbetweentheactorandthegrammaticalsubject(whichmayormaynotbethesame),it'srelativelyeasytomovebackandforthbetweenactiveandpassivevoice.THEPROBLEMSWITHPASSIVEVOICEGoodwritingislargelyamatterofmanagingyourreader'sexpectations.Thatdoesn'tmeanyoualwayshavetomeetthoseexpectations;infact,goodwritingrequiresthatyouoftensurpriseyourreader.Butyouneedtobeawarethatanyword,phrase,orclausethatdoesn'tmeetyourreader'sexpectations(includingunconsciousexpectations),attractsherattention.PROBLEM1:EXTRAWORKFORTHEREADERWhenyoudon’tmeetyourreader’sexpectations,youcauseextraworkforthereader.Ourbrainsarewiredtoexpecttheactortositinthesubjectpositionofasentence.Whentheactoristhesubject,wefeelthatthingsaremovingrightalong.Wefeelthatthegrammarisguidingustowardthatburningquestion,“Whodidwhat?”Thereader,ofcourse,isfullycapableofmentallyflippingapassivesentencebacktoactiveandknowingwhodidwhat.Inspiteofthegrammardifferences,everybodyknowsthatthefollowingthreesentencesalldescribethesameaction,thesameactor,andthesamerecipientsoftheaction:
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(A)KengaveBarbieflowers.(B)BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.(C)FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen.Butyouneedtobeawarethatifyouphrasethatsentenceaseither(B)or(C),yourreaderhastotranslateitbackto(A)inordertodecodethesentence.Ifyouaskyourreadertogotothatextratrouble,sheisgoingtowanttoknowwhy(ifonlyatsubconsciouslevel).Granted,it’satinyamountofextratroubleyou’rerequiringofyourreader,andtherecanbegoodreasonstoaskitofher,aswe’llseeinthenextlesson.Butunlessyouhaveaspecificreasontousethepassivevoice,stayintheactivevoice.Savethereader'senergyandattentionforthosemomentswhenyoureallyneedit.PROBLEM2:FUZZYAGENCYLetusreturntothatpassivesentence,BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.AsImentionedabove,Kenisstilltheactor.ButwhereisKeninthissentence?He'stuckedawayinthatprepositionalphraseattheendofthesentence.Theactorisnowalowlyobjectoftheprepositionby.Orwhataboutthisversion?
Barbiewasgivenflowers.Whoistheactorhere?PresumablyKen.Butmaybenot.Wehavenowayofknowingfromthesentence.Kenwenttoalltheefforthere.Hespenthishard-earnedmoney.Hedrovetotheflorist.HewalkedupBarbie'sdrivewayandhandedovertheflowers.Andyetthepassivevoicerelegateshimtoaprepositionalphrase,orperhapseveneraseshimcompletely.ThisiswhatImeanby"fuzzyagency."PROBLEM3:EXTRAWORDSGenerallyspeaking,youdon'twanttoaddword-countwithoutaddingadditionalmeaning.Ittakesmorewordstodescribeanactioninpassivevoicethaninactivevoice.Theactivesentence,KengaveBarbieflowers,isfourwordslong.ThepassivesentenceBarbiewasgivenflowersbyKenissixwordslong.That's50%morewordsfor0%moremeaning.OrconsiderthepassivesentenceBarbiewasgivenflowers.Atfourwords,it'sthesamelengthastheactivesentence,butitconveyssignificantlylessinformation(specifically,itdoesn'tidentifythepersonwhomBarbiehastothankforherflowers).IFYOUASKMOREOFTHEREADER,YOUHAVETOGIVEMORERemember,everytimeyouusethepassivevoice,you’reaskingsomethingofyourreader.You’reaskinghertotakeanextrastepofdecoding.Doyouhaveagoodreasonforaskingyourreadertogotothatextratrouble?Ifso,byallmeansusethepassivevoice.Butifyoudon’t,stickwiththeactive.
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Quiz1.7:WhatisPassiveVoice?
I.Thelargebearenjoyinghisbreakfastofblackberriestwentyfeetawayhadbeaten ushere.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoII.Thepoolwasinsight.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoIII.Whenallelsefails,adogcanbecountedon.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoIV.Aswimmingcreatureissighted—abeaver?Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes NoV.Hewasstudyingforhiscounselingdegree.Doesthissentencecontainapassiveconstruction?(Circleone.) Yes No
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VI.Whichistrueofthefollowingsentences:Sentence1:JohnBarberwasraisedbywolves.Sentence2:JohnBarberwasraisedinabarn. A.Sentence1andSentence2arebothpassive. B.Sentence1isactiveandSentence2ispassive. C.Sentence1ispassiveandSentence2isactive. D.Sentence1andSentence2arebothactive.V.ThishandkerchiefwasusedbyElvis.Turnthispassivesentenceintoanactivesentence.VI.UncleThurstongaveLindaaglassofwater.Rewritethissentencesothatthatthedirectobjectbecomesthesubjectofapassivesentence.VII.UncleThurstongaveLindaaglassofwater.Rewritethissentenceasapassivesentenceinwhichtheindirectobjectbecomesthegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence.VIII.Twohourslater,afterthesandwicheshadbeeneaten,thethundercame.Thissentencecomesfromadescriptionofapicnic.Revisethesentencewithoutthepassiveconstruction.
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IX.Curtiscarriedmeinhisarmstowardthepool.HeknewIwouldhavereliefifthewatercouldwashoverme.Iwastossedintothepoolandsurroundedbyfriendswithinseconds.Inthisscene,thenarratorremembersatimewhenshegotattackedbywasps,andanolderboynamedCurtisheroicallyscoopedherupandthrewherinthepooltogetthewaspsoff.Thisquestionhasthreeparts:
• Identifythesentencethatisinpassivevoice.• Explainwhythepassivevoiceisanunfortunatechoicehere.• Rewritethepassivesentenceasanactivesentence.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson8:UsesofthePassiveVoice
EveryproblematicconstructionintheEnglishlanguageexistsbecausetherearetimeswhenit'snotproblematic,butexactlywhatawriterneeds.SowhileIencourageyoutotreattheactivevoiceasyourdefaultmode,thereareplentyofsituationsinwhichyou'llfinditbesttoswitchfromdefaultmodeintothepassivevoice.Inthislessonwewilllookatfourofthosesituations.1.PASSIVEVOICEISPERFECTFOREXPRESSINGPASSIVITY.Maybethisoneisself-evident.Considerthissentence:
Andrewwasbulliedasachild.
Tobeavictimofbullyingistobeinapostureofpassivity.Inthiscase,itdoesn’tmatterwhothebullieswere,evenifthewriterhappenstoknowthebullies'names.TheimportantfigurehereisAndrew.ThepassivevoiceallowsthewritertoputAndrewinthatimportantsubjectslot,eventhoughheisnottheagentinthissituation.AsentencelikePetewasconvictedofperjuryworksinmuchthesameway.ItwasajurythatconvictedPeteofperjury(orwasitajudge?orthestate?).WhatmattersisthatPetewasconvicted,notwhoconvictedhim.Herethepassivevoicehastheaddedbonusofsavingthewriterfromhavingtofigureoutexactlywhoconvictspeopleofperjury.Icallthatabonus,buttherearecertainlysituationsinwhichthis“bonus”leadstolazinessonthepartofthewriter,whoisabletogetawaywithnotquiteknowingwhatheistalkingabout.Asubcategoryofthis“passivity”useofthepassiveistheself-pityinguse.Adeliciouslyself-pityingoldLindaRonstadtsongsaid,
“I’vebeencheated,beenmistreated.WhenwillIbeloved?”
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It’sinterestingthatinthissentence,theproblemisframedpassively(“I’vebeencheated,beenmistreated”),butsoisthesolution(“WhenwillIbeloved?”)!2.THEPASSIVEVOICEISHELPFULWHENYOUDON’TKNOWTHEACTOR.Considerthispassivesentence:
Mybikewasstolenyesterday.Thisisanentirelyappropriateuseofthepassivevoice.Idon’tknowwhostolemybike.IfIdid,I’dbereportingthemtothepoliceinsteadofwritingsentencesaboutthem.IfIamreallybeingasticklerfortheactivevoice,IsupposeIcouldsay,Somejerkstolemybikeyesterday.3.THEPASSIVEVOICEISAWAYTOCONCEALORDENYAGENCY.Thisiswherethepassivevoicecangetnefarious.WhenI'vebrokenalamp,IcansayThelampwasbroken.That'snotalie.It'sjustthatthepassivevoiceallowsmetoleaveoutoneofthemostimportantbitsofinformation.Icallthisthe"Mistakesweremade"useofthepassivevoice.Itistherefugeofobfuscators,politicians,deadbeats,self-pitiers,andthepassiveaggressive.Thisapplicationlargelyaccountsforthepassivevoice'sbadreputation.4.PASSIVEVOICEISAWAYTODIRECTYOURREADER’SATTENTION.Thesubjectofsentenceenjoysaplaceofprivilegeinthereader'smind.Thereaderpaysextraattentiontowhatevernounisinthatslot.Thepassivevoiceallowsyoutobringsomenounbesidestheactorintothatplaceofprominence.WehavealreadylookedatthesentenceAndrewwasbulliedasachild,inwhichAndrew,notthebullies,isthefocusofthesentence.Herearetwosentencesthatdescribethesameaction,thefirstintheactivevoice,thesecondinthepassive:
Active:AnunusuallylargepianoplayerejectedClarencefromthesaloon.Passive:Clarencewasejectedfromthesaloonbyanunusuallylargepianoplayer.
There'snotahugedifferencebetweenthosesentences.Butyoucanfeeladifference,can’tyou?Thefirstsentenceasksyoutogivealittlemoreattentiontothepianoplayer.ThesecondsentenceasksyoutogivealittlemoreattentiontoClarence.Bychangingthegrammaticalsubject,thepassivevoiceallowsyoutochangetheemphasis.Thisisjustnuance.Butthedifferencebetweengoodwritingandgreatwritingislargelynuance.
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Quiz1.8A:UsesofthePassiveVoice
I.Inthepassivevoice,theactorismovedOUTofthe____________position.Circleallthatapply. A.subject B.verb C.directobject D.indirectobject E.predicatecomplementII.Inthepassivevoice,the____________ismovedintothesubjectposition.Circleallthatapply. A.subject B.verb C.directobject D.indirectobject E.predicatecomplementIII.Whataresomeproblemswiththepassivevoice?Circleallthatapply. A.Moreworkforthereader B.Fuzzyagency C.Extrawords D.ToomanyprepositionsIV.Listtwotofouroccasionsinwhichthepassivevoiceisuseful.
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Quiz1.8B:UsesofthePassiveVoice(Challenge)
I.Heholdsalongpaintbrushinhishands,dabblesitinthepaintonhispalette,andbrushesoneslowstrokeatatimeuntilamasterpieceisrendered.Assessthatpassiveclauseattheend—untilamasterpieceisrendered.Isthisausefulpassiveconstruction?Whyorwhynot?II.Thecatalogsweredeliveredinthesametruckthatbroughtthebills.Thissentencecomesfromapassageinwhichthewriterwastalkingaboutafamilywhohadahabitofoverspending.Everydaythemailbroughtunpaidbills,butalsoopportunitiestorackupmorebills.Thiswriterchosetousethepassivevoicetoexpressthisidea.Hecouldhaveeasilyusedanallactivevoice:Thesametruckbroughtthebillsandthecatalogs.Whydoyouthinkthiswriterchosetousethepassivevoiceinstead?Doyouthinkitwasagoodchoice?
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III.Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesaresuccessfullygrownthankstoirrigation.Thewaterisbroughtdownfromthemountainsthroughanaqueductanddistributedbyacanalsystem.Thesesentencescontainthreepassiveverbforms:
• [crops]aregrown• waterisbrought• [wateris]distributed
Ifyouwererevisingthesesentences,whichofthesethreepassiveconstructionswouldyoukeepandwhichofthemwouldyouturnintoactiveconstructions?Showyourrevision.IV.Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvasonwhichtheartistsethiscedarscene.Intocedarwoodhecarvedatinyfirtreestuntedathalfthebear’sheight.Thisisfromadescriptionofabearfigurinethathasappearedinanearlierquiz.Thefirstsentenceisinpassivevoice(Heisglued...),andafterthatthewritershiftstoactivevoice(theartistsethisscene...hecarvedatinyfirtree...)Ifyouwererevisingthispassage,wouldyoumakeitallpassive?Allactive?Wouldyoukeepthemixofactiveandpassiveas-is?Wouldyoukeepitmixedbutchangethemix?Revisethesentence.
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V.PedroandIhavelittlecontactthesedays,butwhenIthinkbackonourfriendshipI’mtransportedbacktothatredbrickhouseonSpruceStreetwherecreativitywasfosteredandexplored.Thissentencehastwopassiveconstructions:
• I'mtransported• creativitywasfosteredandexplored
Ifyouwererevisingthissentence,whichofthosepassiveconstructionswouldyoukeep,andwhichwouldyouchangetoactiveconstructions?Revisethesentence.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson9:Nominalization
I’vemarkedalotofstudentpapers.I’veaskedforalotofrevisions.Ihavenoticedthatalotofwritingstudentsviewrevisionlargelyasamatterofreplacingwords:Sincetheteacherdidn’tlikethesewords,letmegofindsomedifferentwordstoplugintothosespots.Moreoften,however,whatwritersreallyneedtodoistorethinksentencestructure—togetintothedeeperlogicandask,HowdoImakemyphrasingmatchthedeeperlogicofasentence?Imentionedacoupleoflessonsagothattherearetwobigwaysthatwritersviolatetheactor-action/subject-verbprinciple.Passivevoicewasthefirstofthosetwoways.Thesecondisnominalization.Nominalizationisthepracticeofturningverbsintonouns.Towit:
• Defy–defiance• Discover–discovery
Byturningactionsintoabstractnouns,awritercreatesamismatchbetweenthegrammarofasentenceandtheactionitdescribes.Here’sastraightforwardsentenceinwhichthegrammaralignswiththeaction.
WhenBronsondiscoveredthatCindyhaddefiedtheschoolbully,hecongratulatedher.Inthissentence,thethreeactionsareexpressedbythreeverbsandthreesubjects:
• Bronsondiscoveredsomething.• Cindydefiedthebully.• BronsoncongratulatedCindy.
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Here’swhatthissentencelookslikewhenwechangethoseactionsfromverbsintonominalizations:
WhenBronsonmadethediscoveryofCindy’sdefianceoftheschoolbully,congratulationsensued.
Theactionsofdiscovering,defying,andcongratulationinsteadofbeingverbs,areturnedintoabstractnouns.Theyarenominalized.Whataretheverbsinthatsentence?Theverbsaremadeandensued.Discoverybecomesadirectobject,defiancegetstuckedawayastheobjectoftheprepositionof.Congratulationsisactuallythesubjectofthemainclause.Noticethetwoprepositionalphrasesthatwormtheirwayin:ofCindy’sdefiance,andoftheschoolbully.Let’sputthetwosentencesnexttoeachother.
WhenBronsondiscoveredthatCindyhaddefiedtheschoolbully,hecongratulatedher.
WhenBronsonmadethediscoveryofCindy’sdefianceoftheschoolbully,congratulationsensued.
Youcanfeelthedifferencebetweenthosetwosentences,can’tyou?Thesentencesdescribethesameaction.Theydescribetheexactsameinformation.Butinthefirst,theinformationandactioncomeatthereaderthesamewaytheydoinreallife.WHODIDWHAT?Theactionsareverbs.Theactorsaresubjects.IfIwereaskthedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences,youmightsaythesecondoneistoowordy.Youwouldn’tbewrong.Itdefinitelyfeelswordy.Butifyouactuallycountthewords,youseethatthesecondsentence,thenominalizedone,isonlyONEwordlongerthanthefirst.Sentence1is13wordslong.Sentence2is14words.It’shardtobelieveisn’tit?Thedifferenceisthatinsentence2,yourbrainhastoengagemorethanyoursenses.Itseemsoddtosayit,butyoudon’twantyourreaderstohavetothinktoomuch.Rather,youwantyourreaderstosavetheirmentalenergyforwhenyoureallyneedthemtothink.Youdon’twanttowasteit.Sentence2issooddthatyourreaderasks(maybesubconsciously),“Whydidyouphraseitthatway?”YourreaderstartsthinkingaboutyourgrammarinSentence2.Thatisnotsomethingyouwant!Hereisa3-Stepprocessforfindingandfixingnominalization:
• STEP1:Identifytheactioninthesentence.• STEP2:Identifytheverbsinthesentence.• STEP3:Aligntheactionsandtheverbs.
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Thatishowyougetridofnominalization.But,asIhavesaidbefore,everyproblematicgrammaticalstructureexistsbecausesometimesit’snotproblematic;sometimesitisexactlywhatyouneed.Let’slookatanothernominalizedsentence—onethatisn’tnearlysoegregiousasthatlastone:
Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.Inthissentence,thesubjectsandverbsarenotatallalignedwiththeaction.There’salotofactioninthissentence:It’sacarcrash!Markisrunningaredlight.Markiscareeningintoanothercar.Metaliscrumpling.Glassisflying.Babiesarecrying.Dogsarebarking.Butwhatistheverbinthissentence?There’sonlyone.It’sWAS.Howmightyoualignthemain-linegrammar—subjects,verbs,andobjects—withtheaction?Wehaveafewoptions.Herearetwo:
Markfailedtostopattheintersectionandcrashedintoanothercar.
Markranthrougharedlightandcrashedintoanothercar.Arethosebettersentencesthantheoriginal?Itdependsonthecontext.Isascrewdriverabettertoolthanawrench?Itdependsonthecontext.It’snotatallhardtoimagineasituationinwhichthebestsentenceistheonewestartedwith:Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.MaybeoneofMark’sdefendershassaid,“Foggyconditionswerethecauseofthecarcrash,”andyousay,“Hardly!Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.”Thinkofitthisway:Ikeepsayingthatyourreaderalwayswantstoknowwhodidwhat.Butwhodidwhatisn’ttheonlyimportantquestionyou’reansweringwhenyouwrite.Sometimesotherquestionscometotheforeground—WHYdidsomethinghappen?Inthiscase,WHOistoblame.SoletmereturntosomethingIsaidatthebeginningofthislesson.Whenyoucomposeasentence,youaretryingtomakethestructureofthesentencematchupwiththedeeperlogicofthatsentence.Straightforwardactionisagreatplacetostartbecauseintherealworld,informationTENDStocometousasaction.Weseeacarrunaredlight.Weseethatcarcrashintoanothercar.THENourjudgmentkicksin.Wesay,“Hey,thatjerkjustcausedanaccidentbyrunningthatredlight.”ToparaphraseFlanneryO’Connor,“Theeyeisanorganofjudgment.”Datacomestousthroughoureyesorourothersenses,andwemakejudgmentsbasedonthatdata.Wedon’thaveanarratorinourheadtellinguswhattothinkaboutwhatwesee.
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NominalizationTENDStomovethingsoutoftherealmofactorsandactionsandintotherealmofmoreabstractrelationships.Let’slookonemoretimeatourfirst,nominalizedsentenceaboutMark’scarcrash:
Mark’sfailuretostopattheintersectionwasthecauseofthecarcrash.ThemainlineofthatsentenceisFAILUREWASCAUSE.Causeandeffect.That’salogicalrelationship.Thesentencestructureforegroundsthelogical,cause-and-effectrelationshipatplayhere.Themore“verbish”version—Markranthroughtheintersectionandhitanothercar(orsomethingsimilar)—letsthereadermakethecause-and-effectconnectionforhimself.MaybeitletsthereaderpassjudgmentonMarkasadriver—which,again,ishowourexperienceoftheworldusuallyworks.However,thatnominalizedversion—Mark’sfailurewasthecause—thatversionsaystothereader,“Here’stheconclusionIwantyoutoreachhere.”Sometimesthat’sagoodthing—tellingyourreaderwhatconclusionyouwanthimtoreach—andsometimesthat’sabadthing.Idothinkwriterstendtoerronthesideoftellingreaderswhattothinkratherthaninvitingthemintoasceneandpointingthemintherightdirection.That’swhyIpersistinmycampaigntogetyoutotreattheactor-action-subject-verbmodelasyourdefault.That’swhyIencourageyoutohaveagoodreasonifyouaregoingtousenominalization.ButaswehaveseenwithMarkandhishorribledrivingrecord,therearecertainlysituationswhenit’sappropriatetousenominalizationtodirectyourreadertoaspecificconclusion.Grammarisn’tjustgrammar.Sentencestructurespeakstodeeperlogicalstructures.
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Quiz1.9:Nominalization
I.NominalizationTENDStomovethingsoutoftherealmofactorsandactionsandintotherealmof_________________.II.Complianceisanominalizationofwhatverb?___________________III.Revelationisanominalizationofwhatverb?___________________IV.AlackofattentivenessonLeonard'spartledtoacollisionwithatelephonepole.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.V.Mariamadetheargumentthattheexpirationofthepolicywouldresultdirectlyinherexposuretonewrisk.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.
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VI.Ioriginallywasn’tinterestedinknowingher,butonlywantedheracceptanceofme.Revisethissentencebygettingridofthenominalization(acceptance)inordertoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionitdescribes.VII.AfallfromaladderatawarehousejobandashoulderinjuryfromjanitorialworkatthecountyjailmeantDaleisnonetoosteadyonhisfeetthesedays.Theabstractnounsfallandinjurymakeupthecompoundsubjectofthissentence.Turnbothofthosenounsbackintoverbs,thebettertoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionitdescribes.VIII.Someofmyfavoriteswerebooksandbaseballcards,butingeneralIwasundertheimpressionthatthebiggerthegiftthebetter,andtherewaslittlerespectforbirthdaycards.Lookatthatphrasetherewaslittlerespect...Noticehowthespeakerdisappearsfromthesentencewiththatnominalization.Revisethissentencewithoutusingthephrasetherewas...(Youranswer,bytheway,mightstillhavetheabstractnounrespect,andthatwillbeok).
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IX.Theoccasionalremovalofhisshadesrevealedglassy,bloodshoteyes.Revisethissentencebychangingnominalizationsbackintoverbssoastoalignthegrammarofthesentencewiththeactionthesentencedescribes.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs
Nodoubtyouhaveheardthewritingadvice,"Usestrongverbs."IfyouGooglethatphrase,“usestrongverbs,”you’regoingtoseelistslike100STRONGVERBSTOADDPOWERANDPIZZAZZTOYOURWRITINGorSTOPUSINGWEAKVERBSANDSTARTUSINGTHESESTRONGVERBS.Itwouldbegreatifalistof"betterverbs"existed,buttherightverb,liketherightnoteonapiano,isamatterofcontext.Youcan’tmakealistofthebestverbsanymorethanyoucouldmakealistofthebestmusicalnotes.It’snotthat“Usestrongverbs”isterribleadvice.Butit’sthekindofadvicethatcanhelpyougofrombeingabadwritertobeingamediocrewriter.It’snotgoingtomoveyoufrombeingaprettygoodwritertobeingaverygoodwriter.“Usestrongverbs”isjustanoversimplificationofbetteradvice:Foreverysentenceyouwrite,figureoutwheretheactionis—ifpossible,ENVISIONthataction—andTHENfindtheverborverbsthatmostPRECISELYdepictthataction.Goodwritingisalwaysaboutprecision,notembellishment.Themorepreciseabitofwritingis,themorelikelyitisthatyourreaderwillbeabletoseewhatyou’retryingtoshowhim.Considerthissentence:
Terencewentaway.Therearelotsofwaystogoaway.Theideaofgoingawayisbroad—sobroad,infact,thatthephrasewentawaydoesn’tgiveyourreadermuchtolookat.Amorepreciseverbnarrowsthingsdownandcreatesavisualimageforyourreader.
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• Terenceleft.• Terencevamoosed.• Terencesplit.• Terencehightailedit.• Terencesnuckoff.• Terenceabsconded.• Terencevanished.• Terencewascalledaway.
Whichofthoseverbsisthestrongest?That’snotanespeciallyhelpfulquestion.Thequestionis,whichofthoseverbsmostpreciselydepictswhatTerencedid?Writingdoesn’tstartwithwords.Writingstartswithvision.Ifyoudon’tseewhatyou’retryingtowrite,youcan’tmakeyourreaderseeit.Sothrowawayyourlistsofstrongverbs.Thelistssuggestthatbetterwritingissimplyamatteroffindingbetterwordsandpluggingtheminwheretheless-goodwordswere.Therearen’tbetterwordsandworsewords,anymorethantherearerightnotesandwrongnotesonapiano.SayandsaidSomethingthatsometimesgetsrolledinto“strongverb”discussionsistheverbsayorsaid.Writingteacherssometimestelltheirstudentstofindmoreinteresting(orstronger)verbsthansayandsaidindialogue.Theyofferadvicelike,“Don’tsaysay,”or“Saidisdead.”Pleaseignorethatadvice.Whenyouaredescribingpeoplewhoaresayingthings,sayisaperfectlyrespectableverb.Ononewriting-advicewebsiteIranacrosstheexample,“Heidisaidshewastiredofhiking.”Thewebsiteadvisedfindingastrongerverbthansaid—maybesomethinglike“Heidicontendedthatshewastiredofhiking.”Iscontendastrongerverbthansaid?Iscontendamoreinterestingverbthansaid?Maybeso.Butthat'snotthequestion.Thequestionis,whichverbmorepreciselydepictswhatHeidiwasdoing?Tocontendistoargue,tostruggle.WhywouldHeidihavetocontendwhatsheisfeelingabouthiking?IstheresomebodygettinginHeidi’sfaceandtellingherthatshe'snottiredofhiking?IsHeidihavingtomakeacasethatsheisindeedtiredofhiking?Ifso,contendedmightbeabetterverbthansaid.Otherwise,saidwillworkjustfinehere.Don’tletanybodybullyyouintothrowingouttheperfectlyserviceableandperfectlyrespectableverbsaid.Saidisnotdead.It’sverymuchalive.TheTo-BeVerb
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Anotherverbwithabadreputationistheto-beverb:
• am• are• is• was• were• be• being• been
Theto-beverbhasabadreputationbecauseitisoftenmixedupwithother,moreseriouswritingproblems.Thepassivevoicealwaysinvolvesato-beverb:"Thebullwastakenbythehornsbyme."Nominalizationusuallyinvolvesato-beverb:"Leonardwasconsciousofthefactthat..."Therefore,itisagoodpracticetogobackthroughyourwritingandcircleto-beverbsasawayoffindingnominalizationsandpassiveconstructions.Butwhereto-beverbscommunicateastateofbeing,orwhereto-beverbsarelinkingverbs(asin"wewerewalking"or"Ihavebeentellingyouthatallalong")there’snothingtobeashamedof.Don’tfeeltheneedtoeradicateto-beverbsandplugin“action”verbsor“strong”verbs.Verbscandotwothings:theycancommunicateaction,ortheycancommunicatestatesofbeing.Verbsthatcommunicatestatesofbeingarecalledlinkingverbs(Ifeelpretty.Clarenceisthemayor.Marthawassuspiciouslyhappy.)Themostcommonlinkingverb(byfar)istheto-beverb.Communicatingactionisn’tmorerespectablethancommunicatingstatesofbeing.Onelastthingaboutcommunicatingstatesofbeing:thereareotherwaystocommunicatestatesofbeingbesidesusingalinkingverb.
• Youcanuseanadjective.(MymailmanishandsomebecomesMyhandsomemailman.)
• Youcanuseanappositive.(ClarenceisthemayorbecomesClarence,themayor...)• Youcanuseaprepositionalphrase.(AngusisfivefeettallbecomesAtfivefeettall,
Angustowersoverhisfellowcubscouts.)Wewilldiscussallthoseoptionsinfuturelessons.SummaryTaketheadvice“usestrongverbs”withagrainofsalt.Usepreciseverbs—theverbsthatmostpreciselydepicttheactionsyouwanttodepict.
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Therearen’tstrongverbsandweakverbs,justastherearen’trightnotesonthepianokeyboardandwrongnotes.Italldependsonthecontext:everynoteisrightsometimes,andeverynoteiswrongsometimes.Everyverbisrightsometimesandwrongsometimes.Soalistof“strongverbs”isoflimitedhelp.
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Quiz1.10:StrongVerbsvs.PreciseVerbs
I.Whataretheverbsofbeing?II.Trueorfalse:Verbsshouldcommunicateaction,notstatesofbeing.III.Herhair,onceexplodingoverhershouldersintight,brownringlets,isgraying.What'swrongwiththatparticipialphrase,explodingoverhershouldersintight,brownringlets?IV.IjumpedoffacliffhoveringhighabovethePacificOcean,harnessedtomyhang-glider.Considerthatparticiplehovering.Whyisitnotthebestchoicehere?
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V.Hisbewilderedfacemeltedintodefiance.Makethemainverbofthissentencemoreprecise.VI.Therectangularstudioheldpolishedwoodfloors,twowallsofbarre,amplefloorspaceforthetenlittledancersinmyclass,andoneentirewallofflawlessmirror.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthatmainverbheld?VII.Shepaintseyeshadowinpumpkinorange,brushesmascarainlinesasthickascalligraphyink,andpatsonlayersofrogue,allofwhichchiselanexpressionofpermanentexhilarationontohercreasedface.Whichverbismisleading?Why?Correctit.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs
Englishgrammargivesyouplentyoftechnicallycorrectwaystocraminformationintoasinglesentence.Butconnectingwithyourreaderismoreimportantthanbeingimpressivelycomplex.Remember,yourreaderalwayswantstoknowWHODIDWHAT?Subject,Verb,Object.Whateverelsehappensinyoursentence,yourreadershouldbeabletogetfromsubjecttoverbtoobjectwithrelativeease.Usually,thismeansgettingtoyoursubjectearlyinthesentence,andnothavingtoomanywordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Let'slookatafewsentencesthatviolatetheseprinciples,andconsiderhowtheycouldbebetter.
Theprocessesinvolvedinshapingthechannelinplaceswheretheturnsswungfromsidetoside,asthewaterflowedacrossthefloodplain,mesmerizedme.
A.Whatisthemainverb?___________________________________________.B.Whoorwhatmesmerized(i.e.whatisthesubject)?__________________________________________.C.Whatisthewholemainclause?_________________________________________________________________.[A.mesmerized.B.theprocesses.C.Theprocessesmesmerizedme.] Thereare22wordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverbofthemainclause.Thecommabeforetheverbisalsoamajorredflag.
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Therearealotofoptionsforfixingthissentence,butIthinkthemostelegantsolutionusesthepassivevoice: Iwasmesmerizedbytheprocessesthatshapedthechannelasitswungfromsideto sideandflowedacrossthefloodplain.Here'sanother:
Thefeeling,familiarinthoseyears,thatIwasofadifferentspeciesthanthepeoplearoundmesurgedupagain.
A.Whatisthemainverb?________________________________________________.B.Whatisthesubject?____________________________________________________.[Answers:A.surged.B.feeling.]Thereare16wordsbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Onepossiblefixusesanappositive(whichwe'lltalkaboutinalatermodule):Afamiliarfeelingsurgedupinme—afeelingthatIwasofadifferentspeciesfromthepeoplearoundme.Ihadthatfeelingalotinthosedays.Noticethatyoudohavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintwo.Sometimestwoshortsentencesarebetterthanoneunwieldyone. OnthefaredgeofthetownwhereIgrewup,satthealuminumfactory.A.Whatisthemainverb?______________________________________________________.B.Whatisthesubject?__________________________________________________________.[Answers:A.sat.B.thealuminumfactory.]Thissentencehastwelvewordsbeforewegetthesubject-verbnexus.Again,thecommabeforethemainverbshouldclueyouinthatthissentencewillbedifficultforyourreadertocomprehend.It'smoresimpletowritethis:Analuminumfactorysatatthefaredgeoftown.Maybeyouthinktheoriginalismoreinterestingthanthestraightforwardversion.Isitinterestingenoughtobeworththeextraworkyou'reaskingofyourreader?That'sarealquestion.Differentwriterswillansweritdifferently.Theimportantthingisthatyouconsiderthedifferenceandmakeaconsciousdecision.Don'tjustcauseextraworkforyourreaderwithoutthinkingthroughit.
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Quiz1.11:KeepingSubjectsClosetoVerbs
I.Liquidpainsointensethatitstolemybreath,wouldsurgethroughmybackwitheveryattempt.Thisisasentenceaboutapersonwithbackpaintryingtogetoutofbed.Whatisthesubjectofthissentence?Whatisthemainverb?Editthesentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.II.Aneerieemptydarknessshehadneverexperiencedbeforewhenevershevisitedherfatherathisbig,glassedinofficeenvelopedthethreestoryfoyer.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.
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III.Hisponytailcomesloose,andhisthreefeetofgrayingbrownhair,typicallyonlyobservedbyimmediatefamilyoranyoneluckyenoughtocatchhimsippingcoffeeonadayoff,drapeshisshoulders.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.IV.Afewyearsaftermygreat,greatuncleMarion—aneccentricartistwhoframedhiswatercolorswithplanksfromtheporchandworehisteethonlyforimportantevents—haddied,TheVaseappeared,andwejokedthathissonBerthadputhisashesinitandplaceditonhismantel.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.Youmayneedtousemultiplesentences.V.Aweeklyrhythmbandfortheneighborhoodchildren,intheredbrickhomeofthewomannextdoor,putthedelighttomusic.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.VI.Thirtyfeetfromthewater,afringeofgnarledpinerootsreachingoutintoemptyairmarkstheborderfrombarerubbletostubbornforest.Editthissentencetokeepthesubjectclosetothemainverb.
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VII.Threesweatykidsandtheirmotherwithloadedpurse,emptiedpicnicbasket,andtissue-filledgiftbagtrudgedupthebackstepsreadytoescapetheJulysun.Editthissentencetomakeitclearer,keepingthesubjectclosetotheverb.VIII.Thesheerexhilarationmixedwiththeutterterroroflaunchingintotheair,thatmomentwhenyoufeelweightless,suspendedmidair,andthenthepulloftheearthdownwardasIracedtotheevergrowingpuddlebelowme,combinedtomakethejourneyastonishing.Thisisatoughone.It'sasentenceaboutjumpingoutofaswing.Howwouldyoureworkittomakeitclearerandkeepthesubjectclosethemainverb?Youmayneedtousemultiplesentences.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson12:CompoundsontheMainLine
In1990,MichaelJordanscoredacareer-high69points.RookieStaceyKingmadeonefreethrow.Inaninterviewafterthegamehesaid,"I'llalwaysrememberthisasthenightwhenMichaelJordanandIcombinedtoscore70points."Thisisabrilliantandhilarioususeofthecompoundsubject.Theverbscoredhastwosubjects:MichaelJordanandI.Anyspotonthemainline—Subject,Verb,Object,orComplement—canbecompounded. TheOwlandthePussycatwenttoseainabeautifulpea-greenboat. Twosubjectsshareoneverb. Isanganddanced. Onesubjectsharestwoverbs. Gabrielaatelobsterandporkrinds. Twoobjectsshareoneverb. Youarebeautifulbutmean. Twopredicatenominativesshareonelinkingverb.Youcancombinecompoundsinanycombination.Soyoucouldhave:Theowlandthepussycataterodentsandcatfood.(Compoundsubjectandcompounddirectobjects.)Compoundelementsarejoinedtogetherbyaconjunction(usuallyand,occasionallybut)andnocomma.Acommawithaconjunctionindicatesacompoundsentence.Acompoundsentenceistwoseparatemainclausesjoinedbyacommaandacoordinatingconjunction.
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Thereareonlysevencoordinatingconjunctions:
• For• And• Nor• But• Or• Yet• So
YoucanrememberthembyusingtheacronymFANBOYS.Acompoundsentencethathasaconjunctionbutnocommaisarun-onsentence.Acompoundsentencethathasacommabutnoconjunctioniscalledacommasplice.AcompoundsentencelinksoneindependentSubject-VerbnexustoanotherindependentSubject-Verbnexustoformasinglesentence.
Isang.Idanced.Twoseparatesentences.Isang,andIdanced.Compoundsentence.Isanganddanced.Compoundverb.
Whileallofthesearegrammaticallycorrect,thefirsttwofeelredundant.Itmakesthemostsensetouseacompoundverb.Whataboutthese?
Theowlhooted.Thepussycatmeowed.Twoseparatesentences.Theowlhooted,andthepussycatmeowed.Compoundsentence.Theowlandthepussycathootedandmeowed.Compoundsubjectandcompoundverb.
Thosetwoactionsdon'tfeelcloselyenoughrelatedtobeacompoundsubjectandcompoundverb.Thefirstorsecondoptionsmakemoresense.Here'sanotherexample:
Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebeforeandsatstunnedforseveralseconds.Thesetwoverbsdohavethesamesubject(I),butthedon'tcombineverywellforacoupleofreasons:
1. Thefirstverbispassiveandthesecondisactive.2. Thetwoactionsarenearlyascloselyrelatedas"Isanganddanced."
Wecouldcorrectthisbysaying,Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebefore,soIsattherestunnedforseveralseconds.(CompoundSentence)Oreven,Ihadneverbeenstruckinthefacebefore.Isattherestunned.
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Grammarisn'tjustaboutgrammar.Grammarreflectsadeeperlogic.StaceyKing’sjokeaboutcombiningfor70pointswithMichaelJordanisinpartagrammarjoke.Thecompoundsubject—MichaelJordanandI—istechnicallycorrect.TheyDIDcombinefor70points.Butthatcompoundsubjectalsoimpliesanequalitythatisridiculousandfunny.Grammarisakindoflogic.StaceyKingwasmisusingthatlogictobefunny.Mostofthetime,you’renottryingtobefunnywithyourgrammar,soyouwantyourgrammartoactuallyreflectyourlogic,notundermineit.
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Quiz1.12:CompoundsontheMainLine
I.Whatspotsonthemainlinecanbecompounded?Circleallthatapply. A.Subject B.Verb C.Object D.ComplementII.Listthesevencoordinatingconjunctions.(RemembertheacronymFANBOYS.)III.Acompoundsentencethathasaconjunctionbutnocommaiscalleda_____________________________________________.Acompoundsentencethathasacommabutnoconjunctioniscalleda______________________________________________.
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IV.Maybethatdayitwasgreenplaidbell-bottomsayearortwopasttheirheightofcoolnessandapilledtansweater.1.Identifythecompoundcomplement.2.Whyisthiscompoundcomplementconfusingtothereader?3.Editthesentenceforclarity.V.Theroomwasfurnishedwithpiecesthatcouldeasilyhavebeenfroma1960scatalogandsmeltmusty.1.Identifythecompoundverb.2.Editthesentenceforclarity.VI.Ifinishedplayingandthehissoftherespiratoronceagainfilledtheroomlikeincense.1.Whyisthissentencegrammaticallyincorrect?2.Howwouldyoucorrectit?
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VII.Mysisterhadaskedforadozendollsandmybrother'swishlisthadafrontandback.Correctthisrun-onsentencetomakeitacompoundsentence.VIII.Briancamehomewithmydollandarepentantheart.1.Identifythecompoundobjectoftheprepositionwith.2.Whyisthissentenceunusual?
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson13:VerbTenses
Aswewrapupthismoduleaboutsubjectsandverbs,let'stalkaboutverbtenses.Simplepast:Iate,youate,he/she/itate.Simplepresent:Ieat,youeat,he/she/iteats.Simplefuture:Iwilleat,youwilleat,he/she/itwilleat.Thesearesofamiliarthatthereisreallynoneedtotalkaboutthem.However,sometimesweneedmoreprecisionandnuancethanjustthesesimpletenses.That'swhereprogressiveandperfectverbtensescomein,andevennativeEnglishspeakershavealotoftroublewiththem.Pastprogressivetense,endsin-ing.Indicatesthatatagivenpointintime,apersonwasorisorwillbeinthemiddleofsomeaction.PastPerfectTense.Indicatesthatatagivenpointintime,apersonhascompletedorwillhavecompletedanaction.
Iranat6:00thismorning.Simplepasttense.
Iwasrunningat6:00thismorning.Pastprogressivetense.
Ihadrunat6:00thismorning.Pastperfecttense.
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Theprogressivetense(whetherpast,present,orfuture)isformedbyadding-ingtotheendoftheverb.Thisisthe2ndprincipalpart.Pastprogressive:Iwasrunning,youwererunning,he/she/itwasrunning.Presentprogressive:Iamrunning,youarerunning,he/she/itisrunning.Futureprogressive:Iwillberunning,youwillberunning,he/she/itwillberunning.Theperfecttenseisformedbycombiningthe4thprincipalpart(endsin-d,-t,or-en)withthehelpingverbhaveorhad.Pastperfect:Ihadrun,youhadrun,he/she/ithadrun.PresentPerfect:Ihaverun,youhaverun,he/she/ithasrun.FuturePerfect:Iwillhaverun,youwillhaverun,he/she/itwillhaverun.Usingtheseverbformsrequiresthatyouplantaflagonthetimeline,andthensetyourverbtensewithrespecttothatflag.Youaresaying,ineffect,atthisspecificpointintimethesubjectofthesentenceiseitherinthemiddleofanactionorhascompletedtheaction.Forsimpletense,thetime-flagisoptional.Icansay,Istolesomeleftoversfromoutoftheofficerefrigerator.Or,Istolefromleftoversoutoftheofficerefrigeratoryesterday.Eitheroneisfinebecausethesimplepastdoesn'tcarewhetherIincludethattimemarkeryesterdayornot.However,ifI'mgoingtosayIHADSTOLENleftovers(perfectpasttense),orIWILLHAVESTOLENleftovers(futureperfect),orIWASSTEALINGleftovers(pastprogressive),orIWILLBESTEALINGleftovers(futureprogressive),Ineedtoprovideatime-flag.
IwillbestealingleftoversfromtheofficerefrigeratortomorrowifIforgetmylunchagain.
IhadstolenleftoversoutoftheofficerefrigeratorbeforeIrealizedthattheybelongedtotheCEO.
Plantingatimeflagdoesn'tnecessarilymeannamingatime(6amorOctober12th).Youcanalsodoitbyplacingoneactionrelativetoanotheraction.
Iwasrunningthismorningwhileyouwerestillsawinglogs.Pastprogressive.
Iwasthinkingaboutyouwhenyoucamethroughthedoor.Pastprogressive.
Marthawillbesingingoperawhileyoutendtothecashregister.Futureprogressive.
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Whenyouhavefinishedyourbroccoli,youcanhavesomepie.Futureperfect.Ihaveeatenmybroccoli,andnowIwantsomepie.Perfect.
Whenyourolledoutofbedat6:00thismorning,Ihadalreadyrun,showered,anddressed.Pastperfect.
Whenyouusethesetenses,yousignaltoyourreadersthattheyneedtopayattentiontosomenuanceoftime.TheyneedtounderstandthatthisactionwasCOMPLETEatsomespecifictime,oritwasONGOINGatsomespecifictime.Askyourselfhowpreciseyouneedtobe.Ifyouaren'tcommunicatingsomenuanceoftime,don'taskyourreadertodecodeacomplexverbform.Here'safinalexample:
Ifweturnedaround,wewouldhavetotravelbackacrossanarrowbridgethathadnorailingsandwasmadeoflooseplanksthatHADMOVEDasweHADGONEacrossthemthefirsttime.IwasprettysureIHADSEENthetailendofacarthatHADPLUNGEDoffthebridgeintotheravinenosefirst.
Alloftheseverbformsaregrammaticallycorrect,butthey'reconfusing.Inthiscase,itmaybeworthtradingprecisionforsimplicity:
Ifweturnedaround,wewouldhavetotravelbackacrossanarrowbridgethathadnorailingsandwasmadeoflooseplanksthatMOVEDwhenweWENTacrossthemthefirsttime.IwasprettysureISAWthetailofacarthatHADPLUNGEDoffthebridgeintotheravinenosefirst.
Theoriginalconstructionismoreprecise,butthegrammardrawsattentiontoitself.Youdon'twantyourreaderstobethinkingaboutgrammar.Correctgrammarisbetterthanincorrectgrammar.Butwhatyoureallywantisgrammarthatisinvisibletothereader.
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Quiz1.13:VerbTenses
I.Thistimetomorrow,JohnBarberwillbewishinghehadchosenadifferentnemesis.Whatisthetimeflaginthissentence?II.Irealizedafterafewminutesthatmydaddidnotdriveawaybutwassittinginthecarwatching.Editthissentencesothattheverbtensesmakesensetogether.Whereistheflagonthetimeline?III.Thistimetomorrow,JohnBarberwillbewishinghechoseadifferentnemesis.Whatistheverbtenseinthissentence? A.Past B.Pastperfect C.Pastprogressive D.Present E.Presentperfect F.Presentprogressive G.Future H.Futureperfect I.Futureprogressive
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IV.ByDecember11,1941,justfourdaysafterthebombingofPearlHarbor,theUnitedStateshaddeclaredwaronbothJapanandGermany.Whatistheverbtenseofthissentence? A.Past B.Pastperfect C.Pastprogressive D.Present E.Presentperfect F.Presentprogressive G.Future H.Futureperfect I.FutureprogressiveV.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadformywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. A.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourHADSTARTED.Ifeltbad formywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. B.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadformy wife;sheHADBEENhanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleftthehouse. C.Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpourstarted.Ifeltbadfor mywife;shewashanginglaundryoutsidewhenIHADLEFTthehouse. D.Nochangeisnecessary.VI.Normally,Ienjoygardening,butthissummeracolonyofhornetstookownershipofouryard,andtheydidnottakekindlytotrespassers.Thissentencecontainsthreeverbs.Whichofthesethreeverbswouldyouchangetopastperfectsoastoclarifythemeaning?Checkallthatapply. A.ChangeIenjoyedgardeningtoIhadenjoyedgardening. B.Changetookownershiptohadtakenownership. C.Changedidnottakekindlytohadnottakenkindly. D.It’sbetteras-isthanwithachange.
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LectureNotes
Module1,Lesson14:Review
Dadjokesaside,Iamgoingtorepeatmyself.Inthismodule,I’vekeptthematerialintentionallysimple.Thenextmodulewillquicklybecomecomplex.Becauselanguageiscomplex,it’simportantthatyoukeepthingssimplewhereyoucan.Hereonthemainline,youcankeepthingssimple.Figureoutwheretheactionofyoursentenceis.Makeitahabittoexpressthatactionasaverb,andtheactorasthesubjectofthatverb.Infollowingmodules,we’lllearnhowtoloadactionsandactorsintoothergrammaticalstructuresbesidesthemainline.Whatyou’velearnednow—expressingsubjectsandactionsinmainclauses—isanimportanthabittodevelop.Remember:Yourreaderpaysextraattentiontothemainsubjectandverbofasentence.Yourreaderwilltrustyourwritingifitmovesfromsubjecttoverbtocomplement.Youcanaddcomplexityaftergainingthattrust.Expressactioninthesubject-verbnexus.Gettothesubjectearlyinthesentence.Keepsubjectsclosetoverbs.Gettothesubject-verbnexusquickly.Ifyouaskthereadertodoextrawork,makesureyouhaveagoodreason.Waitingforthesubject,usingnominalizations,andusingthepassivevoiceallcreateworkforthereader.IfyouASKmoreofthereader,youhavetoGIVEhermore.
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Whenwemovetomodifiersinthenextmodule,we’llstillpaycloseattentiontothemainline.Everythingyou’velearnedaboutthemainlinealsoappliestosubordinateclauses.Nothinggetswastedinawriter’sgrammar.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson1:Introduction
Wearefinallyreadytoleavethemainlineofthesentenceandmoveontomodifiers.Modifiersarewords,phrases,orclausesthatdescribeotherwordsorphrases.Modifierstellwhatkindofpersonorthingisactingorbeingactedupon,andhowthey’reacting.Adjectivesandadverbsareobviousexamplesofmodifiers.Considerthissentence:Thebluetruckrumbledloudly.
ThemainclauseisThetruckrumbled.Blueisanadjectivemodifyingtruck,narrowingthesubject.Whichtruckrumbled?Thebluetruck.Loudlyisanadverbmodifyingrumbled.Howdidthetruckrumble?Loudly.Adverbialmodifiersanswerthesequestionsaboutverbs(andsometimesadjectivesorotheradverbs):
• HOW?• WHERE?• WHY?• TOWHATEXTENT?
Adjectivalmodifiersanswerthesequestionsaboutnouns:
• WHICHONE?• WHATKIND?• HOWMANY?
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Alotofinterestinasentencederivesfromthemodifiers.Ratherthanthinkingofadverbsandadjectivesasornamentationinasentence,thinkofthemasawayofnarrowingmeaning.Modifiershelpyourwritingbemoreprecise.Describingatruckasabluetrucknarrowsdownthebroadcategoryoftruckconsiderably,butsaying“blueFordtruck”narrowsitevenmore.Lookatthissentence:TheraccoonthatIwastellingyouabout,withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytail,rattledthetrashcanbehindmygaragewithaninsistencethatborderedonobsession.
Themainclauseis:Raccoonrattledtrashcan.Alltheotherwordsaremodifiers.ThatIwastellingyouaboutisaclause.Ithasaverb(wastelling)andasubject(I).Itmodifiesanoun(ittellswhichraccoon),soitisanadjectivalclause.Withthemissingearandtheunusuallybushytailisaphrase,becauseitdoesn’thaveaverb.Ithasapreposition(with)andacompoundobject(earandtail),soit’saprepositionalphrasemodifyingraccoon(again,ittellswhichraccoon).Withintheprepositionalphrase,theadjectivemissingmodifiesear.Bushytellsuswhatkindoftail.Behindmygarageisanotherprepositionalphrase.Youcouldsayit’sadjectival(tellinguswhichtrashcan)ormaybeadverbial(tellinguswheretheraccoonwasrattling).Withaninsistenceisanotheradverbialprepositionalphrase(howdidherattle?).Thatborderedisanadjectivalclausemodifyinginsistence(whatkindofinsistence?).Anobsessionisanadverbialprepositionalphrase(howdiditborder?).
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Theimportantskillistobeabletoidentifywhataparticularphraseorclauseismodifying.Whatquestionisitanswering?LetNounsandVerbsCarrytheFreightWhileadjectives,adverbs,andothermodifiersareanimportantwaytoadddescription,thereisamorepowerfulway.Nounsandverbsshouldcarrythefreightofyourwriting.Hereisanexample:MybrotherTimwastheonlyboyandarevelationtoallofus.Heatetemperapaint,suckingitstraightfromthebrush.Heclimbedontothediningroomtableandjumpedoffofit,ashighashecould,overandoverandover,whileourmiddlesisterRachelandItriedtodoschoolwork.HefellintothewaterfountainattheBotanicalGardens.Hesometimesplayedsohardthathethrewupinthegrass,andthenwentrightbacktoplaying.Timissuckingpaint,jumpingoffthediningroomtable,fallingintothewaterfountain,throwingup,goingrightbacktoplaying.Therelentlessmovementinthisshortpassagemimicstherelentlessmovementofthelittleboy.Butifyoulookclosely,you’llnoticetherearen’talotofadjectivesandadverbs.ThewriterissuccessfulinthispassagebecauseshehastakenthetimetoenvisionwhatitlookslikewhenherlittlebrotherTimplays.Aftershehadthatvisionfixed,shewentlookingforthebestverbstodescribethatvision.Thisisjuststraight-ahead,workmanlikewriting,andtheresultisfantastic.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson2:AdjectivesandAdverbs
AdjectivesandAdjectivalsAnadjectiveisawordthatmodifiesanoun.Adjectives(andadjectivalphrasesandclauses)answerthreequestions:WHATKIND?WHICHONE?HOWMANY?InEnglish,anadjectiveappearsimmediatelybeforethenounitmodifiesasin,Theyellowflower.AsanEnglishspeaker,youalreadyknowthis.Nooneaccidentallysays,“Thefloweryellow,”or“Yellowtheflower.”Apredicateadjectivecomesafterthelinkingverb:Mycatisenthusiastic.Enthusiasticisanadjectivebeingusedaspredicatecomplement.Theonlythingthatmaycomebetweenanounanditsadjectiveisanotheradjectivemodifyingthesamenoun.Forexample:Myenthusiastic,playfulcatpounces.CommasBetweenAdjectivesinaSeriesHowdoyoupunctuatemultipleadjectives?Whenyouhavetwoormoreadjectivesinarow,youmightneedtoseparatethemwithcommas.Ifitwouldmakesensetoputtheword“and”betweentheadjectives,thenyoushouldputacommabetweenthem.Myenthusiasticandplayfulcatcouldwork,soyouneedacommabetweentheadjectives.Butyouwouldn’tsayMyenthusiasticandSiamesecat,soyoudon’tneedacommabetweenenthusiasticandSiameseeventhoughtheyarebothadjectives.Anotherruleofthumb:ifyoucanreversetheorderoftheadjectives,separatethemwithacomma.(Youcouldsayplayful,enthusiasticcatjustaseasilyasyoucouldsayenthusiastic,playfulcat,soyouneedthecommathere.)Ifyoucan'treversetheorderoftheadjectives,
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don'tseparatethemwithacomma.(Youcouldn'tsaymySiameseenthusiasticcat,soyoudon'tneedacomma.)OtherAdjectivalsOtheradjectivals(prepositionalphrases,infinitivephrases,participialphrases,adjectiveclauses)comeafterthenounstheymodify.TheflowersthatKengavetoBarbiemadehersneeze.Mydesiretowinahot-dog-eatingcontestgotthebetterofmydesiretostaythin.Thedogwiththediamondcollarstilldrinksfromthetoilet.Ultimately,ALLadjectivalsneedtobeascloseaspossibletothenounstheymodify.AdverbsandAdverbialsAnadverbisawordthatmodifiesaverb,anadjective,oranotheradverb.Adverbsoftenendin–ly,butnotalways.Youcanusuallychangeanadjectiveintoanadverbbyadding–ly:gladbecomesgladly.Glumbecomesglumly.However,fortherestofthislessonwewillbelookingattheadverbsthatDON’Tendin–ly.Thenextlessonaddresses-lyadverbs.Adverbsansweroneoffivequestions:HOW?WHY?WHEN?WHERE?TOWHATEXTENT?Ingeneral,adverbsendingin–lyanswertheHOWquestion:Thebirdsanggloomily.IwillgladlypayyouTuesdayforahamburgertoday.TherearesomeotheradverbsthatanswerHOW(suchassideways.Howwasthecarturned?Thecarwasturnedsideways).TheWHYquestiontendstobeansweredbyadverbialphrasesandclauses.So,we’regoingtomainlylookattheWHEN,WHERE,andTOWHATEXTENTadverbsfornow.AdverbsansweringWHEN?Now,tomorrow,yesterday,soon,never,late,early,often,seldom,always,usually,arealladverbsthatanswerthequestionWHEN?I'mdonetalkingtoyounow.WhenamIdonetalkingtoyou?Now. AdverbsansweringWHERE?Here,there,everywhere,anywherearealladverbsthattellWHEREanactionhappened.Squirrelswererunningeverywhere.Whereweresquirrelsrunning?Everywhere.
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Inside,outside,uphill,downhill,upriver,downriver,left,right:thissortofadverbalsoanswersthequestionWHERE?AdverbsansweringTOWHATEXTENT?InansweringthequestionTOWHATEXTENT?,adverbscaneitherintensifyordialdownanaction.Alot,completely,heartily,andabsolutelyallintensifyanaction.Kindof,only,just,almost,somewhat,andsortofallminimizeanaction.MostadverbsthatmodifyadjectivesorotheradverbsareansweringtheTOWHATEXTENTquestion.Forexample,Youlookveryprettytonight,orYoulookkindofhandsome.Wordsliketheseareusefulandnecessary,andyouprobablydon'tneedtoworryaboutover-usingtheminyourwriting.The-lyadverbsrequiremorecaution.Theywillbethesubjectofthenextlesson.
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Quiz2.2:AdjectivesandAdverbs
I.Inthehighlightedadjectivepairsbelow,circletheonesthatneedcommas. A.theplaingoldband
B.ripesweetberries
C.longtediousplanningmeeting
D.longtediousplanningmeeting
E.basichumandecency
F.Thefatsoftsheepnibbledsweetspringgrass.
G.Thefatsoftsheepnibbledsweetspringgrass.
II.Inthehighlightedwordgroupsbelow,circletheonesthatneedhyphens. A.Anambulancedroveontheshoulderofthetrafficcloggedroad.
B.Mytwoyearoldnephewisstillunemployed.
C.Mynephewistwoyearsoldandstillliveswithhisparents.
D.Hescratcheduphisloaferswalkingthroughtheforest.
E.Exceptforhisscratcheduploafers,heseemednonetheworseforhisexperience.
F.Theclown’sheavilypaintedfaceloomedintomynightmare.
G.Theclown’sheavilymadeupfaceloomedintomynightmare.
H.Theclown’shandpaintedfaceloomedintomynightmare.
I.ThecouplehadmadeupbeforeIevenrealizedtheywerefighting.
J.Thesearemyfoxhuntingpants.
K.Doyouexpectmetobelievethisclearlyimpossiblestory?
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III.Whichquestionsdoadjectivesansweraboutthenounstheymodify? A.How?
B.Howmany?
C.Towhatextent?
D.Whatkind?
E.When?
F.Where?
G.Whichone?
H.Why?
IV.JohnBarbercriedsloppily. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
V.Thelazygoatatewhateverwasclosesttoit. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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VI.Iwillcallyoutomorrow. 1.Istheitalicwordanadjectiveoranadverb? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswerabouttheworditmodifies?(Whichone?What kind?Howmany?How?When?Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?
We'veseenthatnotalladverbsendin-ly.However,manyadverbsareformedbyadding-lytotheendofanadjective.IcouldsayThesullencashierhandedovermyhappymeal.Inthatcase,sullenisanadjectivedescribingthecashier.OrIcouldaddan-lytosullentomakeitanadverb.Thecashiersullenlyhandedovermyhappymeal.Thatadverbsullenlydescribeshowthecashierperformedtheactionofhandingovermyhappymeal.Whenadverbsandadverbialsaremodifyingaverb,theyarehighlymoveable.Theycouldbeatthebeginningoftheclauses,rightbeforetheverb,orattheendoftheclause.
• Sullenly,thecashierhandedmemyhappymeal.• Thecashiersullenlyhandedmemyhappymeal.• Thecashierhandedmemyhappymealsullenly.
Writersareoftentoldnottousetoomanyadverbs.Thisisgoodadviceinprinciple,butIuseadverbsallthetime.Sowhydowritingteachersdiscouragetheuseofadverbs?1.Adverbscanbreedlazinessonthepartofthewriter.We'vealreadytalkedalotaboutusingpreciseverbs.Sometimeswritersuseanadverbinsteadoflookingforthemostpreciseverb.Forexample:"Achmedwalkedintotheroomloudly,"insteadof,"Achmedstormedintotheroom,"or"Achmedstompedintotheroom."2.Grammaticalandotherwritingmistakestendtohappenaroundadverbs.Mypracticeistoseekoutthemostpreciseverbsandresorttoadverbsonlywhenthebestverbsneedalittleextrahelp.Remember:Letnounsandverbscarrythefreight.Startwiththemainline—subjects,verbs,andobjects.
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Alsobearinmindthatadjectivesandadverbsaren'tyouronlyoptionfordescription.Intherestofthisunitwe'lllookatprepositionalphrases,participialphrases,infinitivephrasesandclauses,etc.
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Quiz2.3:What’sSoBadAboutAdverbs?
I.TheymaybedigitallyconnectedtotheInternet,butrelationallytheyaredisconnectedfromoneanother.Considerthoseadverbsdigitallyandrelationally.Doyoufindthemhelpful?Whyorwhynot?II.Amomentlaterhisdooropened,thenshutloudly.Considertheadverbloudly.Doesitcontributetothesentenceordetractfromit?III.Shequicklyhalf-rantothephone.Considertheadverbquickly.Hownecessaryisit?
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IV.Idon’tbelievetheconnectionbetweenartandlifecaneverbefinallyorevenverysatisfactorilyresolved.Considertheadverbsfinallyandsatisfactorily.Aretheyhelpfulhere?V.Hebouncedinafranticmanner,yippingandbarking.Reworkthissentence,usinganadverbinplaceoftheprepositionalphrase,inafranticmanner.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson4:PrepositionalPhrases(Part1)
"Inourworld,"saidEustace,"astarisahugeballofflaminggas.""Eveninyourworld,myson,thatisnotwhatastarisbutonlywhatitismadeof."
-TheVoyageoftheDawnTreader
ThereisagreatmomentfromC.S.Lewis'sVoyageoftheDawnTreaderwhenLucyandEustacemeetanoldmannamedRamandu,whoturnsouttobearetiredstar.HeexplainstoEustacethataflamingballofgasisonlywhatastarismadeof,notwhatitis.Inthisunit,we'vetalkedalotaboutwhatdifferentmodifiersaremadeof,butnotreallywhattheyare.Whattheyarehasmoretodowithhowtheyfunction,howtheymakeconnectionsinthemindofareader.Witheachtypeofmodifier,wewilltalkabouttheirconstruction/form,butthenwewillmoveontohowtheyfunction.Whatisaprepositionalphrasemadeof?Preposition+NounThereareaboutahundredprepositionsintheEnglishlanguage,butherearethetop45:
About Beyond Into ToAbove By Like TowardsAcross Concerning Near Under After Despite Of UntilAgainst Down Off UpAlong During On UponAmong Except Out WithAround Following Over WithinAt For Plus WithoutBefore From SinceBehind In ThroughBetween Including Throughout
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If you're not sure if aword is functioning as a preposition, you can use this PrepositionFinder:Therabbitran__________thewoodpile.Anywordthatfitsinthatblankisapreposition.Therearealsoafewprepositionsthatdon'tfitinthePrepositionFinder,butanywordthatdoesfitintheblankisapreposition.The prepositions that don't fit in the Preposition Finder are time-related prepositions(before, during, after, since), and prepositions describing logical relationships (except,concerning,including,plus,minus).ThereisonemoreprepositionthatdoesnotfitinthePrepositionFinder,anditisthemostcommonprepositionofall:OF.Thewordofdoesnotfitintotheprepositionfinder,soyoujusthavetorememberit.Sothen,ifyoucanrememberPrepositionFinderplusof,youcanaccountforabout98%oftheoccurrencesofprepositions.AprepositionisALWAYSfollowedbyanounorpronoun.
• Preposition+Noun=PrepositionalPhrase(insidethewardrobe,aftertheconcert,withfortitude)
ThatnouninthePrepositionalPhraseisknownastheObjectofthePreposition.TheObjectofthePrepositionmayhavemodifiers.(insidethebigwardrobe,insidethebigwardrobeinthespareroom).Thesemodifiersareconsideredtobepartoftheprepositionalphrase.Ifyouseea"preposition"thatisnotfollowedbyanounorpronoun,itisnotservingasapreposition;itisprobablyservingasanadverb.
• Thesquirrelranaroundthetree.(Inthissentence,aroundservesasapreposition,theheadoftheprepositionalphrase,aroundthetree.)
• Thesquirrelranaround.(Inthissentence,aroundservesasanadverbbecauseitisnotfollowedbyanoun.)
Thewordpreposition=pre(before)+position.It'ssittinginthepre-position,beforeanoun.A preposition always puts a noun in relationshipwith another noun, verb, adjective, oradverb.
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Theprepositionswelistedearlieralldescriberelationships:
SpatialRelationships
Above,Below,Behind,Between,Among,
etc.
TimeRelationships
Before,During,After,Since,etc.
LogicalRelationships
Except,Despite,Concerning,etc.
Relationshipof
owning/belonging/attachment
Of
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)
Prepositionalphraseshavetwofunctions:
1. Adjectivalfunction:tellingusWHICHONE,WHATKIND,orHOWMANYaboutanoun.
2. Adverbialfunction:tellingusHOW,WHERE,WHEN,WHY,orTOWHATEXTENT,aboutaverb(oranadjectiveoranotheradverb).
Anytimeyouseeaprepositionalphrase,youknowitwillansweroneofthosequestions.
A.Edmundsteppedinsidethewardrobe. Thephraseinsidethewardrobeis_______________________,answeringthequestion _______________________didEdmundstep?
B.Thefursinsidethewardrobeweresofttothetouch. Thephraseinsidethewardrobeis__________________________,answeringthequestion _________________________furs?[Answers:A.adverbial;where.B.adjectival,which.]MovabilityIsaCluetotheFunctionofaPrepositionalPhraseRemember,adverbialsmodifyingverbsarefreetomoveaboutthecabin,butadjectivalsandadverbialsmodifyingadjectivesoradverbsmustcomeimmediatelyafterthewordstheymodify.Sowhenyouaretryingtofigureoutwhatfunctionamodifierserves,it’sagoodideatostartbylookingatwhatisimmediatelybeforeit.
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Inyourownsentences,whenyourealizethatyoumeantforanadjectivaltomodifyagivennoun,andit’snotrightnexttothatnoun,you’veprobablygotsomeworktodo.Let'slookatanotherexample,thisonefromGrouchoMarx:
LastnightIshotanelephantinmypajamas.Howhegotintomypajamas,I'llneverknow.
A.Whatistheprepositionalphraseinthefirstsentence?_______________________________________.B.Whatfunctiondoestheprepositionalphraseserve?__________________________________________.[Answers:A.inmypajamas.B.youmighthaveansweredadverbialoradjectival.]Thelogicsuggeststhatthephraseisadverbial,describingHOWGrouchMarxshottheelephant.Butgrammaticallyspeaking,inmypajamascouldbeadjectival,tellingusWHICHelephant.Anditcomesimmediatelyafterelephant,theproperlocationforanadjectivephrasemodifyingelephant.Ontheotherhand,ifthephraseisadverbial,itcaneasilybeattheendofthesentence,farfromtheverbitmodifies.Onlywhenyoureadthesecondsentencedoyourealizethatthephraseinmypajamasisindeedadjectival,tellingushowtheelephantwasdressed.Humorisallaboutgoofylogic.Grammarreflectslogic.Soitshouldbenosurprisethatgoofygrammarisoftenthebasisofjokes.Whydoprepositionalphraseshaveabadreputation?Writersareoftentoldtogetridofprepositionalphrases,justastheyareoftentoldtogetridofto-beverbs.However,thisistreatingasymptomasifitweretheproblem.Considerthisexample:
Iamawareofyourneedfortransportation.Thisnot-so-greatsentencehastwoprepositionalphrases(ofyourneed,andfortransportation)thataccountformorethanhalfofthewordsinthesentence.Buttherealproblemhereisn'ttheprepositionalphrasesoreventheto-beverb(am).Theproblemthenominalization.Getridofthenominalizationandtheto-beverbandprepositionalphrasesgowithit.
Iknowyouneedtransportation.Or,Iknowyouneedacar.
Hereisanotherexample:BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen.
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What’sourprepositionalphrase?It'sbyKen.Kenistheactor;yetheistuckedawayastheobjectoftheprepositionattheveryendofthesentence.That’saproblem.Buttheprepositionalphraseisasymptom,nottheproblem.Fixthepassivevoice,andboththeprepositionalphraseandtheto-beverbgoaway:
KengaveBarbieflowers.Inbothofthosecases,nominalizationandpassivevoice,theprepositionalphraseisTECHNICALLYamodifier,butonlytechnically.It’snotactuallyaddingtothesentence.It'smakingthingslessconcrete,hardertoenvision.Asarealmodifier,aprepositionalphrasecanbeaverypowerfulandusefulconstruction.Thereisnoshameinaprepositionalphrase,butdon’tgocrazy.Youdon’twanttonestprepositionalphraseinsideprepositionalphraseinsideprepositionalphrase,eventhoughEnglishgrammarallowsforthat.Butremember:Englishgrammaralwaysgivesyouanotherwaytoskinacat.We’relookingatallthesedifferentkindsofmodifierssoyouwillhavemoreoptionsforexpressingyourselfwithclarityandstyle.
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Quiz2.5:PrepositionalPhrases(Part2)
I.Youcanhaveaturnafterme. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)II.Afterme,youcanhaveaturn. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
III.JohnBarberranintotheburningbuildingtosavehisBeanieBabycollection. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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IV.Acacophonyofbirdsonggreetedus. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
V.Themoneyunderthemattressismylifesavings. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
VI.Ihidthemoneyunderthemattress. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
VII.Abuzzingboxfansatonthefloornearby. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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VIII.HelenlookedatSadiewithastraightface. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
IX.Helenlookedatthegirlwiththemermaidtattoo. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
X.Helenlookedatthegirlwithbinoculars. 1.Istheprepositionalphraseadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson6:Participles
Whatdoyoucallitwhenyouchangeaverbtoanoun?_________________________________________.Whatdoyoucallitwhenyouchangeaverbtoamodifier?_____________________________________.[Answers:A.Nominalization.B.Aparticiple.]I'vesaidsomeprettynastythingsaboutnominalizationoverthepastlessons,buttheabilitytochangewordsfromonepartofspeechtoanotherisoneofthethingsthatgiveslanguageitstremendousflexibility.Let'slookathowtwoexamplesimprovewhenyouchangetheverbintoaparticiple:
Adogwasbarking.Hewokemeup.⤍Abarkingdogwokemeup. Thefiremanisrunning.Heneedstograbthehose.⤍Therunningfiremanneedsto grabthehose.Likeeveryotheradjectival,participlesanswerthequestionsWHICHONE?WHATKIND?
• Whichdog?Thebarkingdog.• Whichfireman?Therunningfireman.
Thesekindsofparticiplesthatendin-ingarepresentparticiples.Let'sconsidersomepastparticiples:Mashedpotatoes.Splitpeas.Brokenpromises.Enragedllamas.Raisedhands.Tornpaper.Apastparticiplelookslikethepasttenseformoftheverb.It'stechnicallythefourthprincipalpartofaverb.
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Thefourthprincipalpartistheformaverbtakesifyouputthehelpingverb"have"or"had"infrontofit:Italked/Ihavetalked.Iwalked/Ihavewalked.Ispent/Ihavespent.Forirregularverbs,thepasttenseandfourthprincipalpartaredifferent:Igave/Ihavegiven.Isang/Ihavesung.Iwent/Ihavegone.Pastparticipleshavealotincommonwithpassiveverbs:
• Thepotatoesweremashed.(passive)mashedpotatoes(pastparticiple)• Thepapergottorn.(passive)tornpaper(pastparticiple)
Bythesametoken,presentparticiples(theonesthatendin-ing)arebeingperformedbytheirsubject,sotheyareactive:
• Thebarkingdog• Therunningman
Thoughtheyaremodifiers,participlesretainsomeofthepropertiesofverbs.Mostimportantly,theycanbemodifiedbyadverbsandadverbials,andtheycantakedirectobjects.Aparticipletogetherwithamodifierand/oranobjectconstitutesaparticipialphrase.Participialphraseswillbethesubjectofthenextlesson.A.Participlesmodify________________________________________________________________________________.B.Aparticiplegoes__________________________________________________________________________________. [Answers:A.Nounsandonlynouns.B.Immediatelybeforethenounitmodifies.(Thereareexceptions,suchasIheardadogbarking.Butthey’reuncommon.)]Anytimeyouusetwowordsasaparticipletheyshouldbehyphenated.
Dog-earedpage Well-lovedgrammarinstructor
Oft-repeatedwritingadviceHowcanyoutellapastparticipleapartfromotherusesofthe4thprinciplepart?
1. Therewon'tbeahelpingverb(had,has,willhave)2. Aparticiplecan'thaveasubject
Youcantellapresentparticipleapartfromother-ingverbs(2ndprinciplepartverbs)inthesameway:
1. Noto-be/helpingverb2. Nosubject
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson7:ParticipialPhrasesBecausetheystartedoutlifeasverbs,participlesretainmanyofthepropertiesofverbs.Theycantakedirectandindirectobjects.Theycanbemodifiedbyadverbials.Whenyouaddanobjectoranadverbialtoaparticiple,itbecomesaparticipialphrase.Justlikeasimpleparticiple,theparticipialphraseonlyhasonejob:itmodifiesanoun.However,whereasasimpleparticiplealmostalwaysappearsbeforethenounitmodifies(asinmashedpotatoes),aparticipialphraseusuallyappearsafter:
Potatoesmashedwithmybarehands.Theparticipialphrasemashedwithmybarehandsisadjectival,tellinguswhatkindofpotatoes.ButWITHINthatadjectivalphrase,theprepositionalphrasewithmybarehandsisadverbial,modifyingmashed.Considerthissentence:
Atruckhaulingchickensalmostflattenedme.Here'sthediagram:
A.Whatistheparticipialphrase?_________________________________________________________________.B.Whatisthemainverbofthesentence?________________________________________________________.
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C.Whatisthesubjectofthesentence?____________________________________________________________.D.Whatisthedirectobjectofthesentence?______________________________________________________.E.Whatisthedirectobjectoftheparticiple,“hauling”?_________________________________________.[Answers:A.haulingchickens.B.flattened.C.truck.D.me.E.chickens.]NoticethattheDirectObjectoftheparticiple(intheaboveinstance,chickens)hasnorelationtotheDirectObjectofthemainclause(intheaboveinstance,me).TheImportanceofProximityWhenyouaddobjectsand/oradverbials,theparticiple—nowaparticipialphrase—movesfromthespotimmediatelyinfrontofthenountothespotimmediatelyafterthenoun.Butstill,it’simmediatelyadjacent.Iftheparticipialphrasestartsdriftingawayfromthenounitmodifies,badthingsstarthappening.Adjectivals,remember,aren’tverymovable.Theyneedtobeveryclosetothenounstheymodify.Itisnotunusualforaparticipialphrasetomovetothebeginningofaclause.Butifitdoes,ithastomodifythesubjectoftheclause.Why?Becausethesubjectisthefirstnoun,rightthereaftertheopeningphrase:
• Convincedthatherfriendswereouttogether,MargaretworeadisguisetoSundayschool.
• Screaminglikeabanshee,thejewelerranfromtheroom.Inbothoftheaboveexamples,theopeningparticipialphrasemodifiesthesubject(Margaretisconvincedthatherfriendsareouttogether,andthejewelerisscreaminglikeabanshee).DanglingModifiersYoumayhaveheardofdanglingmodifiers.Whenasentencebeginswithanadjectivalphrase,andthatphrasedoesn'tmodifythesubject,themodifierdangles.Considerthisexample:
Turningoffthemaindragandontooneofthesidestreets,theoceancameintoview.A.Whyisturningadanglingparticiple?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.B.Howcouldwefixit?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
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[Answers:A.Lookforthesubject:ocean.Buttheoceandidn'tturnoffthemaindragontoasidestreet.B.Changethemodifiersothatit'snotaparticipialphrase.Asweturnedoffthemaindragandontoasidestreet,theoceancameintoview.]Danglingmodifiersareoftenfunny:
Lockedinavaultforfiftyyears,theownerofthejewelsdecidedtosellthem.[Possibleedit:Thejewelerdecidedtosellthejewelsthathadbeenlockedinavaultforfiftyyears.]
Or,
Plunging1,000feetintothegorge,wesawYosemiteFalls.[Possibleedit:WesawYosemiteFallsplunging1,000feetintothegorge.]
Inreview,
• Aparticipleisaverbthathasbeenturnedintoanadjective.
• Aparticipialphraseisaparticipleplusadirectobject(rarelyanindirectobject)and/oradverbialmodifiers.
• Ifaparticipialphraseisatthebeginningofthesentence,itmustmodifythesubjectofthatsentence.
• Iftheparticipialphraseatthebeginningofthesentencedoesn'tmodifythegrammaticalsubject,it'scalledadanglingmodifier.
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Quiz2.7:ParticipialPhrases
I.Wipingtheteafromhishandlebarmustache,thesmileofthishusbandiswideenoughtodriveatractorthrough.Wipingtheteafromhishandlebarmustacheisadanglingparticiple.Why?Howwouldyoufixit?II.OnawarmOctobermorning,stillbreakfastingonthepatio,abirdswoopeddownandlandedontheirtable.Stillbreakfastingonthepatioisadanglingmodifier.Explainwhy.Howwouldyoufixit?III.AfterfivehoursofansweringalltheERnurses’questionsbutnotgettingclarityonanyofmine,thedoctorfinallyenteredtheroom.Thisisnot,technicallyspeaking,adanglingmodifier,butitisasimilarproblem:it’snotthedoctorwhohasbeenansweringthenurses’questions,butthepatient.Howwouldyoufixit?
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IV.Allofourtempera-paintingwasdoneinthebackyard,half-clothed.Theparticiplehalf-clotheddangles.Explainhowthepassivevoicecontributestotheproblem.Howwouldyoufixthissentence?V.Theforestdampeningtheinsects’choruslikestagecurtainsdeadeninganorchestra’stuningbeforeaconcert.Explainwhytheabove“sentence”isafragmentratherthanasentence.Turnitintoasentence.VI.Thedogfollowedhimeverywherehewent,alternatingbetweenasetofgrowls,yips,andbarks.Thatphrasealternatingbetweenasetofgrowls,yips,andbarksgetsalittleawkward.Tryreworkingthissentencebyturningthenounsgrowls,yips,andbarks,intoparticiples.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases
We'vebeentalkingabouthowthedifferentformsofaverbservedifferentfunctionsinasentence.Thosedifferentformsarecalledverbals.Therearethreekindsofverbals:PARTICIPLES
• Present(active)participlesendin-ing.• Past(passive)participlesendin-ed,-t,or-en.(4thprinciplepart).
GERUNDS
• We'lltalkaboutgerundsinthenextmodule.Theylookexactlylikepresentparticiples,butfunctionasnouns.
INFINITIVES
• Aninfinitiveisaverbthathastheword'to'infrontofit.Todrive.Tothink.Tobe.Tosmell.
To+verbistheformofaninfinitive,butwhatisitsfunction?Aparticipleisalwaysadjectival,andagerundisalwaysanounequivalent.Infinitives,however,canbeadjectival,adverbial,oranounequivalent.ThinkaboutthesongfromMaryPoppins,"ILovetoLaugh."Tolaughisaninfinitiveservingasadirectobject.Ilovewhat?Tolaugh.Sotheretheinfinitiveisanounequivalent.Howabouttheseexamples:
Ibroughtsomepopcorntoshare. Whatfunctiondoestoshareserve?It'samodifiertellingusWHATKINDof popcorn.Itisadjectival.
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DougMcKelveyisawritertowatch. Towatchisanadjective.Whatkindofwriter?Awritertowatch.
Iboughtthegarlictowardoffvampires. Towardoffisfunctioningadverbially.IttellsWHYIboughtthegarlic.Anotherwaytodistinguishadjectivalinfinitivesfromadverbialinfinitivesistoseewhetherornottheinfinitiveismoveable.Youcansay,Towardoffvampires,Iboughtthisgarlic.(Adverbial)Butyoucan'tsay,ToshareIbroughtthispopcorn.(Adjectival)A.Adjectivalinfinitivesalwaysappear____________________________________________________thenounstheymodify.B.Participlesusuallyappear____________________________thenounstheymodify.C.Participialphrasesusuallyappear___________________________________thenounstheymodify.[Answers:A.immediatelyafterB.beforeC.after(thoughitisnotunusualtoseethematthebeginningofaclause).]Onelastnoteonthesubjectofsplitinfinitives:Theruleagainstsplittinginfinitiveswasmadeupinthe18thcentury.Youcansplitaninfinitivewithanadverb(ie:tosecretlyeatsomecookiesor,toentirelydisregardthisarbitraryrule)ifyouwantto.Igenerallyavoidsplitinfinitivessoasnottodrawattentiontoapossiblegrammarerror.Tofixasplitinfinitive,simplymovetheadverb,asinfeelfreetodisregardentirelythisarbitraryrule.
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Quiz2.8:InfinitivesandInfinitivePhrases
I.Everyspring,blackbirdscometothemarshbesideourhousetonest.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)II.Myattemptstowinherlovewithtubasolosonlyannoyedher.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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III.Richieturnedtoleavequicklyashismompulledintothedriveway.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)IV.Thebestmushroomstoeatarethenon-poisonousones.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)V.Thetoweringcanopyblockedenoughsunlighttomaketheundergrowthsparse.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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VI.Alittlesoyandricevinegarisallyouneedtoseasonyourbroth.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)VII.I’dtradeitalltositatthebenchatthebendinthetrail.Identifytheinfinitiveorinfinitivephrase,andanswerthesethreequestionsaboutit: 1.Isitadjectivaloradverbial? 2.Whatworddoesitmodify? 3.Whatquestiondoesitanswer?(Whichone?Whatkind?Howmany?How?When? Where?Why?Towhatextent?)
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson9:SubordinateClauses(Introduction)
Itisfinallytimetoturnourattentiontosubordinate(alsoknownasdependent)clauses.Remember,everyclausehasaSUBJECTandaVERB.Itmayhaveotherparts,buttobeaclauseitmusthavethosetwoparts.
WhenIrememberthatyouwerethepersonwhogavememyfirstjob,IfeelsorrythatIcalledyouamonster.
Whatisthemainlineofthissentence?Ifeelsorry.(Subject,Verb,PredicateComplement.)Everythingelseinthesentencemodifiesthismainclause.Here'sadiagram:
Everythingbeforethecommainthissentenceispartofanadverbialclause,tellingusWHENthesubjectfeltsorry.Therearetwomoresubordinateclauseswithinit:thatyouwerethepersonandwhogavememyfirstjob.
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Thatyouwerethepersonisservingasadirectobjectforremember,soitisanounclause.ThisistheS-V-PredicateComplementclausepattern.WhogavememyfirstjobisanadjectivalclauseansweringthequestionWHICHperson.ThisistheS-V-IO-DOclausepattern.Whatisthedirectobject?Job.IndirectObject?Me.Thereisonemoresubordinateclauseinthesentence.Golookingforanotherverbandyouwillfindit.ThatIcalledyouamonster.Thisisanadverbialclause,modifyingsorry.IttellsWHYthesubjectissorry.Sointhisonesentence,we'veseensubordinateclausesfunctionasanadverb(HOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHY,TOWHATEXTENT),adjective(WHICHONE,WHATKIND,HOWMANY),andasanoun(asasubject,directobject,orobjectofthepreposition.)We'vealsoseenthatasubordinateclausecanconformtoanyofthefiveclausepatterns.HowSubordinateClausesandMainClausesDifferAmainclausecanstandalone,andasubordinateclausecan't.Theeasiestwaytotellthedifferenceistosayyouknowitwhenyouseeit.Ifeelsorryisawholesentence.WhenIremember,Thatyouwereaperson,Whogavememyfirstjob,andThatIcalledyouamonsterareallclauses,butnoneofthemcanstandalone.Usually,aclausecan'tstandalonebecauseitstartswitheitherarelativepronoun(suchasWHO)orasubordinatingconjunction(suchasTHAT).Subordinateclauseshelpyouincludealotofadditionalinformationaboutthemainactionofthesentenceandcangiveyouoptionsforexpressingideaswithdifferentshadesofmeaning.Subordinationisonewayofsignalingtoyourreaderwhichideasoractionsareprimary,andwhichonesarealittlelessimportant—or,literally,whichideasaredependentonotherideas.Oneideaistheindependentclause.Itcouldstandalonewithoutthoseotherclauses.Buttheotherclauses—thedependentclauses—alldependonthatmainclause.However,subordinateclausescomewithtwopotentialdangers:
1. Theycantemptyoutosticktoomuchinformationintooncesentence.2. Youcanaccidentallytuckawayimportantinformationintoasubordinateclausethat
maybedeservestobeasentenceallitsown.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson10:AdjectiveClauses
AfewyearsagoIwroteabookcalledTheCharlatan’sBoy.ForthechaptertitlesIwentbacktoaveryoldtradition.Everychaptertitlewasaclausebeginningwiththephrase“inwhich.”
• Chapter2:InwhichIgetoutofthefeechietradeandbeginmyformaleducation.• Chapter4:InwhichIfindamama.• Chapter6:InwhichIruinafeller'shairdoandnearboutgetsmashedforit.
A.Howdoweknowthesechaptertitlesareclauses?________________________________________________________________________________________________________.B.Aretheyadjectivaloradverbialclauses?________________________________________________________________________________________________________.[Answers:A.Theyeachhaveasubjectandaverb.B.Adjectival.TheytellusWHICHchapter.]AnadjectiveclausealwayssitsascloseaspossibleAFTERthenounitmodifies.Lookfortheadjectivalclauseinthesenextexamples:
Themanwhorepairedmytricycleturnedouttobeastate-championjuggler.whorepairedmytricycle
Thestonethatthebuildersrejectedhasbecomethechiefcornerstone.thatthebuildersrejected
ThepersontowhomIgivethissceptershallbemysuccessor.towhomIgivethisscepter
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ThetownwhereIgrewupistheporkrindcapitaloftheworld.whereIgrewupThegiantwhosecheeseyoujustateisgoingtowakeupanyminutenow.whosecheeseyoujustate
TheyearswhentheSummerOlympicsareheldarealsopresidentialelectionyears.whentheSummerOlympicsareheld
Whatpatternsdidyounoticeinthoseexamples?
• theadjectiveclausecomesimmediatelyafterthenounitmodifies• theystartwithrelativepronouns("W"words)
RelativePronounsTherelativepronounsusedbyadjectiveclausesare:
• WHO• WHOM• WHOSE• WHICH• THAT• WHERE• WHEN
Relativepronounsconnecttheadjectiveclausetothemainclause.Theantecedentoftherelativepronounisthenouninthemainclausethattheadjectiveclauseismodifying.(Antecedent=thenounrenamedbyapronoun)Inthissentence,therelativepronounWHOrenamesthenounMAN,andtheclauseintroducedbyWHOmodifiesthenounMAN:
Themanwhorepairedmytricyclewasastate-championjuggler.Inthissentencediagram,thedottedlinemakescleartherelationshipbetweenthenounMANinthemainclauseandtherelativepronounWHOintheadjectiveclause.YoucanalsoseethattherelativepronounWHOisthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause.
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Orconsiderthissentence:
Thestonethatthebuildersrejectedhasbecomethechiefcornerstone.TherelativepronouninthissentenceisTHAT.
Inthesubordinateclause,whatistheverb?Rejected.Whorejected?Thebuilders.Sobuildersisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause.Thebuildersrejectedwhat?Theyrejectedthestone,whichinthesubordinateclausehasbeenrenamedthat.Sothatisthedirectobjectoftheadjectiveclause.Thestrangethinghereisthatnormallythedirectobjectcomesaftertheverb:Subject-Verb-Object.Butinanadjectiveclausetherelativepronouncomesfirst,whetheritisthesubject,object,orsomethingelse.Therelativepronouncanalsoserveastheobjectofthepreposition:
ThepersontowhomIgivemysceptershallbemysuccessor.Whomistheobjectoftheprepositionto.Thisistheonecase,bytheway,wheretherelativepronounisNOTthefirstwordofanadjectiveclause.Ifitistheobjectofthepreposition,theprepositionhastocomefirst(pre+position).Hereareafewmoreexamples:
Thegiantwhosecheeseyoujustatewillwakeupsoon.TherelativepronounWHOSEisanadjectivemodifyingCHEESE.
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Whichcheese?Thegiant'scheese.Therelativepronounwhoseisanadjectivemodifyingcheese.Whichcheese?Thegiant'scheese.
ThetownwhereIgrewupistheporkrindcapitaloftheworld.TherelativepronounWHEREservesasanadverb,telling(obviously)WHERE.Nevertheless,thewholeclauseisadjectival,tellingWHICHtown.
TheyearswhentheSummerOlympicsareheldarealsopresidentialelectionyears.Thissentenceisverysimilartotheprevioussentence:WHEN,therelativepronounintroducingtheadjectiveclause,servesanadverbialfunctionwithinitsclause.
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Quiz2.10:AdjectiveClauses
I.IwillpointtothegoatthatIlikebest.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?II.ThepostofficewhereIgotmystartisjustaroundthecornerfromhere.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?
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III.ThealligatoraboutwhichItoldyouisbackagain.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?IV.ThealligatorItoldyouaboutisbackagain.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?
V.Youwouldliketheplumberwhoinstalledouricemachine.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?VI.TheguywhosecarItotaledseemsannoyedwithme.Identifytheadjectiveclauseandanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatnoundoestheadjectiveclausemodify?2. Whatgrammaticalfunction(subject,directobject,objectofpreposition,adjective,
adverb,etc.)doestherelativepronounservewithintheadjectiveclause?
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson11:AdverbClauses
Adverbialclausesstartwithsubordinatingconjunctions.Theseconjunctionsarecalledsubordinatingbecausewhentheysitinfrontofaclausethatisotherwiseindependent,theclause,asifbymagic,isrendereddependentorsubordinate.Themainclauseistransformedintoanadverbialclause.Here'samainclause:
Antonioeatssushi.Thisclausecanstandalone.Itisaperfectlygoodsentence.Butifyouputthesubordinatingconjunctionwheninfrontofit,itsuddenlybecomesasubordinate(ordependent)clause:
WhenAntonioeatssushiThisclausecannotstandaloneasasentence.Youneedtoattachittoanindependentclausebeforeyouturnitlooseinthewild:
WhenAntonioeatssushi,hefeelssophisticated.HereisapartiallistofsubordinatingclausesinEnglish:
After ThanAlthough ThatAs ThoughAsif UnlessBecause UntilBefore WhenIf WheneverInorderthat WhereLest WhereverSince WhetherSothat While
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Youdon'tneedtobotherwithmemorizingthislist.Evenifyoudid,youwouldonlybememorizingapartiallist.Butgraspthisidea:Youcantakeanyindependentclausethathaseverbeenwritten,stickoneofthesewordsinfrontofit,andthatindependentclauseisnowanadverbialclausetellingHOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHY,orTOWHATEXTENT.Itusedtofunctionasasentence,butnowitisanadverb.CoordinationandSubordinationRememberthecoordinatingconjunctions:for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so.Whenyouuseacoordinatingconjunctiontoconnecttwoclausesintoacompoundsentence,youcommunicatetoyourreaderthatthetwoclausesareofequalweightandimportance.
IwantedVietnamesefood,butChuckywantedahotdog.
Thedogswaminthecanal,andthealligatorlurkednearby.
Youcancleanupyourroom,oryoucanforgetaboutgoingtothemoviestonight.Thecoordinatingconjunctionsbalancetwoactionsorideas,creatingacompoundsentence.Subordinatingconjunctionscreatemorecomplexrelationshipsbetweenactionsorideas—ahierarchy,acause-and-effect,atimesequence,aspatialrelationship,acontrast.
Whilethedogswaminthecanal,analligatorlurkednearby.
Becausethedogswamincanal,thealligatorlurkednearby.
Wheneverthedogswaminthecanal,thealligatorlurkednearby.Eachofthoseexamplesgivemoreweighttothesecondidea,makingitthemainclauseofthesentence.Butmaybewewanttomakethefirstclausetheindependentone:
Thedogswaminthecanalthoughthealligatorlurkednearby.
Thedogswaminthecanalunlessthealligatorlurkednearby.Thoseadverbialclausesnuancetowhatwasabalancedcompoundsentence.InthelastlessonyousawthattherelativepronounatthebeginningofanadjectiveclausehasagrammaticalfunctionwithinthesubordinateclauseANDithasapronoun-antecedentrelationshipwithanouninthemainclause.Thatrelativepronounstraddlesbothclauses.ThesubordinateconjunctionhasagrammaticalfunctioninNEITHERthesubordinateclausenorthemainclause.Likeacoordinatingconjunction,asubordinatingconjunctionconnectstwoclauseswithoutparticipatinginthegrammarofeitherone.
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• Whenyoudiagramacompoundsentence(twoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunction),thecoordinatingconjunctionsitsonadottedlinebetweenthetwoindependentclauses.
• Whenyoudiagramacomplexsentencewithanadverbialclause,thesubordinatingconjunctionalsositsonadottedlinebetweenthetwoclauses.
• Inacomplexsentencewithanadjectivalclause,therelativepronoun,you'llremember,hastohaveanantecedentonthemainclauseANDitplaysagrammaticalroleinthesubordinateclause.
Asyoucanseefromthediagramsbelow,insignificantwaysacomplexsentencewithanadverbialclausehasmoreincommonwithacompoundsentencethanwithacomplexsentencewithanadjectiveclause.Thisisacompoundsentence:
Thedogswaminthecanal,andthealligatorswamnearby.Thisisacomplexsentencewithanadverbialphrase:
Thedogswaminthecanalthoughthealligatorlurkednearby.
Noticehowsimilarthisdiagramlookstothediagramofthecompoundsentence;theonlydifferenceisthedifferentconjunction.
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Thisisacomplexsentencewithanadjectiveclause:
Thealligatorthatlurkedintheweedswatchedthedogswimminginthecanal.
Therelativepronouninthissentencefunctionsverydifferentlyfromthesubordinatingconjunctioninthesentencebeforeit.Likealladverbs,adverbialclausesaremoveablewhentheymodifyaverb.Ifyouputyouradverbialclauseatthebeginningofthesentence,youneedacommabeforethemainclausestarts.Also,anadverbialclausecanmodifyanadjectiveoranadverb,though,aswithotheradverbialsmodifyingadjectivesandadverbs,itisnotmoveable.ConsiderthesentenceAreyousurethatthisisallowed?Theclausethatthisisallowedisadverbial,modifyingsure.
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Let'sreview.A.Anadverbialclauselooksjustlikeanindependentclause,exceptthatithasa___________________________________________________________________________atthebeginning.B.Unliketherelativepronouninanadjectiveclause,thissubordinatingconjunction__________________________________serveagrammaticalfunctionwithintheclause.C.Theadverbialclausealwaysanswersoneoftheadverbquestions:__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.D.Ifyouradverbialclausemodifiesaverb,itis________________________________________.[Answers:A.Subordinatingconjunction.B.doesnot.C.HOW,WHERE,WHEN,WHY,TOWHATEXTENT.D.moveable.]
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Quiz2.11:AdverbClauses
I.AfterJohnBarbershowedup,thepartywasprettylame.1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
II.Thepartywasn'tthesameafterJohnBarbershowedup.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
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III.Afterthatpoint,Ididn'tofferanyinformationunlesssomeoneaskedforit.1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
IV.Hewasclosertovictorythanhecouldhaveknown.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
V.Slugsleaveatrailofslimeeverywheretheygo.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
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VI.Linda'seyesburnedwithtearsofgratitudeasAntoniobroughtthebananapuddingintothediningroom.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
VII.Asthecashiertookherplacebehindthecounter.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
VIII.IamasangryasIhaveeverbeen.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
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IX.WhenIwasfourteen,aftermymotherdiedandmyfatherranoff,mygrandmothersentmetoliveinagrouphomenearTallahassee.
1. Identifytheadverbialclause(therecouldbemorethanone).2. Tellwhatquestiontheclauseanswers(how,when,where,why,towhatextent)3. Tellwhattheclausemodifies.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson12:MoreonSubordinateClauses
Therearestillafewtopicsrelatedtosubordinateclausesthatwehavenotcovered.Wewillgatherthemintothislesson,grab-bagstyle.Thatv.WhoandWhomBeawareoftheantecedentofyourrelativepronoun.(Remember,theantecedentisthenounOUTSIDEthesubordinateclausethattherelativepronounrenames.)Iftheantecedentisahumanbeing,useWHOorWHOM,notTHAT.IftheantecedentisNOTahumanbeing,useTHAT.
ThebookTHATwasonthetopshelffellonmyhead.YouwouldNOTsay
MarthaisthewomanthatIlove.
YouWOULDsay
MarthaisthewomanwhomIlove.OmittingtheRelativePronounWhentherelativepronounservesastheDirectObjectinthesubordinateclauseitintroduces,itisverycommonandveryacceptabletoOMITit.Youcansay
ThestoneTHATthebuildersrejected,
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oryoucanomittherelativepronounandsayThestonethebuildersrejected.
Eitherisacceptable.Bythesametoken,youcaneithersay
MarthaisthewomanwhomIlove,
oryoucansay
MarthaisthewomanIlove.
ThistechniqueofomittingtherelativepronounhastheaddedbenefitofkeepingyoufromhavingtodecidewhetherTHAT,WHO,orWHOMisright.WhoandWhomWhendoyousayWHO,andwhendoyousayWHOM?Thisisapointofgrammarthatalotofpeoplehavetroublewith.Tounderstandthisissue,wehavetostartwiththenominativeandobjectivecasesofpronouns.Everypersonalpronounhasanominativeandanobjectivecase:
NominativeCase: ObjectiveCaseI MeYou YouHe/She/It Him/Her/It We UsYou YouThey Them
Whenapronounisusedasasubjectorapredicatenominative,youusethenominativecase.
Hecalledthepolice.Wecalledthepolice.Theycalledthepolice.(Subject)Whenapronounisusedasanobject(directobject,indirectobject,orobjectofpreposition),youusetheobjectivecase.
Thepolicecalledhim.Thepolicecalledus.Thepolicecalledthem.(DirectObject)Thepolicegavehimacall.Thepolicegavethemacall.(IndirectObject)Thepolicehadnobusinesswithhim.Thepolicehadnobusinesswithus.(ObjectofPreposition)
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Peoplealmostnevergetthiswrongonthemainline,exceptfortwosituations:
1. Itiscommonforpeopletousetheobjectivecaseforpredicatenominatives—thatis,tosayThisishim(objectivecase)insteadofThisishe(nominativecase).
2. Itisalsocommonforpeopletousethewrongcaseincompounds.TheyoftensaythingslikeCindyandmearecoming(theobjectivecaseusedinthesubjectspot)whentheyshouldusethenominativecase,CindyandIarecoming.OrtheymightsayWendyinvitedCindyandI(nominativecaseinanobjectspot)whentheyshouldsayWendyinvitedCindyandme.
There’saneasyruleofthumbhere.Beforeyousettleonapronouninthiskindofcompoundconstruction,trythepronounwithouttheothernoun.YouwouldneversayMeamcoming,soyouknownottosayCindyandmearecoming.Bythesametoken,youwouldneversayWendyinvitedI,soyouknownottosayWendyinvitedCindyandI.Therelativepronounwho/whomalsohasanominativeandobjectivecase.
Nominative ObjectiveCaseWho Whom
Tousetherightformoftherelativepronoun,figureoutwhatgrammaticalfunctionitserveswithinthesubordinateclauseandchooseaccordingly.Ifitisthesubjectorpredicatenominativewithinthesubordinateclause,usethenominative-casewho.Ifitisanobjectwithinthesubordinateclause,usetheobjective-casewhom.Considerthissentence:
• Isawaguywho/whomlookslikeaparrot.Whichiscorrect?Whoorwhom?Sincetherelativepronounisthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause,whoiscorrect.Hereisadiagram:
Youmaynoticethatguy,theantecedentofwho,isthedirectobjectofthemainclause.Thathasnothingtodowiththecaseofwho/whom.Allyoucareaboutisthepronoun'sfunctioninthesubordinateclause.
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Orconsiderthissentence:
• Thatguywho/whomyoulikestoppedbytoday.Whoorwhom?Withinthesubordinateclause,therelativepronounisthedirectobject.Sowhomisthecorrectchoice.
Again,ignorethemainclausewhendecidingwhichrelativepronountouse.Thewho/whompronounrenamesguy,thesubjectofthemainclause.Butwithinitsownclauseit'sadirectobject.Ifit'ssoeasytogetthecaserightforpersonalpronounsinthemainclause,whyisithardtogetthecaserightforarelativepronouninasubordinateclause?BecauseEnglishisanSVOlanguage:werelyheavilyonwordordertoknowwhetherawordisasubjectoranobject.Butinasubordinateclause,wordorderisnohelp.Nomatterwhatgrammaticalfunctionitserves,therelativepronounalwayscomesatthebeginningofitssubordinateclause.EllipticalClausesAnellipticalclauseisaclauseinwhichwordsaremissing.Anellipsisisthethree-dotpunctuationmark(...)thatshowswhenwordshavebeenomitted,sothatshouldhelpyourememberwhatanellipticalclauseis.Lookatthissentencewithanadverbialclausemodifyingtheadjectivefaster:
WendellranfasterthanIdid.ThanIdidisanadverbialclausemodifyingfaster(ittellstowhatextent).Thisiswhatwecallanellipticalclause.Itismissingpartoftheverb:itisashortenedversionofthemorecompleteclauseWendellranfasterthanIdidrun.Often,however,anellipticalclausewillleaveouttheWHOLEverb:
WendellranfasterthanI.Theverbisomitted,butthepronounIisstillasubject.Thisexplainswhypeoplewhoarebeingextra-propersayYouareuglierthanIinsteadofYouareuglierthanme.OrLindais
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tallerthansheinsteadofLindaistallerthanher.Thosefinalpronouns(I,she)arethesubjectsofellipticalclauses,sotheyareinthenominativecase.Why,then,doesitfeelmorenaturaltousetheobjectiveforms,meandher?Ithinkit’sbecausewithouttheverb,thanfeelslikeapreposition,sothepronounfeelsmoreliketheobjectofaprepositionthanthesubjectofaclause.Andyoualreadyknowthattheobjectofaprepositionshouldbeintheobjectivecase.So,Lindaistallerthanherisincorrectusage.Butitisnotillogical.Peoplemakethismistakebecausetheyarerelyingonlogic.Indeed,mostgrammarerrorsaretheresultofapersonbeingTOOlogical:theyareapplyinglogicinsteadofapplyingtheexceptiontothelogicinoneparticularcase.Atoddlersays“mouses”insteadof“mice”becausehefullyunderstandsandappliesthelogicbywhichwenormallyformthepluralinEnglish.Hejusthasn’tlearnedthatinthecaseofmouseandmice,youhavetothrowoutlogicanddosomethingelse.Whydopeoplemakethemistakeofusingtheapostrophetoformthepossessiveits?BecauseforeveryotherwordintheEnglishlanguage,youuseanapostrophetoformthepossessive.Itisaperfectlylogicalmistake.So,ifyouareoneofthosepeoplewhotakespleasureinbeatinguponotherpeoplewhentheywriteit'swhentheymeanits,besureyouunderstandthatyouarebeatingthemupforbeingtoological.True,it’sausageerror.Andyes,thepersonwhomakesthaterrorisn’tinthegrammarclub.Butnotbeingintheclubisn’tthesamethingasbeingstupid.
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Quiz2.12:MoreonSubordinateClauses
I.Heshowedhiscardtoanyone(who/whom/that)asked.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatII.PeanutMontgomery,thefriend(who/whom/that)GeorgeJoneshadinsulted,waswillingtoforgive.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatIII.People(who/whom/that)knewJimCarrolloftenremarkedonhisgenerosity.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.thatIV.People(who/whom/that)JohnBarberknowsoftentrytoavoidhim.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom C.that
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V.Iamheof(who/whom)youspeak.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.who B.whom VI.Cindyand(I/me)chasedapanther.Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.I B.meVII.ApantherchasedCindyand(I/me).Choosethecorrectpronoun. A.I B.meVIII.Whyisittechnicallypropertosay,“Iamtallerthanhe?”IX.Whyarepeoplelikelytosay,"Iamtallerthanhim?"
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson13:MisplacedModifiers
Welookedatdanglingmodifiersafewlessonsago.Weshouldprobablylookatmisplacedmodifiersbeforewewrapupourunitonmodifiers.Amisplacedmodifierissimplyamodifierthathasdriftedtoofarfromtheworditmodifies.Theconsequenceisthatitusuallyendsuplookinglikeitmodifiessomeotherword.
TwocarswerereportedstolenbytheMaconPoliceyesterday.ContexttellsusthattheMaconpoliceprobablyhaven'tbecomearingofcarthieves.Butthegrammarallowsforthatpossibility.ThephrasebytheMaconPoliceisanadverbialprepositionalphrase.ItanswersthequestionHOWaboutaverb.Buttherearetwoverbalsinthissentence(werereportedandstolen).Yourreadingbrainexpecttheadverbialphrasetomodifythenearestverb.Eventhoughadverbialsaremoveable,youcan'tmovethemtoaspotwherethey'reclosertoanotherverbthantheoneyouintendedthemtomodify.Therealproblemhereisthepassivevoice.Fixthepassivevoicesandthemodifierisfixedtoo.
TheMaconPolicereportedtwocarsstolenyesterday.HereisanexampleI'veseenonacoupleofgrammarwebsites:
YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilledinaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters.
JohnLennon,ofcourse,wasnotkilledinaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters.Inthissentence,twoadverbialprepositionalphrasesaresupposedtomodifythesameverb:
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• YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusbandJohnLennon.• YokoOnowilltalkinaninterviewtheBarbaraWalters.
Butinthemiddleofthatthewriterhasaddedanadjectivalclause,whowaskilled,tomodifyJohnLennon.Thesecondadverbial(inaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters)isclosertotheverbwaskilledthantotheverbwilltalk.Youcouldfixthesentencethisway:
InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilled.
Butnowthesentencefallsalittleflat,doesn'tit?Grammarisneverjustgrammar.Cleargrammarhelpsyouseemoreclearlywhatishappeninginyoursentence.Thecorrectedsentenceabovemightmakeyousay,"Waitaminute,that'snotasinterestingasIthoughtitwouldbe."Nowyouhaveachancetocorrectitagain.
InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon,whowaskilledbyamentallyunstablefan.
or
InaninterviewwithBarbaraWalters,YokoOnowilltalkaboutherhusband,JohnLennon.JohnLennonwasonlyfortyyearsoldwhenhewasassassinatedoutsidehisNewYorkCityhomebyamentallyunstablefan.
Cleargrammar,goodverbs,andconcretenounsexposeyouandholdyouaccountable.Ittakescouragetowriteclearly.
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Quiz2.13:MisplacedModifiers
I.Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatmebecauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.II.Fromtheagesoftwelvetoeighteen,halfofmyweekendswerespentatRandall’shousemakingmovies.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.III.Nearweightless,youcannotfeelthemicrochiprestinginyourpalmifyoucloseyoureyes.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.
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IV.Mikelookedathiseldestsonwithahardface.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.V.Weclearedawaywebsdrippingwiththemorningmistfromthelogbridgeswecrossed.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.VI.BornwithGermanbonesandraisedalongsideapuppyfrolickinginanovergrownpasture,oftencrawlingalongacreekbedtocatchtadpoles,balletmademefeelmorelovelyanddaintythananything.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.VII.MyfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxImadein2004ofheroldjewelrytohanginherbathroom.Thissentencehasatleastonemisplacedordanglingmodifier.Rewriteforclarity.Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofsplittingasentenceintomorethanonesentence.
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LectureNotes
Module2,Lesson14:Review
We'vebeenprettytechnicalinthemoduleandspentalotoftimecorrectingotherpeople'ssentences.Butthisisn'tapuregrammarclass.ThisisaGrammarforWritersclass.I'mnottryingtomakeyouabettergrammarNazi.Allofthisgrammartalkisintendedtomakeyouabetterwriter.Writingisproblem-solving.Themoretoolsyouhaveinyourtoolbox,thebetteryou'reequippedtosolveagivenproblem.Thehead-spinningcomplexityofprepositionalphrasesandparticiplesandinfinitivesandadjectiveclausesandsoforthiswhatmakeslanguagesoflexible.Lookatthissentence:
Pleasetaketimetolookoverthebrochurethatisenclosedwithyourfamily.Nowthatyou'reagrammargenius,youknowthattheadverbialprepositionalphrasewithyourfamilyisamisplacedmodifier.Itshouldmodifytheverblookover,butit'sclosertoisenclosed.Isenclosedisanadjectiveclause,butyoucouldfixthesentencebymakingitaparticiple.
Pleasetaketimetolookovertheenclosedbrochurewithyourfamily.Ofcourse,youcouldprobablyfeelyourwaytomanyofthesesolutionswithoutknowingthetechnicalnamesforthem.ButknowingtheterminologyandunderstandingtherelationshipsgivesmealotofconfidenceasIapproachawritingproblem.Thebiggesttake-awayfromModule1was:Everytimeyouwriteasentence,knowwheretherealactionis.Writeinsuchawaythattheactionisexpressedasaverbandtheactoristhesubjectoftheverb.
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Thebiggesttake-awayfromModule2is:Knowwhatissupposedtomodifywhatinyoursentencesandbesurethatit’sobvioustoyourreaderaswell.Foradjectivals,thatmeanstheadjectivalneedstobeascloseaspossibletothenounitmodifies.Foradverbials,thoughtheyaremoveableanddon'thavetoberightnexttotheverbtheymodify,domakesurethereisn'tanotherverbsneakingbetweenthemandinterceptingthemodifier.Modificationmakesiteasytocramalotofinformationintoonesentence.Thiscanbeagoodthing,anditcanbeabadthing.You'llseewritingadvicesaying,"cutdownonsubordinateclausesandprepositionalphrases"or"simplify!"Cuttingdownwillsimplifyyourprose,buthere'sthesecretaboutsimplicityandcomplexity:Yourreaderisn'taskingforsimplisticwriting.Yourreaderdoesn'talwaysneedshortsentences.Yourreadercanhandlecomplexity.Whatyourreaderreallywantsistofeelconfidentthathecangetfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.HewantstoknowWHODIDWHAT.Soaddallthemodificationyouwant.Alotofcolorandlifecomestoyourstorythroughmodifiers.Butmakesureyourmodifiersdon'timpedeyourreader'sprogressfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.Inthenextmodule,we'lltacklenounequivalents:nounclauses,gerunds,andinfinitivesservingasnouns.
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson1:Introduction
Inourexamplessofar,we'vetalkedalmostexclusivelyaboutconcretenouns:raccoon,tricycle,Cindy,Wendell,etc.Concretenounsdescribethingsyoucanseewithyoureyeballs,hearwithyourears,andtouchwithyourhands.Abstractnounsdescribeideas:liberty,equality,fraternity,sanctification,justification,anger,love,etc.Usingfewerabstractnounsandmoreconcretenounsgivesyourreadersomethingtolookat.Insteadoftellingyourreaderthatthedishwasherrepairmanwasfullofanger,pictureanangrydishwasherrepairman.Giveyourreadertheexperienceofseeingandlisteningtohim.Thereadercancometotheconclusionthathe'sangryonhisown."Hmm,thatdishwasherrepairmanturnedredinthefaceanddumpedallhisappliancerepairtoolsonthegroundandcussedabluestreak...hemustbeangry."Remember,yourreaderisalwayslookingtoknowWHODIDWHAT,andthatstoryiseasiertograspwhentheWHOissomethinghecanperceivewithhissenses.Sometimes,abstractionisexactlywhatyouneed.But,everyproblematicconstructionintheEnglishlanguageexistsbecausetherearesituationsinwhichit'snotaproblem.It'sexactlywhatyouneed.Sometimeswe'renottalkingaboutraccoonsandtricycles.Sometimeswe'retalkingaboutabstractideasandconcepts.Forexample,you'vebeenlisteningtometalkforhoursaboutclausesandphrases,subjects,verbs,anddirectobjects.Sobeasconcreteasyoucan,butsometimesyoucan'tbeconcrete.Oneofthethingsthatsetshumanbeingsapartfromanimalsandgrown-upsapart
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fromtoddlersisthatweareabletohandleabstractthought.Democracy.Supply-sideeconomics.Faith,hope,andlove.Here'ssomethingreallyinterestingaboutabstractnouns:Wheneveryouchangeanotherpartofspeechintoanoun,thatnounwillalwaysbeanabstraction.Tofertilizebecomesfertilization.Reactbecomesreaction.Bluebecomesblueness.Decrepitbecomesdecrepitude.Now,Englishgrammardoesn'tcarewhetheryournounsareabstractorconcrete.Grammatically,IamafraidofbearsisexactlythesameasIamafraidofdecrepitude.TheraccoonrattledthetrashcanandDemocracyrattledthetrashcanarebothcorrect.(Thoughthatsecondonedoesn'tmakeawholelotofsense.)Grammardoesn'tcarewhatnoungoesinthesubjectspot,itjusthastobeanounoranounequivalent.Nounequivalentsarethesubjectofthisshortmodule.Wearegoingtobelookingatphrasesandclausesthatfunctionasnounsinotherphrasesandclauses.Lookatthesimilaritiesintheseexamples:
Iamafraidofbears.Bears=concretenoun
Iamafraidofdecrepitude.Decrepitude=abstractnoun
Iamafraidofwhoeverhasbeenbreakingintocarsatnight.Whoeverhasbeenbreakingintocars=nounclause
Intheaboveexamples,bears,decrepitude,andwhoeverhasbeenbreakingintocarsatnightallfitequallywellintothatObjectofthePreposition(of)spot.Grammardoesn'tcare.Ifit'sanounoranounequivalent,it'swelcometodoanynounjobitwantstovolunteerfor:SubjectDirectObjectIndirectObjectPredicateComplementObjectiveComplementObjectofthePrepositionAppositive
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Sowhilenounclausesandgerundsandinfinitivesmakeformorecomplicatedsentences,therearestillonlyfiveclausepatterns:1.Subject-Verb2.Subject-Verb-DirectObject3.Subject-Verb-IndirectObject-DirectObject4.Subject-Verb-DirectObject-ObjectiveComplement5.Subject-LinkingVerb-PredicateComplementYouroldSubjectFinder,DirectObjectFinder,andIndirectObjectFinderstillworkthesamewayaswell.Forinstance:Iwillfindwhoeverhasbeengoingaroundatnightandbreakingintocars.Iwillfindwhat?Whoeverhasbeengoingaroundatnightandbreakingintocars.
Allofthenounequivalentswe'rediscussinginthisunitarerepresentedbythatlittlestandyouseethereintheDirectObjectspot.Aswelaunchintonounequivalents,thingswillgetprettycomplicated.Englishgrammarallowsfortremendouscomplexity.Theonlyreasonwecanmakesenseofthatcomplexityisthatcertainstructuresaresimpleandrigid.Nothinghaschangedaboutprepositionalphrasesorparticipialphrases.Ifyoufindyourselfscratchingyourhead,rememberthattherearestillonlyfiveclausepatterns.
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson2:NounClauses
Whenweapproachagrammaticalconstruction,wealwayshavetopayattentiontowhatit'smadeof(form)andwhatitdoes(function.)Inform,anounclauselookslikeanadjectiveclause.Considerthesubordinateclause,Whosewoodstheseare.Isthisanadjectiveclauseoranounclause?Itcan'tstandonitsown,sowehavetoattachittoamainclausetofindout:
Thefarmerwhosewoodstheseareprobablywouldn'tmindifwecampedhere.Therelativepronounwhosereferstothefarmerinthemainclause,sothisisanadjectiveclause.Butwhataboutinanother,veryfamous,sentencefromRobertFrost?
WhosewoodstheseareIthinkIknow.Forclarity'ssake,let’sputthissentenceinamorenormalorder:IthinkIknowwhosewoodstheseare.Whatistheclausedoing?It'snotreferringbacktoanything.It'sservingasthedirectobject.Iknowwhat?Iknowwhosewoodstheseare.Whoseisstillanadjectivemodifyingwoods,butitdoesn'treachouttothemainclausebecauseit'sPARTofthemainclause.1.Justlikeanadjectiveclause,anounclausealwaysstartswitha________________________________________.
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2.Thesesixrelativepronounssignaladjectiveclauses:_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________,_______________.[Answers:1.Relativepronoun2.WHO,WHOM,WHICH,WHEN,WHERE,THAT]Anounclausecanbeintroducedbythoseplusafewmore:WHAT,WHATEVER,WHOEVER,WHOMEVER,WHICHEVERSoanytimeyouseeoneofthosefiverelativepronounsatthebeginningofaclause,youknowyouarelookingatanounclause.Nounclausescandoanythingregularnounscando,buttheyareusuallysubjects,directobjects,predicatecomplements,andobjectsofprepositions.Considerthenounclausewhoeverbroughtthispieinthefollowingfourexamples:A.WHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIEismynewbestfriend.SUBJECTB.MynewbestfriendisWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.PREDICATECOMPLEMENTC.IwanttohugWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.DIRECTOBJECTD.IwanttogiveahugtoWHOEVERBROUGHTTHISPIE.OBJECTOFAPREPOSITIONNoticethatinthoselasttwoexamples—inwhichthenounclauseservesasadirectobjectandasanobjectofapreposition—weusewhoever,notwhomever.Thatis,weusethenominativecase,nottheobjectivecase.Whyisthat?Becausewithintheclausewherewhoeverlives,it’sthesubject.Soitdoesn’tmatterthatthenounclauseservesasanobject.Bythesametoken,inthesentenceWHOMEVERYOUCHOOSEisfinewithme,wesaywhomeverbecausetherelativepronounisthedirectobjectofthenounclause.Itmakesnodifferencethatthenounclauseisthesubjectofthesentence.Remember,inanounclausetherelativepronoundoesn'thaveanantecedent.It'snotmodifyinganything.OnequickthingaboutthewordTHAT:sometimesTHATdoesn'tserveagrammaticalpurpose.
Marthasaidthatshewasterrifiedoflemurs.Marthasaidshewasterrifiedoflemurs.
Thenounclausethatshewasterrifiedoflemursservesasthedirectobject.Butthatplaysnoroleintheclause.Itsimplyalertsthereader,"Hey,you'reabouttoseeanounclause."Thesentenceisfinewithoutit.Keepingitisreallyamatterofpreferenceandrhythm.Spendsometimeonthequizforthislesson.ItcoversafewvariationsIcouldn'tgettointhelesson.
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Quiz3.2A:NounClauses
Note:Someofthesesentenceshaveothersubordinateclausesinadditiontothenounclause.You'vebeenwarned!I.Whichevertableyoupickisfinewithme. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?II.Iamfinewithwhichevertableyoupick. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?
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III.IquicklylearnedthatGeorgehadhisownagenda. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?IV.IthoughtIwasbeinggenerouswhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdog. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?V.Youshouldsendathank-younotetowhoeverinterviewedyou. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?
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VI.Youshouldsendwhoeverinterviewedyouathank-younote. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?VII.WhomevertheyappointwillonlyserveuntilthespecialelectioninAugust. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?VIII.WhoeverisappointedwillonlyserveuntilthespecialelectioninAugust. A.Whatisthenounclause? B.Whatfunctiondoesthenounclauseserveinthesentence(subject,directobject, indirectobject,predicatecomplement,objectivecomplement,orobjectofthe preposition)?
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Quiz3.2B:NounClauses
Youhavenowstudiedallthevarietiesofdependentclauses:adjectiveclauses,adverbclauses,andnounclauses.Thisquizwillputthemalltogether.Foreachofthefollowingsentences,identifythehighlightedclauseasanadjectiveclause,anadverbclause,anounclause,oramainclause.I.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair.
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
II.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair. A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
III.Asshewalksuptothecounter,Marthapatsherhairnet,whichstillcovershertightly-woundbunofgrayhair.
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
IV.Thetravelerseeswhathesees;thetouristseeswhathehascometosee.(G.K.Chesterton) A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
V.GodcannotgiveusahappinessandpeaceapartfromHimself,becauseitisnotthere.Thereisnosuchthing.(C.S.Lewis)
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
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VI.There'smanyabestsellerthatcouldhavebeenpreventedbyagoodteacher.(FlanneryO'Connor)
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
VII.ThelasttimeIencounteredsuchasmellwaswhenItouredacoleslawfactory.
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
VIII.ThelasttimeIencounteredsuchasmellwaswhenItouredacoleslawfactory. A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
IX.Shelookedatniceyoungmenasifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.(FlanneryO'Connor) A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
X.Shelookedatniceyoungmenasifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.(FlanneryO'Connor)
A.AdjectiveClause B.AdverbClause
C.NounClause D.MainClause
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson3:GerundsandInfinitives
InfinitivesandGerundsarebothverbals—verbformsthatfunctionassomethingbesidesverbs.Everyverbyoucanthinkofhasbothagerundformandaninfinitiveform.Gerundsfunctionasnouns.InfinitivesCANfunctionasnouns.(WealreadycoveredadverbialandadjectivalinfinitivesinModule2.)Thegerundform=theSecondPrincipalPart(the-ingform)Theinfinitiveform=thewordto+theverb1.Thegerundformofswimis______________________________________________________________________.2.Theinfinitiveformofswimis____________________________________________________________________.3.Thegerundformofsnorkelis___________________________________________________________________.4.Theinfinitiveformofshuttleis__________________________________________________________________.[Answers:1.Swimming,2.Toswim,3.Snorkeling,4.Toshuttle]You'llnoticethatthegerundformlooksjustlikeapresentparticiple,whichalsolooksjustliketheformoftheverbusedintheprogressivetenses(wasswimming,isswimming,willbeswimming).You'llalsonoticethattheinfinitivefunctioningasanounlooksexactlyliketheinfinitivefunctioningasanadjectiveoradverb.Sohowdoyoutellthemallapart?Yourecognizeitsfunction.IfitanswersWHICHONEorWHATKINDaboutanoun,it’sanadjectivalmodifier.
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IfitanswersHOW,WHEN,WHERE,WHYorTOWHATEXTENTaboutaverb,anadjective,oranadverb,itisanadverbialmodifier.Otherwise,startlookingtoseeifitservesoneofthefunctionsthatanounserves:Subject,DirectObject,PredicateComplement,orObjectofaPreposition.Bytheway,wearedoinggerundsandinfinitivestogetherinonelessonbecauseinmanycasestheyarebasicallyinterchangeable.Iloveswimmingisn'tverydifferentfromIlovetoswim.Youcanalsoaddobjectsandadverbialstoformgerundphrasesandinfinitivephrases.Forexample:
IloveswimmingintheOkefenokeeSwampwhenthemoonisfullandthewatermoccasinsareasleep.(Everythinginboldtypeisonegerundphrase;everythingafterloveisservingastheDirectObject.)
IlovetoswimintheOkefenokeeswampwhenthemoonisfullandthewatermoccasinsareasleep.(EverythinginboldtypeisonelonginfinitivephraseservingastheDirectObject.)
1.SwimmingintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.2.SwimmingintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.3.MypassionistoswimintheOkefenokeeswamp.Theinfinitivetoswimisfunctioningasthe________________________.4.ToswimintheOkefenokeeswampismypassion.Theinfinitivetoswimisfunctioningasthe________________________.5.I’mabigfanofswimmingintheOkefenokeeswamp.Thegerundswimmingisfunctioningasthe_______________________.6.Ihavenochoiceexcepttoexpelyou.Theinfinitivephrasetoexpelyouisfunctioningasthe_______________________.
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[Answers:1.Subject,2.PredicateComplement,3.PredicateComplement,4.Subject,5.ObjectofthePreposition6.ObjectofthePreposition]Therearetimeswhengerundsandinfinitivesaren'tinterchangeable,butasanativeEnglishspeakeryou'renevergoingtomakethatmistake.You'llneveraccidentallysay,I'mabigfanoftoswim.Afewidiosyncrasiesofgerundsandinfinitives
1. Likeparticiples,agerundcannottakeasubject.Ittakesthepossessiveformofanouninstead.Soyoudon'tsay,Iappreciateyoustoppingby.Yousay,Iappreciateyourstoppingby.(Sometimes,ratherthansayingthatparticiplescan'thaveasubject,peoplesaythatthesubjectofagerundtakesthepossessivecase.)
2. AninfinitivephraseCANhaveasubjectinsomesituations—specifically,whentheinfinitivephraseisbeingusedasanobject.Hedoesn'twantmetocomealong.Thatrollsoffthetonguenaturallyenough,butdoyounoticehowstrangeitis?Asubjectisusuallyinthenominativecase(Iinsteadofme).Butyouwouldn'teversay,Hedoesn'twantItocomealong.Again,thisisn'tsomethingyou'regoingtogetwrongasanativeEnglishspeaker.
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Quiz3.3:GerundsandInfinitives
I.Theactofdefendinganyofthecardinalvirtueshastodayalltheexhilarationofavice.(G.K.Chesterton)
1. Istheitalicizedphraseagerundphraseoraparticipialphrase?2. Whatfunctiondoestheitalicizedphraseserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isita
subject,directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)
II.Traditionmeansgivingvotestothemostobscureofallclasses,ourancestors.(G.K.Chesterton)
1. Istheitalicizedphraseagerundphraseoraparticipialphrase?2. Whatfunctiondoestheitalicizedphraseserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isita
subject,directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)
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III.Adetectivestorygenerallydescribessixlivingmendiscussinghowitisthatamanisdead.Amodernphilosophicstorygenerallydescribessixdeadmendiscussinghowanymancanpossiblybealive.(G.K.Chesterton)
1. Aretheitalicizedphrasesgerundphrasesorparticipialphrases?2. Whatfunctiondotheitalicizedphrasesserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isitasubject,
directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)
IV.Acceptingoneselfdoesnotprecludeanattempttobecomebetter.(FlanneryO'Connor)
1. Aretheitalicizedphrasesgerundphrasesorparticipialphrases?2. Whatfunctiondotheitalicizedphrasesserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isitasubject,
directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)
V.AccordingtoC.S.Lewis,TheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobebeganwiththementalimageofafauncarryinganumbrellaandparcelsinasnowywood.
1. Aretheitalicizedphrasesgerundphrasesorparticipialphrases?2. Whatfunctiondotheitalicizedphrasesserve?(Ifitisagerundphrase,isitasubject,
directobject,indirectobject,objectofpreposition,orpredicatenominative?Ifitisaparticiple,whatdoesitmodify?)
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Thenextthreequestionsrefertothissentence:Headandshouldersabovemostpeoplefromhisearlyteens,spendingalmostsixdecadesatalmostsevenfeethaslefthimwithastoopthatbecomesmorepronouncedashegrowsolder.VI.Whatisthegrammaticalsubjectofthissentence?VII.Thatopeningphrase,Headandshouldersabovemostpeoplefromhisearlyteens,isadanglingmodifier.Explainwhythisphrasedangles.(Hint:theanswerisrelatedtothegerundthatimmediatelyfollowsthecomma.)VIII.Reworkthesentencewithoutthegerund(andwithoutthedanglingmodifier).Thenextfourquestionsallreferbacktothissentence:Ridingthenow-drenchedscooterbackhomewouldsoakmybackside,forcingachangeintodrypants.IX.Whatarethegrammaticalsubjectandverbofthissentence?
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X.Whatisthatphraseforcingachangeintodrypants?Agerundorapresentparticiple?Whatfunctiondoesitserve?(Inotherwords,ifit'sagerund,isitasubject,object,orcomplement,andifit'saparticiple,whatnoundoesitmodify?)XI.Whatthreeactionsaredescribedinthissentence?XII.Rewritethesentenceusingclausesinplaceofgerundsandparticiplessothatthesubjectsandverbsalignmorecloselywiththeactorsandactions.
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson4:AppositivesIt'salittlemisleadingtoputappositivesinthenounequivalentsmodule,buttheydidn'tseemtofitwellanywhereelse.Theycouldhavebeeninwiththemodifiers,butthatlessonjustkeptgettinglonger.Sohereitis,inModule3aboutnounequivalents,whichseemedalittlesadandlonelywithoutit.Anappositiveisanoun(ornounequivalent)thatrenamesanothernoun(ornounequivalent).Itsitsrightnexttothenounornounequivalentthatitrenames(usuallyrightafter,sometimesrightbefore):
ZorbatheGreek.Mydog,apoodle.MydogRoxy.
GreekisanappositiverenamingZorba.Poodleisanappositiverenamingdog.Roxyisanappositiverenamingdog.Anappositiveisrightupagainstthenounitnames.Ifyougetmuchspacebetweenanounanditsappositive,thingsstartnotworking.Youespeciallycan'thaveaverbbetweenanounandanappositive.Ifyoudothat,you'vegotapredicatecomplement:
ZorbaisaGreek.Mydogisapoodle.
There'snothingwrongwithapredicatecomplement,butit'snotthesamethingasanappositive.Anappositivephrase=theappositive+anymodifiersattachedtoitSeeifyoucanidentifytheappositives(orappositivephrases)intheseexamples:
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1. Theoak-leafhydrangea,aspeciesnativetoTennessee,makesmesneeze.2. "STARWARS,"thebestmovieinthehistoryoftheworld,mademewhatIam
today:anerd.[Answers:1.Appositive:species.Appositivephrase:aspeciesnativetoTennessee.2.Firstappositivephrase:thebestmovieinthehistoryoftheworld.Secondappositivephrase:anerd.]ThatsecondexampleisactuallymoreinterestingthanIrealizedwhenIfirstwroteit.IinitiallythoughtthatanerdrenamedI,makingitanexceptiontotheruleabouttheappositivestayingnexttoitsnoun.Butitisn'trenamingI;it'srenamingthewholephrase:whatIamtoday.Soitobeystheruleafterall.Thatwasanexampleofaone-wordappositiverenaminganounclause.Itoftenhappenstheotherway,withanounclauserenamingasimplenoun:
ThisplayisbyWilliamShakespeare,WHOEVERTHATIS.
Ourcitycouncilmembersseemtosufferfrominsanity,DOINGTHESAMETHINGOVERANDOVERAGAINANDEXPECTINGDIFFERENTRESULTS.
(Inthatlastexample,theappositivephraseisalsoagerundphrase.)ErroneousAppositivesFinally,hereisanexampleofwhathappenswhentheappositiveDOESN'Trenamethenounit'snextto:
Agluttonforpunishment,thattrailrunwastoomuchevenforme.Agluttonforpunishmentsitsinanappositivespot.Butwhatnouncoulditberenaming?It'srightnexttothenountrailrun.Butthetrailrunisn'tagluttonforpunishment.Thewriterwastryingtorenameme.Youcouldcorrectthisbysaying:
Thattrailrunwastoomuchevenforme,agluttonforpunishment.Or,
EvenI,agluttonforpunishment,foundthattrailruntobetoomuch.Thebestsolution,however,probablydoesn'tuseanappositiveatall:
Icanbeagluttonforpunishment,butthattrailrunwastoomuch.
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Quiz3.4:Appositives
I.MycousinLeonardstoppedbywithhisiguana.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.cousin B.Leonard C.iguana D.noneoftheaboveII.IamexpectingavisitfromJohnBarber,mynemesis.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.I B.visit C.JohnBarber D.nemesis E.noneoftheaboveIII.IamexpectingavisitfrommynemesisJohnBarber.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.I B.visit C.JohnBarber D.nemesis E.noneoftheaboveIV.Theopossum,theonlymarsupialnativetoNorthAmerica,isalsotheonlynon-primatewithopposablethumbs.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.opossum C.NorthAmerica E.thumbs B.marsupial D.non-primate F.noneoftheabove
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V.SomebodyreleasedraccoonsinFinland,wheretheythrivedlikeanativespecies.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.Somebody B.raccoons C.Finland D.species E.noneoftheaboveVI.Ahockeyplayersincechildhood,Ilovebeingontheice.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.hockeyplayer B.childhood C.I D.ice E.noneoftheaboveVII.Vanderbilt'sfootballteamwentundefeatedin1922,thesameyeartheSovietUnionwasformed.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.Vanderbilt B.team C.1922 D.year E.SovietUnion F.noneoftheaboveVIII.Obviouslyfoodsnobs,theyturneduptheirnosesatmypicklestew.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.snobs B.they C.noses D.pickle E.stew F.noneoftheaboveIX.JohnnyCash,"theManinBlack,"hadhitsinmanymusicalgenres.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.JohnnyCash D.genres B.Man E.noneoftheabove C.hits
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X.JohnnyCash,whowasknownas"theManinBlack,"hadhitsinmanymusicalgenres.Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.JohnnyCash B.Man C.hits D.genres E.noneoftheaboveXI.Inwhichofthefollowingsentencesis"Taylor"usedasanappositive?Choosethewordthatservesastheappositive(nottheappositivephrase). A.MyfriendTaylorisafirefighter. B.Taylor,afirefighter,isafriendofmine. C.Thefirefighter,namedTaylor,isafriendofmine. D.Thefirefighter,afriendofmine,isnamedTaylor. E.noneoftheaboveXII.Thefollowingsentencecontainsmorethanoneappositive.Putacheckbesideeachwordthatservesasanappositive:LaterthatdayIreflectedonmyactions—theyelling,thecrying,thebangingofmysippiecup—andIrealizeditwastimetogrowup. A.day B.I C.actions D.yelling E.crying F.banging G.sippiecup H.time
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements
Oneoftheusesofthecommaistosetoffso-called"non-essential"words,phrases,andclausesinasentence.Butwhatmakesanelement"essential"or"non-essential"?"Non-essential"doesn'tmean"unimportant"or"notaddingmeaning."Ifanelementdoesn'taddmeaning,youshouldn'taddittoyoursentenceinthefirstplace.Doestheelementchangetheessentialmeaningofthesentence?Thedifferencebetween"essential"and"non-essential"elementsisoftenexplainedintermsofwhetherornottheelementchangestheessentialmeaningofthesentence.Lookatthesetwosentences(whichtellamostlytruestory):
1. TheplaywrightSamuelBeckettgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.2. SamuelBeckett,theplaywright,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.
Inthefirstsentence,SamuelBeckettisanappositiverenamingplaywright.Inthesecond,playwrightisanappositiverenamingSamuelBeckett.Whydoesthesecondhavecommasbutnotthefirst?Inthefirstsentence,SamuelBeckettisconsideredessential,becausetoleaveitoutwouldchangethemeaningofthesentence:TheplaywrightgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.That'saverydifferentsentencefromTheplaywrightSamuelBeckettgaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.Playwrightsareadimeadozen.Butthatimageoftheblack-turtleneck-cladSamuelBeckett,iconoftheTheateroftheAbsurd,trundlingAndretheGianttoschoolisprettyirresistible.Inthesecondsentence—SamuelBeckett,theplaywright,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool—thecommasaroundtheplaywrightshowthereaderthatthisisbonusinformation.Inthiscase,theappositivemayhelpareaderwhocan'timmediatelyputher
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fingeronwhoSamuelBeckettis,butitdoesn'tchangetheessentialmeaningofthesentence.NarrowingandExpandingHowever,sometimesitfeelslikeajudgmentcalltosaywhetheranelementchangesthe"essentialmeaning"ofasentence.Anditcanbehardtotrustyourjudgment.Youmightfinditmorehelpfultoaskyourself:Doesthiselementaddmeaningbymakingthingsmoreprecise—bynarrowingfromgeneraltomorespecific?Ordoesthiselementaddmeaningbyexpanding—byprovidingbonusinformation?Essentialelementsaddprecision.TheyNARROWmeaning.Non-essentialelementsprovidebonusinformation.TheyEXPANDmeaning.ThenounSamuelBeckettisaboutasspecificasanouncanget.Itreferstooneman.SoanyappositiveormodifierImightattachtoSamuelBeckettwillbenon-essential.ItwillprovideadditionalinformationaboutSamuelBeckett,butitwon'tmakethenounmoreprecise.Beinganon-essentialelement,itwillneedtobesetoffbycommas,asintheseexamples:
SamuelBeckett,drivingaflatbedtruck,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.
SamuelBeckett,whohadahouseinAndretheGiant’shometown,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.
SamuelBeckett,notknowinghewasinthepresenceofgreatness,gaveyoungAndretheGiantaridetoschool.
NoneofthoseappositivesnarrowsSamuelBecketttoanythingmorespecific,sotheyareallsetoffbycommas.Propernounsarealwaysspecific,sowhenyouaddappositivesormodifiers,thosewillalmostalwaysbenon-essentialelements.
Ilikelivinginastatewherethereisnoincometax.IlikelivinginTennessee,wherethereisnoincometax.
Let'slookatonelastexample:
1. Cilantrothattasteslikesoapgrossesmeout.2. Cilantro,whichtasteslikesoap,grossesmeout.
Whichofthesetwosentencesiscorrectlypunctuated?Thatdependsonhowyoufeelaboutcilantro.Somepeopleactuallyhaveageneticpredispositionthatmakesthemthinkallcilantrotasteslikesoap.Sentence2communicatestheirposition.Sinceallcilantrotasteslikesoap,theclauseWHICHtasteslikesoapdoesn'tnarrowthingsdown.Formostpeoplehowever,cilantrodoesn'ttastelikesoap.However,iftheywereevertorunintosomecilantrothattasteslikesoap,itwouldgrossthemout.Sentence1
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communicatesthisposition.TheessentialelementsTHATtasteslikesoapnarrowsthecategorydownfromcilantrotocilantrothattasteslikesoap.Onemorehelpfulclue:Rememberourrelativepronouns,whichintroduceadjectiveclauses?Usethattointroduceessentialclausesandwhichtointroducenon-essentialclauses.Ofcourse,whendescribingapersonyouusewhoorwhom.Ifyouneedhelprememberingwhentousewhoandwhentousewhom,lookbackatLesson10ofModule2.
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Quiz3.5:EssentialandNon-EssentialElements
I.Anessentialelementaddsmeaningtoasentenceby: A.narrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise B.expandingorprovidingbonusinformationII.Anon-essentialelementaddsmeaningtoasentenceby: A.narrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise B.expandingorprovidingbonusinformationIII.Whichkindofelementshouldbesetoffwithcommas? A.essential B.non-essentialIV.Anessentialadjectiveclausecanstartwithwhichoftheserelativepronouns? A.that B.which V.Anon-essentialadjectiveclausecanstartwithwhichoftheserelativepronouns? A.that B.which
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VI.Elementsthatmodifyorrenamepropernounsarealmostalwaysnon-essential.Explainwhy.VII.Inthefollowingsentence,theclauseswhomarriedWilliamShakespeareandwhostarredinThePrincessDiariesareessential,eventhoughtheymodifypropernouns.Explainwhy.IwastalkingaboutAnneHathawaywhomarriedWilliamShakespeare,notAnneHathawaywhostarredinThePrincessDiaries.
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LectureNotes
Module3,Lesson6:Review
Aswewrapupthismoduleonnounequivalents,Iwanttogivetwowarnings.1.NounEquivalentsalwaysintroduceabstraction.YourreaderalwayswantstoknowWHODIDWHAT.Yourreaderalwayswantssomethingtolookat.Whenyougiveyourreadersomethingtolookat,she'sabletogatherinformationaboutyourstorythesamewayshegathersinformationintherealworld:throughhersenses.Datacomesinthroughhereyesandears,allowinghertoreachconclusions,passjudgements,havefeelings,andmakeconnections.Writing(andreading)allowsustoskipoverthesensoryinformationandgostraighttologic/conclusions/emotions.Butjustbecauseyoucanskipoversensoryinformationdoesn'tmeanthatyoushould.Whenyouwriteinconcrete,sensorytermsinsteadofabstractterms,yourwritingfeelsalittlemorealive.Whenyouuseanounequivalentinanounspot,youareintroducingabstractionintoyoursentence.Nounequivalentsturnverbsintoabstractnouns.That'sjusthowtheywork.Theyare,bydefinition,abstract.Usingabstractlanguageisofteneasierforthewriterthanusingconcretelanguage.Butitisoftenharderforthereader.Ifyouhaveagoodreasontouseabstractlanguage,goahead.Butitcostsyourreaderextrawork.Makesuretheextraworkforthereaderisworthit(tothereader—nottoyou!).
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2.Yourreaderwantstofeelconfidentshecangetfromsubjecttoverbtoobject.Onewaytomakesureyourreadercandothisistogettothesubjectearlyinthesentence,andtotheverbsoonafterthat.Sometimesyouhaveagoodreasontomakeyourreaderworkalittlebit.Ifyoudo,goahead.Butkeepinmindthatalongnounequivalentinthesubjectpositiondelaysthearrivalofthemainverb,andthatmakeslifehardforyourreader.Lookatthissentence:
Watchingthekindofsoccergameinwhichtwoevenlymatchedteamsbattlemanfullyfor90minutesandendupinazero-zerotiemakesmehappy.
Everythingfromwatchingtotieisthesubject,meaningthereaderhastohold24wordsinherbrainbeforesheevengetstotheverb!Butlookhowmuchmorereadablethesentenceiswhenthat24-wordgerundphrasebecomestheobjectratherthanthesubject:
Ilovewatchingthekindofsoccergameinwhichtwoevenlymatchedteamsbattlemanfullyfor90minutesandendupinazero-zerotie.
Inthatsentence,thereaderfindsoutWHODIDWHATinthefirsttwowords.She'sreadytosettleinfortherestofthesentence.
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Quiz3.6:Review
I.Whichofthefollowingrelativepronounsusuallyintroduceadjectiveclauses?Chooseallthatapply. A.who B.whom C.which D.that E.whoever F.whomever G.whicheverII.Whichofthefollowingrelativepronounsalwaysintroducenounclauses?Chooseallthatapply. A.who B.whom C.which D.that E.whoever F.whomever G.whicheverIII.Whichoftherelativepronounsisoftenomittedinadjectiveandnounclauses?
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IV.Toreceivethisawardwouldbeoneofthegreathonorsofmylife.Rewritethissentencewithagerundinplaceoftheinfinitiveinthesubjectslot.V.Acreatureofhabit,theroutinethatIhadmadeformyselfwasveryrigid.Thesentenceabovehasanappositive-relatedproblem.Explaintheproblemandreworkthesentence.VI.Whichofthefollowingstatementsapplytoanessentialclause?Chooseallthatapply. A.Itaddsmeaningbynarrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise. B.Itaddsmeaningbyexpandingorprovidingbonusinformation. C.Itissetoffbycommas. D.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounthat. E.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounwhich. F.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounswhoorwhom.VII.Whichofthefollowingstatementsapplytoanon-essentialclause?Chooseallthatapply. A.Itaddsmeaningbynarrowingormakingthingsmoreprecise. B.Itaddsmeaningbyexpandingorprovidingbonusinformation. C.Itissetoffbycommas. D.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounthat. E.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounwhich. F.Itmightstartwiththerelativepronounswhoorwhom.
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VIII.IntheModule3reviewlectureIsuggestedthatlengthynounequivalentsinthesubjectslotpotentiallycausemoreproblemsthanlengthynounequivalentsinobjectslots.Whyisthat?
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson1:Introduction
Perhapsthemostimportantfunctionofgrammaristohelpyourreaderseehowthingsandactionsfittogether.Howdoesthisthingconnecttothisotherthing?Howdoesyourreadergetfromthisideatothenextidea?Yourgrammaticalstructuressetupconnectionsandtransitions.Alotofthathappensonthemainline:
Lindakickedtheball.(KickprettywellexplainsthenatureoftherelationshipbetweenLindaandtheball.)Lindaisasurgeon.(IsprovidestheconnectionbetweenLindaandsurgeon.Theyreflectoneanother;surgeonrenamesLinda.)
Inthismodule,we'regoingtotalkaboutotherwaysyoucommunicatetoyourreader,"Here'showthingsconnect."
• Conjunctions(bothcoordinatingandsubordinating)• Compounds• Parallelism• Agreement• Antecedents• Modification
Aswe'vealreadysaid,yourreaderwantstofeelconfidentthathecangetfromAtoBtoC.Yourconnectionsandtransitionscarryhimalongsothathedoesn'thavetothinkabouthowhe'sgettingfromoneideatothenext.Hecanpayattentiontotheaction.Goodtransitionsaretheantidoteforwordiness.Andwordinessdoesn'thavethatmuchtodowiththenumberofwordsorthecomplexityofagivensentence.Asentencefeelswordywhenthereaderisn'tsurehowthedifferentpartsfittogether.
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AreadercanhandleamazingcomplexityIFhehasclearmarkersusheringhimfromonepartofasentencetothenext.Forexample,ifsomebodygivesyoudirectionstogetfromPointAtoPointB,thosedirectionsmightrequire15turns.Andyoucanhandle15turns,aslongastheturnsareallcorrectlymarked.Ifsomeonegivesyoudirectionswithonly3turns,butatoneofthoseturnsthestreetsignismissing,you'regoingtohavealotharderofatime.Theconnectionsinthismodulearethestreetsigns.Infact,ifyou'vewrittenthemwell,hopefullyyourreaderwon'thavetopayattentiontothematall.Ifyouthinkaboutyourconnectionsandtransitions,yourreaderwon'thaveto.YouwantyourreadertoSEEwhatyoumean,notFIGUREOUTwhatyoumean.Grammarisneverjustgrammar.
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson2:Subject-VerbAgreement
Disagreement.Itcausessomuchstressanduncertainty.Itmakesyourbloodpressuregoupjustbeingintheroomwithtwopeoplewhoaredisagreeingwithoneanother.Itcanbehardtothinkstraightinsuchasituation.Youwanttosay,"Can'twealljustgetalong?"You'veprobablyheardofsubject-verbagreementandpronoun-antecedentagreement.Whenverbsdon'tagreewiththeirsubjectsorwhenpronounsdon'tagreewiththeirantecedents,thereadergetsdistractedandstressed.Shemightnotbeabletothinkstraightaboutwhatyou'retryingtocommunicate.Subject-VerbAgreement=makingsurethatifyoursubjectissingular,yourverbissingular
Theotterlazesabout.(Otterissingular,lazesissingular.)Theotterslazeabout.(Ottersisplural,lazeisplural.)
SometimesIhearsomeonesay,"Mylicenseareexpired."IfyouwereraisedspeakingEnglish,youdon'tgenerallygetthiswrong.Thereareacoupleoftrickyspotswhereitispossibletogettrippedup:
Myfavoritefruitisapples.Applesaremyfavoritefruit.
Thenumberoftheverb(singularorplural)matchesthenumberofthesubject.Thenumberofthepredicatenominativedoesn'tmatter.Fruitis.Applesare.1.Thetitleofaworkofartisalwaystreatedasasingularnoun:StarryNightismyfavoritepaintingbyVanGogh.WarandPeaceisagreatnovel.
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2.CollectivenounstendtobesingularinAmericanEnglish:Thechoirissinginginthequad.Thebaseballteamisstayinginourhotel.3.InBritishEnglish,collectivenounstendtobeplural:Thecricketteamarestayinginourhotel.NativeEnglishspeakersdosometimeshaveaproblemwhenalotofothernounscomebetweenthegrammaticalsubjectandtheverb.Forinstance:
Myneighbor,alongwithtwohundredotherlibrariansthroughtheUnitedStates,isattendingtheAmericanLibraryAssociationConferenceinKansasCity.
Thegrammaticalsubjectisthesingularnounneighbor.Sotheverbhastobesingular:isattending.Itdoesn'tmatterthatlibrarians,cities,andUnitedStates(whichisactuallysingularbutlooksplural)areinterposedbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Infact,everythingfromalongthroughUnitedStatesisaprepositionalphrasemodifyingneighbor.Doyouremember,waybackintheintroductorylectureforthiswholecourse,Italkedaboutthedifferencebetweenthinkingofgrammarasproperusage,andthinkingofgrammarasawaytoloveyourreader?Properusagetellsmethatthesentenceaboutmyneighboriscorrect,thesubjectandverbagree,andI'vedonemyduty.Lovingmyreadermakesmerealizethatthesentenceisalittleconfusing.It'scorrect,butitfeelsabitodd.Isthereanotherwaytocommunicate?
MyneighborisoneoftwohundredlibrariansfromcitiesthroughouttheUnitedStatesattendingtheAmericanLibraryAssociationconferenceinKansasCity.
Theverbmovedclosertothenoun,andnowyourreaderisn'tthinkingaboutyourgrammar.
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Quiz4.2:Subject-VerbAgreement
I.TheBadNewsBearsis/arenotanespeciallygoodmovie.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areII.Myfavoritemealis/areRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areIII.Ramennoodlesis/aremyfavoritemeal.Selectthecorrectverb. A.is B.areIV.Thecommitteerecommend/recommendsthatyoustopeatingsomanyRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.recommend B.recommendsV.Themembersofthecommitteerecommend/recommendsthatyoustopeatingsomanyRamennoodles.Selectthecorrectverb. A.recommend B.recommends
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VI.Theboys’choir,madeupofjuveniledelinquentsfromsmalltownsalloverthecountry,arrive/arrivesinanhour.Selectthecorrectverb(accordingtotheAmericanusage). A.arrive B.arrivesVII.Intheaboveexampleabouttheboys'choir,eventhecorrectverbformsoundsoddanddrawsattentiontoitself.Rewriteforclarity.(Remember,youalwayshavetheoptionofbreakingthesentenceintwo.)VIII.Bonus(tricky)question:OneofthosethingsthathappenonlyonTVhappenedtometoday.ThesubjectofthissentenceisthesingularOne.Sowhyisthepluralverbhappencorrectinthissentence?(And,incaseyouwerewondering,happenIScorrecthere).
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson3:PronounsandAntecedents
Youmightnotthinkofapronounasaconnectorword,thewayaconjunctionorevenaprepositionisaconnectorword.Butapronounisverymuchaconnector.Apronounisawordthatreachesbacktoanearlierphraseorclauseandsays,"Rememberthatnounweweretalkingaboutasecondago?Well,nowwe'retalkingaboutitagain."Thisisthepronoun-antecedentrelationship.Antecedent=thenounthatapronounrenamesThinkbacktorelativepronouns(who,whom,whose,which,that,where,when,etc.),whichwetalkedaboutbackinModule2.Theysitatthebeginningofadjectiveclausesandreferbacktonounsinthemainclause.Inthatway,therelativepronounCONNECTSthesubordinateclausetothemainclause.Lookatthissentence:
WhenIconfrontedMr.Purifoyabouthismessiness,hechallengedmetoafistfight.HisandhearebothpronounsreachingbacktoMr.Purifoy.Apronounanditsantecedentdon'thavetobeinthesamesentence.Veryoften,theantecedentisinthesentencebeforethepronoun.Butifthepronoungetstoofarfromitsantecedent,yourreaderwillhavetoworktoohardfiguringoutwhichnounthepronounissupposedtorename.Ifyourpronounandantecedentaremorethanasentenceapart,beabsolutelysurethatyourreaderwillbeabletoseetheconnectionwithoutanytrouble.Erronthesideofrepeatingyourantecedentratherthanassumingyourreadercanfigureitout.
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It'syourjobasthewritertopresentthingsinsuchawaythatyourreadercanSEEyourmeaning.Pronoun-AntecedentTroubleSpotsHere'sanexampleofpronoun-antecedenttroubleinonesentence:
AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,hewastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.
Heisprettyclosetoitsintendedantecedent,tiger.ButhecouldjustaseasilybereferringtoGovernorHaslam.GovernorHaslamisthesubjectofthesentence,sohe'sclosertothecenterofthereader'sattention.Also,thereadermightexpecttigertotakethepronounit.TheresultisthatweallendupenvisioningGovernorHaslameatingfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinpublic.Tofixthissentence,youcouldchangehetoit,orelserepeatthewordtiger.
AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,itwastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.
Or,
AfterGovernorHaslamwatchedthetigerperform,thetigerwastakentoMainStreetandfedfifteenpoundsofrawmeatinthetownsquare.
Here'sanotherexample:
Blame,bitterness,andrecriminationscanbeemotionallydestructivetoyouandyourchildren.Youmustgetridofthem.
Waitasecond,getridofwhom?Yourchildren?Thepronounthemmakesyourreadernaturallygolookingforthenearestpluralantecedent,whichhappenstobeyourchildren.Here'sanothergreatone:
ThebatterhitanRBIsingleofftheshortstop'sleg,whichrolledintoleftfield.Nodoubtyouseetheproblemhere.Therelativepronounwhichintroducestheadjectiveclause.Theadjectiveclausesitsrightbehindthenounitmodifies,whichisalsotheantecedentforitsrelativepronoun.Youcan'thelpbutpicturethelegrollingintoleftfield.Itseemsashametofixit,butheregoes:
ThebatterhitanRBIsinglethatbouncedofftheshortstop'slegandrolledintoleftfield.
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Pronounsusedwellhelpfocusyourreader'sattention.Usedpoorly,theydistractyourreader.Lookatthisconfusingparagraphaboutaman'sbeard:
Atthedinnertableatnight,itisadeepredlikeanIrishman'sbeard.Inthesun,helookslikeaVikingfromScandinavia.Itsmellslikeatropicalfruitsmoothiefromthebeardbalmheuses.
Inthefirstandthirdsentences,itreferstothebeard.Inthesecondsentence,hereferstotheman.Inthethirdsentencewe'rebacktothebeard.Thisisjusttoomuchforyourreadertotryandfigureout.Thewriterwasprobablytryingtoaddvariety,butvarietyforitsownsakeisnothelpful.Rememberthis:Apronounneedstorefertoanoun(ornounequivalent)andnotawholesentenceorwholeidea.Here'sanexampleofapronounreferringtoawholeidea:
Butmydadreclaimedapieceofhimselffromhisdiseasethatnightandetcheditintothemindsoftenyoungmenforever.
Whatistheantecedentforit?Hisdisease?Apieceofhimself?Theantecedentisuncleartothereaderforthesamereasonthatitisperfectlycleartothewriter.Theeventisetchedsoclearlyintothewriter'smindthatheknowsexactlywhathemeanswhenhesayshisdadetcheditintothemindsoftenyoungmenforever.Hehasforgottenthatwedon'tknowwhatitis.NOTE:Therulethatapronounneedstohaveasinglenoun(ornounequivalent)foritsantecedent,ratherthanawholeideaorsentenceisalmostimpossibletokeep.Ibreakthisruleallthetime.However,youshouldtrytokeepthisrule;onlyletyourselfbreakitifyoucan'tfindagoodwaytokeepit. LessonSummary
• Everypronounneedsanantecedent.• Thatantecedentneedstobeanoun(ornounequivalent).• Thatnounneedstobenearby.• Besurethereisnotanotherpossibleantecedentclosetothepronoun.• Whenindoubt,repeattheantecedentratherthanusingapronounandaskingyour
readertofigureitout.
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Quiz4.3:PronounsandAntecedents
I.Betweenmyfingerseachpetalfeelslikesoftsuede,strongerthanTHEYappear.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.II.Asmymother’shealthdeteriorated,ITcausedproblemsintheirmarriagerelationship.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.III.SniffingahandfulofleavesandthrowingITintotheairwasevenmorefunthankickingthroughTHEM.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounsandtheirantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.
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IV.Lelo'sshopneartheedgeoftownprovidedhismainincome.Concreteandmudblockssupportedframesandshelvesofwidehome-craftedlumberofnon-standardizeddimensions.ITwasthesizeofourkitchen.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweenthecapitalizedpronounanditsantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.V.Davelookedupathisfather’sangryexpression.Hisbrowwasknitted.Hiseyesflashed.Hismouthwaspinched.Explainwhythereisaproblembetweentheitalicizedpronounsandtheirantecedent.Thenofferarewritethatcorrectstheproblem.
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson4:ConnectingClauses(Part1)
We'vealreadytalkedaboutcombiningclausesintocompoundandcomplexsentencesthroughcoordinationandsubordination.Inthislessonwewillrevisitthoseideas.Remember:1.Acompoundsentenceis:________________________________________________________________________.2.Acomplexsentenceis:___________________________________________________________________________.3.Thesevencoordinatingconjunctionsare:______________________________________________________.4.Acompound-complexsentenceis:______________________________________________________________.5.Subordinationis:______________________________________________________________________________6.Coordinationis:____________________________________________________________________________[Answers:1.Twoormoreindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunctionandacommaintoasinglesentence.2.Asentencecomprisedofoneindependentclauseandatleastonesubordinate(dependent)clause.3.For,And,Nor,But,Or,Yet,So4.Asentencecontainingtwoormoreindependentclausesandatleastonedependentclause.5.Expressinganideaoractionasadependent(subordinate)clauseandattachingittoanindependent(main)clause.Subordinationallowsyoutosetupdifferentrelationshipsbetweenideasandactions.6.Creatingbalancebetweentwoideasinasinglesentence.Coordinatingconjunctions(andsemicolons)allowyoutosay:"ThesetwoideasarethesameKINDofidea."]Didyougetallthat?Coordinationandsubordinationspellouttherelationshipbetweentwoclauses:coordinationcommunicatesarelationshipofbalanceandequality,whereassubordinationcommunicatesanunequalrelationship.Butdon'tforget:anotherwaytoconnecttwoclausesistoputthemnexttooneanotherastwoseparatesentences.Whereascoordinationandsubordinationspellouttherelationshipsbetweenideas,placing
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clausesinadjacentsentencesimpliesarelationship.Itleavesalittletoyourreader'simagination.Therewasapopsonginthe70sor80sthatsaid,"MyMaseratidoes185.Ilostmylicense.NowIdon'tdrive."Thoseideasarenotconnectedbyeithercoordinationorsubordination.Theyareconnectedbyproximity.Theproximitysuggeststhatthesethreeideasareconnected,butitisuptothereadertomaketheconnections.That'spartofthefun.Ioftentellwritersnottomakethereaderdoworkthatisthewriter'stodo.Buttheconversecanalsobetrue:sometimesitisgoodNOTtodotoomuchforthereader.AsemicolonjoinsINDEPENDENTclausesintoacompoundsentence.Youwriteacompletesentence;youwriteanothercompletesentence.Asemicolonsaystoyourreader"TheseideasaresocloselyrelatedthatIdidn'twanttheminseparatesentences.ButI'mgoingtoletyoufigureouttheirrelationship."Theinformationyoucommunicateinaclausedemandsalittlemoreofyourreader'sattentionthaninformationyoucommunicateinotherways(prepositionalphrases,participles,adjectivesandadverbs,etc.),becauseaclausetellsalittlestory.AclausetellsWHODIDWHAT.Lastly,Iwantyoutoconsiderthehierarchyofclauses.TheHierarchyofClauses
1. MainClause.Themainclausegenerallydemandsmoreattentionthananysubordinateclausesattachedtoit.
2. AdverbClause.Anadverbclauseisjustanindependentclausewithasubordinatingconjunctioninfrontofit,soitisonlyalittlelowerthantheindependentclauseinthehierarchy.
3. AdjectiveandNounClauses.Theactioninanadjectiveornounclausefeelslikeit'stuckedawaycomparedtotheactionofthemainclauseoranadverbclause.
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Quiz4.4:ConnectingClauses(Part1)
I.Whatarethesevencoordinatingconjunctions?(Hint:theirinitialsspellFANBOYS.)II.Whichofthecoordinatingconjunctionscommentstheleastontherelationshipbetweentwoideasorevents? A.for E.or B.and F.yet C.nor G.so D.butIII.Whichkindofconnectionisbestforcreatingbalance? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)IV.Whichkindofconnectionallowsforthemostsubtletyandnuancebycommentingmorespecificallyontherelativeimportanceofoneideaascomparedtoanother? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)
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V.Whichkindofconnectioncommentstheleastontherelationshipbetweentwoideas? A.coordination B.subordination C.proximity(asemicolonortwoadjacentsentences)VI.Andtherearenokeysforthose,atleastwedon’thaveany.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.VII.Next,shegrabbedalargepinkbottle;thisonefamiliartohim.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.VIII.Theneurotransmittersinmybrainwerecrackling,andfiringofflikeapoorlyplannedfireworksdisplay.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.
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IX.Therootsproutsandthewaitingisover,lifehasreturned.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.X.Pressgentlyandthefragilewebbends,pressharderanditdissolves.Thissentencehasanerrorinthewayitconnectsclausesorideas.Identifytheerror,thenrewritethesentencetocorrecttheerror.
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson5:ConnectingClauses(Part2)
Someoftheideaswecoveredinthelastlessonaboutjoiningclausesandthehierarchyofclausesmayhaveseemedalittleabstract.Iwanttowalkthroughsomeexamplesfromstudentstoriestohelpbringtheseideasdowntoearth.Example1Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains,andithadanabundanceofdaffodils.Whatarethetwoclauses?1.Mygrandfather’sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains.2.Ithadanabundanceofdaffodils.Howarethejoined?Theyarejoinedbythecoordinationconjunctionand+acommaintoacompoundsentence.Remember,acoordinationconjunctionsuggeststhattwoclausesdeserveequalattentionandthesamekindofattention.Ithinkthat'swhythissentencefeelsalittleoff.Thetwoideasdon’tfeelcoordinate,thoughthegrammarsuggeststhattheyare.Hereisonewaytorevisethesentence:
Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains;ithadanabundanceofdaffodils.
Asemicolonjoinsthetwoclausesclosely,butitdoesn'tcommentonexactlyhowtheideasarerelated.Anotheroptionistousesubordination:
Mygrandfather'sfarmwastuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains,wheredaffodilsabounded.
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Or,
Daffodilsaboundedonmygrandfather'sfarm,tuckedintoahollowintheTennesseemountains.
Example2Afterclass,whenhestartstoheadupstairsforhismonthlyturnasgreeter,heneedssomeonetocarryhiscupofcoffeeforhimsohecanholdhisplateofdoughnutsandclementineswithonehandandholdontothestairrailingwiththeother.That'salotofactions.Whatarethesubjectandverbofthispackedsentence?Heneeds.Sohowareallthoseotheractionsandideascommunicated?
• Whenheheadsupstairsisanadverbclause.• Forhisturnasagreeterisaprepositionalphrase.• Someonetocarryhiscoffeeforhimisaninfinitivephraseservingasthedirectobject
ofneeds.• Sohecanholdhisplateofdoughnutsandclementineswithonehandandholdontothe
stairrailingwiththeotherisalongadverbialphrasewithacompoundverb(holdhisplateandholdthestairrailing).
Whew!Thereareprobablydozensofwaystoimprovethissentence.Thebestones,Isuspect,involvebreakingitdownintomorethanonesentence:
Afterclass,heheadsupstairsforhismonthlyturnasagreeter.Buthehastoasksomeonetocarryhiscupofcoffee.He'llneedonehandforhisplateofdoughnutsandclementinesandanotherhandforthestairrailing.
Example3Hedoesn'tlikethemicrophonebutusesitsohecanbeheardclearlybyIrena,whois96yearsoldandhardlyevermissesaSunday.Thiswriterhasused
• acompoundverbtocommunicateallthataction:doesn'tlikebutuses.• anadverbialclausewithapassiveverb:sohecanbeclearlyheard.• anadjectiveclausewithanothercompoundverb:is96andhardlymisses.
Thisisnotabadsentence.Buthereareafewchangesthatimproveit:
Hedoesn'tlikethemicrophone,butheusesitsoIrenacanclearlyhearhim.Irenaisninety-sixyearsold;sherarelymissesaSunday.
Thisversiongetsridofthepassiveconstruction,sohecanbeheard,andalsogivesalittlemoreattentiontoIrena.She'sninety-sixandalwaysmakesittochurch,soshegetstwomainclausesallherown.
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Promotingideastoindependentclausesordemotingthemtodependentclausescanmakesignificantchangesinthewayapassagereads.Still,sentenceconstructionisanart,notascience.
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Quiz4.5:ConnectingClauses(Part2)
QuestionsIthroughVIrefertothefollowingsentence:Whenherfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonherbed.Thiscomplexsentencedepictsthefollowingactions:
1. Thefatherwalkedaway.2. Thefatherleftablankspaceinthedoorway.3. Thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecream.4. Thelittlegirlwatchedhersister.5. Thesistercriedonherbed.
I.Inthesentenceabove,Action1(thefatherwalkedaway)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitive
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II.Inthesentenceabove,Action2(thefatherleftablankspaceinthedoorway)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitiveIII.Inthesentenceabove,Action3(thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecream)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitiveIV.Inthesentenceabove,whatparallelstructureconnectsAction3(thelittlegirlatehericecream)andAction4(thelittlegirlwatchedhersister)? A.compoundsentence B.compoundverbV.Inthesentenceabove,Action5(thesistercriedonherbed)isexpressedbywhichofthefollowinggrammaticalstructures? A.independentclause B.adverbclause C.adjectiveclause D.nounclause E.participle F.infinitive
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VI.ChangetheadverbialclauseWhenherfatherwalkedawayintoanindependentclauseandexpressthesentencebelowasacompoundsentence:Whenherfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,thelittlegirltookabiteofmintchocolatechipicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonherbed.VII.CHALLENGEQUESTION:Thefollowingsentenceisgrammaticallycorrect.Butthere'ssomethingoddabouttheclauseinboldtype.Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,wherethebusdriver’saidedidn’tseeitasIwalkedtothebackofthebusandsatbesideawindow.Twoquestionsabouttheclauseinboldtype:
1. Whatkindofclauseisit?2. Whatfunctiondoestheclauseserve?(Inotherwords,ifit'samodifyingclause,what
worddoesitmodify,andifit'sanounclause,whatslotdoesitfillinthemainclause?)
HINT:Thatwordwhereismisleading.Whereisoftenasubordinatingconjunctionsignalinganadverbialclause.Buthereit'sarelativepronoun.Onceyourealizethat,youshouldbeabletoworkoutwhatkindofclausethisis,andwhatfunctionitserves.
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VIII.CHALLENGEQUESTION:Thisquestionreferstothesamesentenceasabove.Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,wherethebusdriver’saidedidn’tseeitasIwalkedtothebackofthebusandsatbesideawindow.
1. Wehavealreadyseenthattheclauseinboldisanadjectiveclausemodifyingbus.Doesthisadjectiveclauseseemlikeanappropriatewaytodepicttheactiondescribedintheclause?Whyorwhynot?
2. Howwouldyourevisethissentence?
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson6:ParallelismHumanbeingslovesymmetry.Werespondtoit.Westriveforit.Westriveforitinarchitecture,interiordesign,visualarts.Werespondtoitinthecreatedworld,inthehumanface,inthehumanbody.Symmetryisafundamentalprincipleofbeauty.Now,therearelotsofbeautifulthingsthatarenotsymmetrical.Mostmountainsaren'tsymmetrical.Welikeplentyofthingsthataren'tevensupposedtobesymmetrical.WhatweDON'Tlikearethingsthataresupposedtobesymmetrical,butaren't.HaveyouseenToyStory3?OneofthebadguysisthisbabydollcalledBigBaby.He'sterrifying.Theonlythingunusualabouthisappearance,however,isthatoneeyeliddroopstobeingalmostclosed.Besidesthatlittleasymmetry,he'sjustaregularbabydoll.Asinotherartforms,weusesymmetryinwriting.Inthearchitectureofsentences,asinthearchitectureofbuildings,wesetupsymmetriesallthetime.Actually,Iusedsymmetryinthatlastsentence:"Inthearchitectureofsentences,asinthearchitectureofbuildings..."Anditwasn'tevenonpurpose.Wejustdoitnaturally.Symmetricalstructureslendbalanceandbeautytoyoursentences.Theyalsohelpyourreadergrasptheideasthatyouarepresenting.BUT,ifyousetupasymmetricalstructureandthenfillthatstructurewithwordsorphrasesthataren'tsymmetrical,youendupwithFaultyParallelism.FaultyParallelismwillbeaboutasdisturbingtoyourreaderasBigBaby'seyelidwastome.Threeofthecoordinatingconjunctions,AND,OR,andBUT,aswellasthecorrelativeconjunctionsEITHER/ORandNEITHER/NORcansetupparallelstructuresanywhereinasentence.
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Lookatthesecompounds:
Compoundsubject:MichaelJordanandIcombinedforseventypoints.
Compoundverb:Wesanganddanced.
Compounddirectobject:Weatehotdogsandrelish.
Compoundpredicatecomplement:Youareagentlemanandascholar.
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Compoundobjectofthepreposition:Isingofarmsandtheman.Asyoucanseeinthesesentencediagrams,acompoundistypicallyrepresentedwiththatbranchingstructurethatlookslikearocketship.Inaproperlyformedcompound,theitemsoneitherlegoftherocketshipwillbethesamekindofgrammaticalstructure.Englishgrammargivesyousomanywaystoexpressthesameidea,however,thatyoumightendupexpressingsimilarideasusingdifferentstructuresoneithersideofacompound.Here'sanexampleofFaultyParallelism:Ilikeswimmingandtoplaybasketball.
Herewehaveacompounddirectobject,butononelegisthegerundswimming,andontheotheristheinfinitivephrasetoplaybasketball.Theyaren'tthesamekindofnounequivalents,andthereforeourrocketshipisasymmetrical.Thesentencepromisedparallelism,butdeliveredfaultyparallelism.
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Hereareafewwaystocorrectfaultyparallelism:1.Iliketoswimandtoplaybasketball.(Twoinfinitives)2.Iliketoswimandplaybasketball.(Compoundinfinitives)3.Ilikeswimmingandplayingbasketball.(Twogerunds)4.Ilikeswimmingandbasketball.(Twoabstractnounsbothnamingasport)Hereisanotherexampleoffaultyparallelism:
Dogsmustlearntoobeybutthattheyareloved.
Inthecompounddirectobject,onelegoftherocketshipisaninfinitive,andtheotherlegisanounclause.Wecouldfixitbysaying:
Dogsmustlearnthattheyhavetoobey,butthattheyareloved.Or,
Dogsmustlearntoobey.Buttheyalsoneedtoknowthattheyareloved.
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CorrelativeConjunctionsImentionedcorrelativeconjunctionsearlier.Theyare,
EITHER...ORNEITHER...NORBOTH...ANDNOTONLY...BUTALSO
Ifyouareusingacorrelativeconjunction,makesurethewordsonthefirsthalf(afterthefirstconjunction)areexactlythesamestructureasthewordsonthesecondhalf(afterthesecondconjunction.)Incorrect:Iamnotonlyscaredofalligatorsbutalsogrammarinstructors.Correct:Iamscarednotonlyofalligators,butalsoofgrammarinstructors.Intheaboveexample,eachhalfofthecorrelativeconjunctionisfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.FaultyParallelisminCompoundVerbsWithcompoundverbs,sometimesyoucanloseparallelismbyaccidentallyswitchingfromactivetopassivevoice(orvice-versa).Forexample:
Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebeforeandsattherestunned.Youcouldfixthisparallelismwithaparticiple:
Havingneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore,Isattherestunned.Ormakeitacompoundsentence:
Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore,soIsattherestunned.Ihadneverbeenslappedinthefacebefore;Isattherestunned.
Onequicktip:Youdohavemoreflexibilitywithacompoundsentencethanwithotherkindsofcompounds.Aslongasyouhaveanindependentclauseoneithersideoftheconjunction,youhaveaparallelconstruction.Sometimesthebestwaytofixfaultyparallelismistogetridofit.Justbecausefaultyparallelismistheproblem,thatdoesn'tmeangoodparallelismisthesolution.
Thinkintermsof“equalsigns.”InasentencelikeLaszloisafireman,thatlinkingverb(is)iseffectivelyanequalsigninthemiddleofyoursentence:Laszlo=fireman.Justasinmathorscience,whenyouhavetopayattentiontounits,makesurethatthethingsoneithersideoftheequalsignarethesamekindofthing.
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Considerthissentence,forinstance:Achildundergoinganesthesiaisafearfulexperienceforanyparent.
Inthissentence,child=experience.Thewriterprobablyintendedforthegerundundergoingtobethesubject.Inthatcase,heshouldhaveusedthepossessive:Achild'sundergoinganesthesiaisafearfulexperienceforanyparent.Ipreferthatsentencewithouttheparallelism:Thethoughtofachildundergoinganesthesiaterrifiesanyparent.Ormaybefixingthissentenceisachancetogetmorecreative:Athousandfearsracethroughamother'sheadwhenherchildundergoesanesthesia.Willhefeelaloneontheoperatingtable?Willhewakeup?Willhebethesamewhenhedoeswakeup?Grammarisneverjustgrammar.Thinkofeverygrammarchallengeasanopportunitytomakeyoursentencemoreexpressive.ComparisonsandParallelismOnarelatednote:Whenyousetupacomparison,thethingsoneithersideofthecomparisonneedtobethesamekindofthing:
LikeEve'sbiteoftheforbiddenfruit,Ihadeatengriefandlostmyinnocence.UnlikeEve,Ihadn'tbeengivenachoice.
Those"likes"areequalsigns.Eve'sbite=I.ThewritermeanstosaythatsheislikeEve,notthatsheislikeEve'sbite.
LikeEvewhenshebittheforbiddenfruit,Ihadeatengriefandlostmyinnocence.Belowareacoupleoflastthingstowrapthisup.Dospendsometimeonthequizforthislesson.ItcoversseveralthingsIwasn'tabletogettointhelecture.
1. Don'ttrytomakeeverythingparallel.Ifsomethingisn'tquiteparallelbutfixingtheparallelismmakesthingsworse,don'tfixtheparallelism.Forexample,TheoiltycoonaddressedCongresspowerfullyandwithgreatconviction.Powerfullyisanadverb,andwithgreatconvictionisaprepositionalphrase,butitdoesn'tsoundbad.Thereisn'tagoodadverbequivalenttowithgreatconviction,soIwouldleaveitasitis.
2. Theseissuesofparallelismareoneofthereasonsyouneedtoknowyourgrammarprettywell.Ithelpstobeabletoidentify,Oh,here'sacompounddirectobject,butononesideithasagerundandontheotherthere'sanounclause.Youcanfeelyourwaythroughalotofwritingissueswhenyou'reediting,butithelpstohavethetechnicalknowledge.
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Quiz4.6:Parallelism
Eachofthequestionsinthisquizinvolvesasentencewithaparallelismerror.Foreachoftheseexamples,youwillanswertwoquestions:
1. Whatistheprobleminparallelisminthissentence?Hint:lookfortheAND,BUT,orORandcomparethestructuresoneithersideofit.Orelselookforcomparisonwords,especiallyLIKEorAS.YoumightfindithelpfultodeterminewhatkindofparallelstructureAPPEARStobesetupinthesentence(forexample:compoundverb,compoundsubject,compounddirectobject,compoundpredicatecomplement,compoundobjectofpreposition,etc.)andgofromthere.
2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.Hint:thismaymeanmakingthingsparallel,oritmaymeanthrowingouttheparallelismaltogether.
Here'sasamplequestionwithanswers:Jorgelikestoplayvideogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampoline.
1. Thissentenceappearstohaveacompounddirectobjectfortheinfinitivetoplay.Thephrasesvideogamesandboardgamesworkfineasacompounddirectobject,butthegerundjumpingonthetrampolinedoesn'tworkasadirectobjectofplay.
2. Rewrite:Jorgelikesvideogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampoline.(Inthisversion,videogames,boardgames,andjumpingonthetrampolineformacompounddirectobjectoflikes.)
I.Hecamewalkingupourdrivewayincowboybootsandbandylegs.
1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
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II.Ibegantopanic:myheartthuddedandquicksucksofair.1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
III.Hepickeditup,tookabite,buthalfthecontentsspilledoutontotheplate.
1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
IV.Cynthiawasthefirsttocallme'Grandma'andcausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.
1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
V.ThepolicemantoldmetogetmycaroutoftheroadandalsothatIshouldgetanewwardrobe.
1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
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VI.Myarmsareheavyandyetjitterylikehavinglowbloodsugar.1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
VII.Henolongerhasthebronzedtwenty-year-oldhandsImetaroundtheswimmingpoolin1979.
1. Whatistheparallelismprobleminthissentence?2. Rewritethissentencewithouttheparallelismproblem.
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson7:NominativeAbsolutes
TheNominativeAbsoluteisoneofthosegrammaticalstructuresthatyoudon'thearalotabout,thoughyouseeitanduseitallthetime.TheNominativeAbsoluteisastructurewithinasentence,madeupofanounanditsmodifiers(usuallyincludingaparticiple)thathasnogrammaticalconnectiontoanythingelse.ThewordabsolutecomesfromtheLatinwordabsolutus,whichmeanssetfree.Nominativeisanotherwordfornoun,soaNominativeAbsoluteisanounphrasethatisfloatingfreefromthesentenceit'sin.ANominativeAbsoluteusuallysitsatthebeginningofasentence,sometimesattheveryend,andoccasionallysomewhereinthemiddle.Hereareafewexamples:
Allthingsconsidered,thatwasn'tsuchabadriot.
Allthingsbeingequal,Iliketeabetterthanspoiledmilk.
Mydoghavingchewedupmyretaineragain,Imadeyetanothertriptotheorthodontist.
You'llnoticethatyoucouldeasilymoveanyofthoseNominativeAbsolutestotheendofthesentence:
Thatwasn'tsuchabadriot,allthingsconsidered.
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Let'slookatwhataNominativeAbsoluteismadeof,itsform.
• NominativeAbsolute=Noun+modifiers...almostalwaysaparticiple(eitherpresentorpast)
• Forexample:Things(noun)+considered(pastparticiple)Theparticipialphrasecanbeaslongasyouwant.Forexample:
MydoghavingchewedupmyretainerinthedarkofnightwhileIsleptthesleepoftheblessed,completelyunawareofthenefariousdeedsbeingcommittedinthenextroom,Imadeanothertriptotheorthodontist.
Ofcourse,thatlongparticiple("havingchewedup...")delaysthemainverblongerthanwenormallylike,butthegrammarallowsforsuchalongandcomplicatednominativeabsolute(thoughconsiderationforthereaderprobablydoesn't).Nowlet'slookatthefunctionofaNominativeAbsolute.
• ANominativeAbsolutedoesnothaveagrammaticalconnectiontothesentencewhereitlives.Itisn'tanobjectoracomplement.It'sjustthere.Andtheparticipialphraseisjustasidekicktothefloatingnoun.
• TheNominativeAbsolutehasalogicalconnectiontoitssentence.Itprovidesexplanatoryinformationthataddsmeaningtothemainsentence.Inthatsense,it'salmostadverbial,commentingonthewholeactionofthesentence.
Youwouldn'tsay:
Mygrandmother,havingbeenbornin1918,Ipickedupsomegrocery-storesushi.It'sgrammaticallyfinetosaythat,butthere'snologicalconnectionbetweentheNominativeAbsoluteandthemainclause.ACoupleofFinalThoughtsTheNominativeAbsolutelooksalotlikeaparticipialphraseatthebeginningofthesentence.Havingchewedupmyretaineragain,mydoglookedashamed.Thedifferenceisthattheparticiplemodifiesthesubject,mydog.IntheNominativeAbsolute,thenounismovedintothephrase.Sonowitisself-containedandcanmovearound.Iwarnwritersagainstover-usingNominativeAbsolutes.They'recomplexstructures,sotheysoundverysophisticated.Buttheytendtobecomeasortofverbalhabit,andthatgetswearyingforyourreader.Bydefinition,aNominativeAbsoluteintroducesadisconnectintoyoursentence.You'reshootingforconnection,soalwaysaskyourselfiftheNominativeAbsoluteisreallynecessary.
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Quiz4.7:NominativeAbsolutes
I.Whatgrammaticalroledoesanominativeabsoluteserveinthesentencewhereitlives? A.Itisasubject. B.Itisaverb. C.Itisanobject. D.Itisacomplement. E.Itisamodifier. F.Ithasnogrammaticalconnection,onlyalogicalconnection.II.Anniesitsslumpedonaconcreteslab,herbackcurvedlikeanautilusshell.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?III.Warm,freshbreadtuckedundermyarm,Iwaitedformynewneighbortoanswermyknock.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?
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IV.Billpushedthewheelbarrowupthedriveway,Sadiewalkingbesidehim.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?V.Ibookeditoff-stage,myfriendswaitingtohelpmeintoabluedresswhilethechoruscontinuedtosinganddanceunderthelights.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?VI.He’scoming,determinedlittlelegscrossingcarpetexpanse,enteringthedogzone.Whatisthenominativeabsoluteinthissentence?
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LectureNotes
Module4,Lesson8:CourseWrapUp
Havealookatthisverylong,verycomplexsentence:Thisisthefarmersowinghiscorn,Whokepttheroosterthatcrowedinthemorn,Thatwokethepriestallshavenandshorn,Whomarriedthemanalltatteredandtorn,Whokissedthemaidenallforlorn,Whomilkedthecowwiththecrumpledhorn,Thattossedthedog,Thatworriedthecat,Thatkilledtherat,ThatatethemaltThatlayinthehousethatJackbuilt.Thatsentencehas70words.Ithas11adjectiveclauses,3prepositionalphrases,and3participialphrases.Andyouunderstooditjustfine.Thisisaverycomplexsentence,andyetquitereadable.Why?Becauseitfollowstwoprincipleswe'vebeendiscussingallalonginGrammarforWriters.
• Itgetsimmediatelytothesubject/verbnexus:Thisisthefarmer.• Allofthemodifierssitimmediatelynexttothewordstheymodify.
Areadercanhandletremendouscomplexityaslongasyouareprovidingthemarkersheneedstonavigateit.Whenyouloveyourreaderyouaresaying,"I'vegotthisthingIwanttoshowyou.It'salittlecomplicated.SoI'mtosticktotheserulesthatyouandIshare,andthatwaywecangetthroughthistogether."Languageallowsfornearlyinfinitecomplexity.Butthatcomplexityrestsonacombinationofformsthatarethemselvesprettysimpleandoftenprettyrigid.That'swhysomething
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likeMadLibsworks.Youcanpluginalmostanynounorverboradjectiveandstillhaveaworkingsentence,aslongasyouplugitintoaspotwhereanounorverboradjectivegoes.Asquirrelateanacorn.Asquirrelstoleanacorn.Aplumberstoleanacorn.Aplumberstolethepettycashbox.Almosteverywordofthatsentencehaschanged,andthemeaninghaschangedentirely.Buttheunderlyingstructurehasn't.It'sstillSubject-Verb-Object.Aslongasyouputtherightkindofwordineachslot,grammardoesn'tcareaboutthespecificwords.Sothecombinationsofwordswithinthegrammaticalstructuresareeffectivelyinfinite.Andthepossiblecombinationsofthegrammaticalstructuresareeffectivelyinfinitetoo.Butthegrammaticalstructuresthemselvesarenotinfinite.Infact,you'veinteractedwithprettymuchalloftheminthiscourse.Youknowallthegrammaryouneedtoconnecteffectivelywithyourreader.Ifyouhavetroublerememberingsomeforms,gobackandwatchthelecturesagain,orreviewthelecturenotes,orhaveanotherlookatthequizzes.Andhere'ssomethingelse:youknowallthegrammaticalstructuresyouneed,andyourreaderknowsthemtoo.Hemightnotknowheknowsthem,buthisbrainknowsthemwhenitseesthem.Youarereadytocommunicate.Asfarasvocabularygoes,youprobablyalreadyknowenoughwordstowritewhatyouwanttowrite.Itneverhurtstolearnmorevocabulary,butifyoureadalotyourvocabularywillgrownaturally.Don'tlearnvocabularyjusttoimpresspeople;thatjustputsthemoff.Languageiscomplex.Complexitymeanstherearealotofopportunitiestogetthingswrong.ANDYET,complexityalsomeansthatyouhavealotofdifferentoptionsforreachingouttoyourreaderandmakingconnections.Ihopethiscoursehasmadeyoulessafraidofthosepossiblepitfallsingrammarandmoreconfidentinyourabilitytoconnectreadersyoucareaboutwithideasandstoriesthatyoucareabout.Now,gowritesomethingbeautiful.
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QuizAnswers
Dr.JonathanRogers
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Quiz1.2AnswerKey
I. Thissentenceconsistsofasingleclause,themainlineofwhichisIworked.
Everythingelseisamodifier.OncetellswhenIworked,andataplumbingcompanytellswhereIworked.Here'sadiagram.
II. ThemainlinehereisIhaveadmiration.Theotherwordsarealladjectival,
modifyingadmiration.Here'sadiagram:
III. Thissentenceconsistsoftwoclauses,butonlyoneisamain(orindependent)
clause.Thatmostofusrunawayfromisadependent(adjective)clausemodifyingproblems.ThemainclauseisPlumbersconfrontproblems.Hereisadiagram:
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VI. Thissentencejusthasthemainclausewithoneadjectiveandoneadjectivalphrase.ThemainlineoftheclauseisIcannotimaginesociety.
V. Themainlinehereisfriendswere(not)civil.Everythingelseisamodifier.Here's
adiagram:
VI. ThemainlinehereisPlumbersconductfeud.
VII. Again,wehaveasentencewithtwoclauses.Itstartswithadependent(adverbial)
clausethattellswhen,orunderwhatconditionsyoushouldhugaplumber'sneck.Butthemainclauseisyoushouldhugneck.
Bearinmindthatalmosteverythingthatistrueofamainclauseisalsotrueofadependentclause.Asyoucanseefromthediagrambelow,thetwoclausesinthissentenceareverysimilarinstructure.Still,thedistinctionbetweendependentandindependentclausesisimportantandnottobeignored.Here'sthatdiagram:
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Quiz1.3AnswerKey
I. Hopefullythiswasaneasyoneforyou.IfyouapplytheVerbFinder,chasedis reallytheonlywordthatfits. Well,Isupposeit'spossiblethat'mob'couldfit...itseemsliketheBeatleswere alwaysgettingmobbed.Dopopsingersstillgetmobbed?II. IfyouuseyourVerbFinderhere,shoneistheonlywordthatfitsintheblank: I[blank].You[blank].He/She/It[blank].III. Fromthelastquestion,youknowthattheverbforthissentenceisshone.Plugthat verbintoyourSubjectFinder:Whoorwhatshone?Wisdomshone. Thewords"manyyears'rough"modifywisdom.Theytelluswhatkindofwisdom we'retalkingabout.Eyeistheobjectoftheprepositionfrom,anditismodifiedby thewords"onegood,"whichtelluswhatkindofeye.IV. PulloutthatVerbFinderagain:I[blank].You[blank].He/she/it[blank]. Inthiscase,morethanonewordcouldfitinthoseblanks.Frightenedcouldfit.Cried couldfit.*Sowhichofthoseistheverb?Well,theactionhere iscrying.Frightenedstartedoutlifeasaverb,buthereitisnotaverbbuta modifier—apastparticipledescribingJohnBarber'spitiablestateofmind. Criedistheverb.Plugthatverbintothesubjectfinder—Whocried?—andyoueasily findyoursubject.JohnBarbercried. *IfthiswereLatin,possumwouldalsobeacandidatefortheverb.PossumisLatin for"Iamable."V. I'msureyou'vealreadymemorizedyourlistoftobeverbs,soyouwouldn'thave hadanytroubleseeingthatwas(aformoftobe)pointstoyourverb.The
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questioniswhetherornotwasisthewholeverborahelpingverb.Inthiscase,it's ahelpingverb.Thewholeverbiswaschased.VI. Youknowfromthepreviousquestionthattheverbhereiswaschased.Whenyou applytheSubjectFinderandaskWhowaschased?it'srelativelyeasytoseethatthe subjectispirate. Remember,identifyingthegrammaticalsubjectisnotthesamethingasidentifying theactor.Theangrymobistheactor.Thatpoorpirateisreceivingtheactionof chasing,notdoingtheaction(though,nodoubt,itfeelsplentyactivetohim).Froma logicalperspective,iftheactionischasing,heistherecipientofthataction,notthe agent.Butthewholepointofthepassivevoiceistoallowsomethingorsomebody besidestheactortobethesubject.TheSubjectFinderwillalwaysidentify thegrammaticalsubject,nottheactor.InalaterlessonI'llhavealotmoretosay aboutaligningthesubjectwiththeactor.VII. Inonesense,thisisaneasyone.Anytimeyouseeaformoftobe,youhavefound theverb(oratleastpartoftheverb).And,asyouknow,isisaformoftobe.So that'sourverb. However,thisisanothersentencethatdemonstratesthedifferencebetweenthe actioninasentenceandtheverbinasentence.Chasingfeelsmoreactivethanis.So, forthatmatter,doesactivity.ButifyouuseyourVerbFinder,neitherchasing noractivityfitsintheblank.Onlyisdoes.VIII. Youmayhavefoundthisoneatadtricky.But,asalways,theSubjectFindercomesto therescue.Weknowfromthepreviousquestionthattheverbisis.SoourSubject FinderquestionisWhatis? Ifthiswereashort-answerquestionratherthanamultiple-choicequestion,you probablywouldhaveansweredchasingcars.Thatwouldhavebeenagoodanswer. ButIdidn'tgiveyouthatchoice,becauseIwantedyoutohavetochoose betweenchasingandcars.Andsinceyou'rehavingtochoose,thecorrectchoice ischasing.Thedog'sfavoriteactivityischasing,notcars.IX. Thesubject/verbnexusofthefirstclauseisIarrange. Thesubject/verbnexusofthesecondclauseisyoudestroy.
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Quiz1.4AAnswerKey
I. Thesubjectisyear(thefirstone),theverbiswas,andthepredicatecomplement isyear(thesecondone). Here'sthediagram:
II. Thesubjectofthissentenceisstep.Towardrecoverymodifiesstep,andofself- esteemmodifiesrecovery. Self-awarenessisapredicatecomplement.Itrenamesstep.Theto-beverbisisa cluethatwehaveapredicatecomplementratherthanadirectobject. Here'sthediagram:
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III. Thissentencedoeshaveadirectobject—thenounclauseiftheyweretalking
aboutme.Iwonderedwhat?Iftheyweretalkingaboutme.WewilldiscussnounclausesinModule3.Meanwhile,bearinmindthattheDirectObjectFinderworksnotonlywithsimplenouns,butwitheverykindofnounequivalent.
Here'sthediagram:
IV. Subject:oldman Verb:was Here'sasimplifieddiagram(technicallyspeaking,theverbinthewhoclauseis turnedoutandtobeGeorgeJonesisaninfinitivephraseservingasthepredicate complement,butatthispointinourjourneythissimplifiedversionseemed adequate):
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Quiz1.4BAnswerKey
I. ThemainlinehereisMikeleaned.Everythingelseisamodifier.The adverbforwardtellshowheleaned,asdoesthephraseontherail.Everythingelse tellsuswhichrail.Thereisasecondclauseinthissentence--"thatseparatedthe porch..."--butthisisanadjectiveclausetellinguswhichrail,notamainclause. Here'sthediagram:
II. ThemainactionhereisHemakes(his)trot.Everythingelseisa modifier.Slowandgloatingtelluswhatkindoftrot.Aroundthediamondtells uswherehetrotted.Squeezedintothebackyardtellsuswhatkindofdiamond(or possiblywhichdiamond).Here'sthediagram:
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III. Themainlinehereisfamilymoved.ToPhoenixandfromChicagobothtell uswherethefamilymoved,andwhenIwasseventellsuswhenthefamilymoved. Here'sthediagram:
IV. Themainlineistruckhasbeensitting.Theverbhereisthreewords—hasbeen sitting.Hasandbeenarehelpingverbs.Inmydrivewaytellsuswherethetruck hasbeensitting,andformonthstellsuswhenthetruckhasbeensitting.Here'sthe diagram:
V. Themainlineisfamilytradedtornadoes.Goingwestisamodifier.Technically, thisisaparticipialphrasemodifyingfamily,butreallyitfeelsmoreadverbialhere, tellingusunderwhatcircumstancesthefamilytradedtornadosfortumbleweeds andearthquakeaftershocks.Everythingaftertornadosis,technicallyspeaking,a compoundprepositionalphraseservingtotellhowthefamilytradedtornadoes. Here'sthediagram:
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VI. ThemainlinehereisTheyhadnottouchedthebirdfeeder.Ihungtwoweeks agoisaclausetellinguswhichbirdfeeder.Here'sthediagram:
VII. Thisoneisalittletricky.Thesubject/verbnexusofthemainclauseistruth broke.Thatopeningclause,Asthemists...cleared,tellsuswhenthetruthbroke, andthephrasewithalightthatpiercestothisdaytellsushowthetruthbroke.
VIII. Forthefirstindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusiswaterwas.Forthe secondindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusisthatwas. Hereisthediagram:
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IX. Forthefirstindependentclause,thesubject/verbnexusisitwas.Forthesecond independentclause,thesubject/verbnexusiswehadcamped. Here’sthediagram:
X. TheonlycompletesentenceisLikethebackofmygrandmother’shands,the delicateveinsarevisible.(Thissentencehassomeissues,asyouwilllearnwhen wediscusspassivevoiceinLessons7and8ofthismodule,andwhenwediscuss parallelisminModule4,butitisasentencewithbothmainsubjectandamainverb, unliketheotherthreegroupsofwordsabove.)XI. Trickquestion!There'snomainverbhere.Thisisasentencefragment.Madeisa verb,butitisaverbinadependent(adjective)clause.And'todrink'isaninfinitive ratherthanaverb.Thesethingswillmakesenselateriftheydon'talready.
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Quiz1.5AAnswerKey
I. E.NemesisrenamesJohnBarber,soitisapredicatecomplement.II. C.DirectObjectFinder:JohnBarbersoldwhat?Afakeelevatorpass.IndirectObject
Finder:JohnBarbersoldafakeelevatorpasstoorforwhom?Me.I'mstillmadaboutit.
III. D.OnceyouhaveidentifiedJohnBarberastheDOinthissentence,youstillneedto accountforsneakymonkey.ThephraserenamestheDOJohnBarber,soitisanOC.I couldhavecalledhimmuchworse.IV. B.ThephrasewithagloveisamodifiertellinghowJohnBarberslapped.It'snoton themainline.ThatleavesJohnBarberslappedmeonthemainline,anditis relativelyeasytoseehowthatclauseconformstotheS-V-DOpattern.V. B.Theverbhereiscould(not)ignore.Icouldnotignorewhat?Theinsult.Idaresay youcouldn'thaveignorediteither.VI. A.Thephraseinthevestibuleisadverbial,tellingwherewefought.ThatleavesWe foughtonthemainline,soit’sobviouslytheS-Vpattern.VII. B.Thestoryhasahappyending.
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Quiz1.5BAnswerKey
I. B.S-V-DO
II. E.S-V-PC
III. E.S-V-PC
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IV. B.S-V-DOAsyoucanseeinthediagrambelow,howtochangethebedsheets...isanounclause
servingasthedirectobjectoftheverbshowed.[Itlooksliketheleftsideofthe diagramgotcutoff.Sorryaboutthat,butforthepurposesofthisquestion,themore relevantpartsofthediagramareallthere.]
V. A.S-V
VI. E.S-V-PC
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VII. A.S-V
VIII. C.S-V-IO-DO
IX. D.S-V-DO-OC
X. C.S-V-IO-DO
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Quiz1.6AnswerKey
I. Therearetwoactionsinthatsecondsentence:Irenecallsout,andJimmylaughs.But theverblaughsbecomesthenounlaughter,tuckedawayasthedirectobjectinan adjectiveclause.AndJimmyhasdisappearedcompletelyfromthatsecond sentence.Hereisonewaytoreworkthesentence:Irenewouldcallout"Jimmy,stop it!"andJimmywouldlaughallthemore.II. Lookatthesubjectandverbofthissentence:furniture,clothing,andeducation madethemotherwilling(thisclausepatternisS-V-DO-OC).Therealactionhere— themothermakingchoices—getsmovedtoaparticiple(willing)modifiedbyan infinitivephrase(tostretch…)modifiedbyanadverbialclause(thatthey sometimesdisappearedaltogether).Bringingthegrammarinlinewiththeaction willprobablyinvolvemakingthemotherthesubjectofthesentence.
• Mymothersometimesstretchedourlimitedmeanstothebreakingpointinordertogiveusfinefurniture,goodclothes,andprivateeducation.
• Mymotherthoughtitwasimportantforustohavefinefurniture,goodclothes,andaprivateeducation.Shewaswillingtostretchourmeanstothebreakingpointtomakesurewehadthosethings.
Asalways,thesearejusttwoofmanypossiblewaystoreworkthesesentences.III. Thatphrasesnappedoffandneverreattachedisaparticipialphrase(actually,two participialphrases).Snappedandreattachedlooklikeverbs,buttheyserve asmodifiers.Theverbhereisthepassiveis[presumed]lost. Soherearetheactions:
• Askipoleissnappedoff.• Askipoleisneverreattached.• Askipoleislost.
(Ihaveexpressedallthreeoftheseactionsaspassiveconstructions,butsincewe don'tknowtheactorshere,Ihopeyouwillforgiveme.) Here'sonewaytobringtheverbsandsubjectsmoreinlinewiththeaction:The rightskipolesnappedoffandwasneverreattached.Itislosttothetundra.
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IV. Thesubject-verbnexusofthemainclauseismomentfilled.Thesubject-verbnexus ofthesubordinateclauseisthat[surge]wasabouttoensue.Here'sadiagram:
Whataretheactions?
• Apersonsneezes(or,rather,isabouttosneeze).• Apersonfeelsdread.• Apersonknowsthatpainiscoming.
Therearelotsofwaystorevisethissentence.Here'sone:EverytimeIfeltasneeze comingon,Iwasfilledwithfear.IknewIwasabouttofeelasurgeofpain.I'mnot convincedthisisthebestwaytorevisethissentence,butasyoucansee,the grammarmorecloselyalignswiththeactionthanintheoriginal.V. Quicknote:Whenyoustartasentencewith"thereis/was/are/were,"youwill
ALWAYShaveamismatchbetweenactors/actionsandsubjects/verbs.
Actions/StatesofBeing:• Eventsandvenueswerescarce.• Mothergladlypaidthecostofroadtrips.
SubjectsandVerbs:• Scarcitywas• Costwas
Possiblerevision:
Culturaleventswerescarceinourhometown,somymothergladlypaidthecostof frequenttripstothecity.
Orperhaps,
Wehadfewculturalopportunitiesinourhometown,somymothergladlymade frequenttripstothecity.
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VI. Actorsandactions:• Aseventh-graderbegshermothertotakehertoaplay.• Themotherenthusiasticallysays“Yes.”• Theseventh-graderisn'tsurprised.
Subjectsandverbs:
• "Yes"was(not)surprising.• Ibegged.
Here'sonewaytorevise:InseventhgradeIbeggedmymothertotakemetoaplayattheTivoliTheater.Iwasn'tsurprisedwhenshegavemeanimmediateandenthusiastic"Yes!"
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Quiz1.7AnswerKey
I. No.Thisisactive.Theverbhadbeatenisinpast-perfect.Likepassivevoice,the past-perfecttenseusesthefourthprincipalpart(beaten).Sointhatregardit resemblespassivevoice.Butthinkintermsoffunction,notform.Inthiscase,the bearisthegrammaticalsubject,andthebearistheactor(he'stheonewhodoesthe beating).ThepassiveformwouldbesomethingalongthelinesofWewerebeaten herebythelargebear...II. No.Thissentenceisnotinpassivevoice.Inthiscase,theto-beverbwasdepictsa stateofbeing.Remember,ifthiswereinpassivevoice,thegrammaticalsubject wouldbereceivingsomeaction.III. Yes.Thissentencestartswithadependentclause,Whenallelsefails.Thatclauseis inactivevoice.Butthemainclause,adogcanbecountedon,ispassive.IV. Yes.Thisisaprettygrosspassiveconstruction.Itwouldbebettertosay,Wesawa creatureswimming—abeaver?”V. No.Inthiscase,theto-beverbwasisusedasahelpingverbinthepast-progressive
verbwasstudying.Thegrammaticalsubject(He)istheactor(Heisdoingthestudy,notgettingstudied),sothisisnotpassivevoice.
VI. Bothofthesesentencesarepassive.ThedifferencebetweenthemisthatinSentence 1theactors(wolves)arenamed,andinSentence2theactorsareomitted.Who raisedJohnBarberinabarninSentence2?Wolves?Hisparents?French mimes?There'snowayofknowing.VII. Elvisusedthishandkerchief.VIII. AglassofwaterwasgiventoLindabyUncleThurston. or(ifyouwishtoleaveUncleThurstonoutofit) AglassofwaterwasgiventoLinda.
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IX. LindawasgivenaglassofwaterbyUncleThurston. Alsoacceptable: Lindawasgivenaglassofwater.X. Revisedversion:Twohourslater,afterwehadeatenthesandwiches,thethunder came.(I'mjustguessing,ofcourse,thatwearethecorrectactorsforthisaction, sincethepassiveconstructionconcealstheactor(s).Youmayhaveguessed differently.That'sfine.)XI. 1.Thatlastsentenceisinpassivevoice.
2.Thisisanunfortunatechoice,becausequick-thinkingCurtis,themanofthehour,completelydisappearsjustathismomentoftriumph.Actually,therearetwopassiveverbsinthatlastsentence.Thesecond—Iwassurroundedbyfriends—isn'tsoegregiousasthefirst—Iwastossed—whicheffectivelyerasesourhero.3.Revised,activeversion:Hetossedmeinthepool,andfriendssurroundedmewithinseconds.Ifyouprefertoleavethesecondpassiveconstruction,thatworksfine:Hetossedmeinthepool,andIwassurroundedbyfriendswithinseconds.Inthatsecondversion,noticethatthenarrator,thereinthecenterofherfriends,isthegrammaticalsubjectofherownclause,andthatisentirelyappropriate.
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Quiz1.8AAnswerKey
I. A.Intheactivevoice,theactoristhesubject.Inthepassivevoice,theactorismoved outofsubjectposition.Theactormaybetuckedawayastheobjectofapreposition (TheflowersweregiventoBarbieBYKEN),ortheactormaydisappearaltogether (TheflowersweregiventoBarbie).II. CandD.Inapassiveconstructiontheactorismovedoutofthesubjectposition,to bereplacedbyadirectobject(FlowersweregiventoBarbiebyKen)oranindirect object(BarbiewasgivenflowersbyKen).III. AthruD.Alloftheanswersareproblemsassociatedwiththepassivevoice.IV. 1.Whenconcealing/denyingagency
2.Whentheactorisunknown3.Whendirectingthereader'sattentiontosomethingbesidestheactor4.Whenexpressingpassivity(thesubjectofthesentencewasthevictim/receiverofanaction)
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Quiz1.8BAnswerKey
I. Iwouldgivehispassiveconstructionahardno.Thepainterisholdinghisbrush, dabblingitinthepaint,brushingitonthecanvas...andthenjustwhenhe'saboutto finishhismasterpiece,POOF!,apassiveconstructionrendershiminvisible.II. Byusingthepassivevoice,thiswritergivesthesubjectpositiontothecatalogs ratherthangivingittothetruck.Thetruckisn'tasimportantasthecatalogsandthe bills.Idon'tknowifthewriterwasdoingthisonpurpose,butthissentence structurecreatesanicebalancebetweenthecatalogsandthebills,withthetruckas thefulcrumoftheteeter-totter.Ithinkthepassivevoiceisagoodchoicehere.III. Iwouldsaythetwopassiveconstructionsinthesecondsentenceareentirely appropriate.Itdoesn'tseemrelevanttosaywhobroughtthewaterfromthe mountainsanddistributeditthroughthecanals,evenifweknew.Asforthefirst sentence,thatpassiveconstructionisn'tterrible,butIfinditalittledistracting.You couldsay"Farmersgrowcitrustrees,almondtrees,etc.,"butIthinkIwouldjustsay "Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesgrowsuccessfully..." Here'swhatmyrevisionwouldlooklike: Citrustrees,almondtrees,cotton,andgrapesgrowsuccessfullythanksto irrigation.Thewaterisbroughtdownfromthemountainsthroughanaqueductand distributedbyacanalsystem.IV. Idon'tthinkitmakesalotofsensetointroducetheanonymousartisthere.Iwould probablymakethewholethingpassive,orperhapsjustuseagoodoldlinkingverb ortwotodescribethescenesothatIhavelesspassivevoicebutIdon'thavetotalk abouttheartist.Here'sanall-passiveversion: Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvas onwhichthecedarsceneisset.Intocedarwoodiscarvedatinyfirtreestuntedat halfthebear’sheight.
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Andhere'saversionthatuseslinkingverbsinthoselasttwosentences: Heisgluedtothickskisthatsitatopawoodenplank.Thewoodenplankisacanvasfor thecedarscene.Atinyfirtreecarvedfromcedarstandsstuntedathalfthebear’s height.V. Iwoulddefinitelykeepthefirstpassiveconstruction.Thereisnoactive-voicewayto communicatetheideaofbeingtransported(thoughyoucould,ofcoursecomeup withsomethingfresherthatmightbeactive).I'mnotassureIwouldkeepthe secondpassiveconstruction,thoughit'shardtoknowhowbesttoreviseit.Iassume thatPedroandIfromthefirstclauseexploredtheircreativity.Didtheyfosterit too,ordidtheirparentsfosterit?Didtheenvironmentfosterit?Noticehowthe passivevoiceallowsawritertogetawaywithsomeimprecision.Here'sonewayto revise: PedroandIhavelittlecontactthesedays,butwhenIthinkbackonourfriendshipI’m transportedbacktothatredbrickhouseonSpruceStreetwherewefosteredcreativity andexploredourimaginations.
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Quiz1.9AnswerKey
I. AbstractionII. ComplyIII. RevealIV. Here'sonepossiblerevision:Leonardwasn'tpayingattention,sohecollidedwitha telephonepole. Ifyouwanttobemorespecific,youcansaysomethinglikethis: Leonardlookedupfromhistelephonejustbeforehecollidedwiththetelephonepole.V. Mariaarguedthatshewouldbeexposedtonewriskswhenthepolicyexpired.VI. Ioriginallywasn'tinterestedinknowingher;Ionlywantedhertoacceptme.
VII. Here'sonewaytodoit:AfterDalefellfromaladderatawarehousejobandinjured hisshoulderworkingasajanitoratthecountyjail,hewasnonetoosteadyonhisfeet.VIII. Someofmyfavoriteswerebooksandbaseballcards,butingeneralIwasunderthe impressionthatthebiggerthegiftthebetter,andIhadlittlerespectforbirthday cards.IX. Onthoseoccasionswhenheremovedhisshades,herevealedglassy,bloodshoteyes.
Or, Occasionallyheremovedhisshades.Whenhedid,Icouldseehiseyeswereglassyand bloodshot.
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Quiz1.10AnswerKey
I. am,is,are,was,be,being,beenII. Thisstatementisfalse.Communicatingastateofbeingisaperfectlyrespectablejob foraverb.Thetobeverbisthemostcommonstateofbeingverb.Thisverbhasa badreputationbecauseitisoftenanaccompliceinwritingcrimessuchas inappropriatepassivevoiceandexcessivenominalization.Butthereisnoshamein usingatobeverbtocommunicateastateofbeing,noristhereanyshameinusing thetobeverbasahelpingverbintheprogressivetenses(whichyouwilllearn aboutinafuturelesson).III. Icanenvisionhairthatisasexpansiveasanexplosion;it'savividimage.AndIcan envisiontight,brownringlets.Butit’shardtoenvisionbothatthesametime.Ifyou wantmetoenvisiontight,brownringlets,don’taskmetoimaginethemasan explosion.Ifyouwantmetoenvisionanexplosion,don’taskmetoenvisionitas somethingtightandcontrolled.IV. Cliffsdon'thover.Actually,theystayverystillandsolid.Theremaybe circumstancesunderwhichyoucoulddescribeacliffashoveringinsome figurativesense.Buthere,whereapersonisjumpingoffaclifftogohang-gliding, thecliffistheleasthover-ythinginthesentence.Thehang-glidermighthover.The personattachedtothehang-glidermighthover.Butthecliffistheonethingthatjust sitsthere.V. Whenathingmelts,itgetssofter.Butwedon'tthinkofadefiantfaceasbeingsofter thanabewilderedface.Infact,weusuallythinkofitasquiteabitharder.Iwould saysomethingmorealongthelinesof:Hisbewilderedfacehardenedintodefiance.VI. IsuspectthisisoneofthosesituationsinwhichthewriterstartedoutwithThe rectangularstudiohadpolishedwoodfloors...anddecidedthatheldwouldbea moreinterestingverbthanhad.Idon'tagreethatheldismoreinterestingthan had.
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Whenyounoticethataverbisn'tasinterestingasyouwantittobe,remember,the answerisn'tnecessarilyamatterofplugginginadifferentverb.Maybeyouneedto domorereworkingthanthat. ThestudiowasarectangleabouthalfthesizeofanOlympicswimmingpool—more thanenoughroomformytenlittledancerstoplieandpirouette.Thegleamofits polishedwoodfloorwasreflectedinafullwallofmirror.Abarreranthelengthofthe mirror,thenturnedthecornertorunalongasidewallinagreat"L."VII. Painting,brushing,andpattingareverydifferentactionsfromchiseling.Thewriter herewantstoconveytheideathatthisexhilaratedexpressionisaspermanentasif ithadbeenchiseled,butbecausehehasalreadycommittedtopainting,brushing, andpatting,chiselingisnolongeravailabletohim. Theuseoftheprepositionontoinsteadofintomakesmethinkthiswriterisn’t tooseriousabouttheverbchiselanyway.
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Quiz1.11AnswerKey
I. Subject:pain Verb:wouldsurge Thatcommajustbeforetheverbisacluethatthereisaproblem.Anytimeyou're temptedtoputacommabeforetheverb,youprobablyneedtogetthesubjectand theverbclosertogether.Here'sonepossiblerewrite: EverytimeItriedtogetoutofbed,liquidpainsurgedthroughmyback,sointensethat itstolemybreath.II. Oneoption:Shehadneverbeforeexperiencedtheeerie,emptydarknessthatnow envelopedthethree-storyfoyerofherfather'sbig,glassed-inoffice.III. Onepossibility:Hisponytailcomeslooseandthreefeetofgrayingbrownhairdrapes hisshoulders;thissightistypicallyonlyobservedbyimmediatefamilyoranyonelucky enoughtocatchhimsippingcoffeeonadayoff.IV. Onepossibleanswer:Mygreat,greatuncleMarionwasaneccentricartist.Heframed hiswatercolorswithplanksfromtheporchandworehisteethonlyforimportant events.AfewyearsafterhediedTheVaseappeared,andwejokedthathissonBert hadputhisashesinitandplaceditonhismantel.V. Here'soneoption:Intheredbrickhomeofthewomannextdoor,aweeklyrhythm bandfortheneighborhoodchildrenputthedelighttomusic.VI. Here'soneoption:Thirtyfeetfromthewaterafringeofgnarledpinerootsreached outintotheemptyair,markingtheborderbetweenbarerubbleandstubbornforest. Thisalterationlookslikeitdidn'tmovethesubjectatall,butitactuallychangesthe verbfrommarkstoreached.
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VII. Onepossibility:Loadedwithpurse,emptiedpicnicbasket,andtissue-filledgiftbag, themothertrudgedupthebackstepswiththreesweatykids,readytoescapetheJuly sun.VIII. Here'sonepossibility:Sheerexhilarationmixedwithutterterror.Launchingfromthe swing,Ifeltweightless,suspendedinmidair,untilIfeltthepulloftheearthdownward andsawthegrowingpuddlebelowme.Thejourneywasastonishing.
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Quiz1.12AnswerKey
I. AtoD.Anythingonthemainlinecanbecompounded.II. for,and,nor,but,or,yet,soIII. Run-onsentence CommaspliceIV. 1.Thecompoundcomplementisbell-bottoms+sweater. 2.Therearethirteenwordsbetweenbell-bottomsandsweater.Simplyflip-flopping thetwomakesabigdifference: 3.Maybethatdayitwasapilledtansweaterandgreenplaidbell-bottomsayearor twopasttheirheightofcoolness.V. 1.Thecompoundverbiswasfurnished+smelt. 2.Youmightflip-flopthetwoverbphrases:Theroomsmeltmustyandwasfurnished withpiecesthatcouldeasilyhavebeenfroma1960scatalog. Oryoumightgiveuponthecompoundverbandcommunicatethemustysmellwith aparticiple:Themusty-smellingroomwasfurnishedwithpiecesthatcouldeasilyhave beenfroma1960scatalog. VI. 1.Thisisarun-onsentence.Ifinishedplayingandthehissoftherespiratoronce againfilledtheroomlikeincenseareindependentclauses.Tojointhemintoa compoundsentence,youneedacoordinatingconjunction(and)alongwitha comma. 2.Technically,thisiscorrect:Ifinishedplaying,andthehissoftherespiratoronce againfilledtheroomlikeincense.However,theactionsofthetwoclausesareso differentthatIthinkthissentencemakesmoresensedividedintotwosimple
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sentences:Ifinishedplaying.Thehissoftherespiratoronceagainfilledtheroomlike incense.VII. Mysisterhadaskedforadozendolls,andmybrother'swishlisthadafrontandback.VIII. 1.Thecompoundobjectoftheprepositionisdoll+heart. 2.Mydollandarepentantheartvarysowidelyinnaturethatitishardtopicture Brianwalkinginthedoorholdingboth.Writersoftendothissortofthingfor humorouseffect,andthatisfine.Justbeawarethatyoudon'twanttodothisthingif you'renotbeingfunny. Onerevisionmightbe:Briancamehomewitharepentantheart,holdingmydollin hishand.
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Quiz1.13AnswerKey
I. Thistimetomorrowisthetimeflag.II. Irealizedafterafewminutesthatmydadhadnotdrivenawaybutwassittinginthe carwatching.
Theflagonthetimelineisafterafewminutes.Thesentencealsousesthepastprogressivetense:wassitting.Sequentially,hadnotdrivencomesbetweenthosetwoverbsandiscompleted,sothepastperfecttensemakesthemostsense.
III. I.Thetimeflagisthistimetomorrow,soyouknowitwillbeoneofthefutureforms.
Willbe+-ingsignalsfutureprogressive.IV. B.SincethetimeflagisDecember11,1941,youknowtheverbtensewillbeoneof thepastforms.Thehelpingverbhad+the-edendingsignalsthepastperfecttense. ThedeclarationsofwarwerecompleteasofDecember11,1941.V. B.Thebestoptionhereis:Ihadn'triddenmorethanamilebeforethedownpour started.Ifeltbadformywife;sheHADBEENhanginglaundryoutsidewhenIleft thehouse. Inthatlastsentence,theflagonthetimelineiswhenIleftthehouse.Thelaundry- hangingwasinprogressatthatpointinthepast,sothepastprogressivewas hangingshouldbecomehadbeenhanging.VI. D.Thesentenceisbetteras-is.
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Quiz2.2AnswerKey
I. B,C,F Ineachoftheseexamples,simplytryingthewordandbetweenthetwoadjectives givesyoutheanswer.Youwouldn'tsaybasicandhumandecencyortediousand planningmeetingorplainandgoldband,soyoudon'tneedcommasbetweenthose pairs.Butyoucouldsayripeandsweetberriesorlongandtediousplanningmeeting orfatandsoftsheep. AnothertrickthatIfailedtomentioninthelectureistotryflip-floppingthe adjectives.Iftheyworkjustaswellinthereverseorder,youdefinitelyneeda commabetweenthem.There'snorealdifferencebetweenfatsoftsheepandsoftfat sheep,soyouneedacommathere.Ontheotherhand,sweetspringgrassandspring sweetgrassarenotinterchangeable,soyoudon'tneedacommathere.II. A,B,E,G,H,J
Hyphenatetwoormorewordswhentheyserveasasingleadjectivebeforethenountheymodify—butnotwhentheyformapredicateadjective.Soyouwouldhyphenatemytwo-year-oldnephewbutnotmynephewistwoyearsold.
Donoticethatwhenyouhaveanadverb,youdon'tneedahyphen.Neitherheavily paintednorclearlyimpossibleshouldbehyphenated.Doyouseethedifference betweenheavilypaintedandhand-painted?Thewordhandisn'tanadverb.Ifthis doesn'tmakesensenow,itmaymakemoresenseafterwegetintoparticiples.III. B,D,GIV. SloppilyisanadverbtellingHOWJohnBarbercried. V. Lazyinasadjectivemodifyinggoat.IttellsWHATKINDofgoat(orpossiblyWHICH goat.) VI. Tomorrowisanadverbmodifyingtheverbcall.IttellsWHENIwillcall.
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Quiz2.3AnswerKey
I. Iwouldomitbothdigitallyandrelationally.Theseadverbssimplyrepeatthe meaningofthephrasestheyinhabit.BeingconnectedtotheInternetisnecessarily digital,andbeingconnectedtopeopleisnecessarilyrelational.Theresulting sentenceiscleanerwhilestillkeepingobviousthecontrastbetweendigital connectionandrelationaldisconnection:TheymaybeconnectedtotheInternet,but theyaredisconnectedfromoneanother.II. Thissentenceisagoodexampleofwhyadverbshaveabadreputation.Theadverb loudlyallowsthewritertobelazy.Insteadoffindingthemostpreciseverb,the writerhasjustaddedan-lyadverbtothegenericverbshut.There'saneasyfixhere: theverbslammeanstoshutloudly.Butthiswouldalsobeagoodopportunityto thinkthroughamorevividdepictionofthescene.Maybesomethinglikethis:A momentlaterhisdoorswungopen,thenshudderedonitshingesasheslammedit behindhim.III. Theadverbquicklyisentirelyunnecessary.Ifshe’shalf-running,she’smoving quickly.IV. Inthiscase,theadverbscontributemeaning.Thiswriter(whohappenstobe WendellBerry)isnotusingtheseadverbsasasubstituteforabetterverb,norishe beingredundant.There'snoshameinusing-lyadverbswhentheyaddspecificity andclarity.V. Thiswriterwastryingalittletoohardtoavoid-lyadverbs.Thatfour-word prepositionalphrase,inafranticmanner,isnotanimprovementovertheadverb frantically.Hebouncedfrantically,yippingandbarking.
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Quiz2.5AnswerKey
I. Theprepositionalphraseaftermeisadverbial,tellingwhenyoucanhaveaturn.II. Theprepositionalphraseaftermeisadverbial,tellingwhenyoucanhaveaturn. Noticethatanadverbialphraseismovable.Itdoesn’tmatterwhetheritappearsat thebeginningofthissentenceortheend.III. Theprepositionalphraseintotheburningbuildingisadverbial,tellingwhereJohn Barberran.(ThephrasetosavehisBeanieBabycollectionisaninfinitivephrase,not aprepositionalphrase,eventhoughtoisusuallyapreposition.We’lldiscuss infinitivephrasesinacoupleoflessons.)IV. Theprepositionalphraseofbirdsongisadjectival,tellingwhatkindofcacophony.V. Theprepositionalphraseunderthemattressisadjectival,tellingwhichmoney.VI. Theprepositionalphraseunderthemattressisadverbial,tellingwhereIhidthe money.VII. Theprepositionalphraseonthefloornearbyisadverbial,tellingwherethefansat.VIII. Theprepositionalphrasewithastraightfaceisadverbial,tellinghowHelenlooked.IX. Theprepositionalphrasewiththemermaidtattooisadjectival,tellingwhichgirl.X. Theprepositionalphraseiswithbinoculars.Butit’snotentirelyclearwhetherit’s supposedtobeadverbial,tellinghowHelenlooked,oradjectival,tellingwhichgirl.
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Quiz2.7AnswerKey
I. Thegrammaticalsubjectofthesentenceissmile.Butthesmile,ofcourse,didn't
wipeteafromitsmustache.Here'sonewaytofixit:Thehusbandwipesteafromhishandlebarmustache.Hissmileiswideenoughtodriveatractorthrough.
II. Thegrammaticalsubjectisbird.Butthebirdisn'tbreakfastingonthepatio.Here's onewaytofixit:OnawarmOctobermorning,whiletheybreakfastedonthepatio,a birdswoopeddownandlandedontheirtable.III. Here'sonefix:IspentfivehoursansweringalltheERnurses'questions,nevergetting clarityonanyofmine,beforethedoctorfinallyenteredtheroom.IV. Thetemperapaintersarehalf-clothed,butthankstothepassiveconstruction,they havedisappearedfromthesentencealtogether,sotheparticiplehalf-clothedhasno nountomodify(neitherabackyardnortheabstractnountempera-paintingcanbe half-clothed).Changethepassiveconstructiontotheactive,andthesentencefixes itself:Wedidallofourtempera-paintinginthebackyard,half-clothed.V. Dampeningisaparticiple,notaverb.Ifyouchangeitbackintoaverb,thesentence fixesitself:Theforestdampenedtheinsects'choruslikestagecurtainsdeadeningan orchestra'stuningbeforeaconcert.VI. Thisisprobablythetidiestwaytodoit:Thedogfollowedhimeverywhere,growling, yipping,andbarking.Thisoptionlosestheideaofthedogalternatingthrougha repertoire(thoughitisimplied).Thewriterwouldhavetodecidewhetherthatidea isimportantenoughtojustifytheawkwardnessoftheoriginalphrasing.
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Quiz2.8AnswerKey
I. TonestisanadverbialinfinitivetellingWHYtheblackbirdscome.(Thephraseto
themarshisaprepositionalphrase,thoughitstartswithto,likeaninfinitive.)II. Thephrasetowinherlovewithtubasolosisanadjectivalinfinitivephrasetelling WHATKINDofattempts.Notethattheprepositionalphrasewithtubasolosisan adverbialphrase(modifyingtowin)withinthelargeradjectivalphrase.III. Toleavequicklyisadverbial,tellingWHYRichieturned.IV. ThephrasetoeatisaninfinitivetellingWHICHmushrooms.V. Thisoneisalittletricky.Tomaketheundergrowthsparseisanadverbialinfinitive phrase.Butwhatisitmodifying,andwhatquestionisitasking?Iwouldsayit modifiestheadjectiveenough,answeringTOWHATEXTENT.VI. Toseasonyourbrothisadverbial,tellingHOW(possiblyWHY?)youneed.VII. Tositatthebenchatthebendinthetrailisadverbial,tellingWHYIwouldtradeit all.
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Quiz2.10AnswerKey
I. TheadjectiveclauseTHATILIKEBESTmodifiesgoat.TherelativepronounTHATis theDirectObjectoftheclause.II. WHEREIGOTMYSTARTisanadjectiveclausemodifyingpostoffice.Therelative pronounWHEREfunctionsasanadverbintheadjectiveclause.III. TheadjectiveclauseABOUTWHICHITOLDYOUmodifiesalligator.Therelative pronounWHICHistheobjectoftheprepositionaboutwithintheadjectiveclause.VI. TheadjectiveclauseITOLDYOUABOUTmodifiesalligator.Therelativepronoun THAThasbeenomitted,butitwouldbetheobjectoftheprepositionabout.V. WHOINSTALLEDOURICEMACHINEmodifiesplumber.TherelativepronounWHO isthesubjectoftheadjectiveclause.VI. TheclauseWHOSECARITOTALEDmodifiesguy.TherelativepronounWHOSEisan adjectivemodifyingcar.
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Quiz2.11AnswerKey
I. TheadverbialclauseisAFTERJOHNBARBERSHOWEDUP.Thesubordinating conjunctionaftertellsWHENthepartygotlame.Sincetheadverbialclauseisat thebeginningofthesentence,youneedacommatoseparatetheadverbialclause fromthemainclause.II. TheadverbialclauseisAFTERJOHNBARBERSHOWEDUP.Thesubordinating conjunctionaftertellsWHENthepartygotlame. Remember,anadverbialmodifyingaverbismovable.Thisisthesamesentenceas theoneabove,exceptthattheadverbialclausehasbeenmovedfromthebeginning ofthesentencetotheend.NoticethatyouDON'Tuseacommatoseparatethemain clausefromadverbialclauseiftheadverbialcomesattheend.III. TheadverbialclauseisUNLESSSOMEONEASKEDFORIT.IttellsWHY(or,you mightsay,UNDERWHATCONDITIONS)thespeakerofferedinformation. Notethateventhoughafterservedasasubordinatingconjunctionintheprevious twosentences,itisaprepositioninthissentence.Howdoyouknow?Itdoesnot introduceaclause.Instead,itprecedesthenounpoint.Afterthatpointisan adverbialprepositionalphrasetellingWHENthespeakerdidn'tofferinformation.IV. TheadverbialclauseisTHANHECOULDHAVEKNOWN.Itmodifiestheadjective closer,answeringthequestionTOWHATEXTENT.V. TheadverbialclauseEVERYWHERETHEYGOtellsWHEREslugsleaveatrailof slime.VI. TheadverbialclauseisASANTONIOBROUGHTTHEBANANAPUDDINGINTOTHE DININGROOM.IttellsWHENLinda'seyesburnedwithtearsofgratitude.
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VII. Thisisatrickquestion.Thisisasentencefragment.Asisasubordinating conjunction,whichsuggeststhatASTHECASHIERTOOKHERPLACEBEHINDTHE COUNTERshouldbeanadverbialclause.Butthere'snomainclauseforthe adverbialclausetomodify.Withoutamainclause,asubordinateclauseisjusta sentencefragment.VIII. TheadverbialclauseASIHAVEEVERBEENmodifiesangry,tellingTOWHAT EXTENTthespeakerisangry. Notethatintheprevioussentence,asintroducesaWHENclause,butinthis sentence,asintroducesaTOWHATEXTENTclause.IX. Thissentencehastwoadverbialclauses:WHENIWASFOURTEENandAFTERMY MOTHERDIEDANDMYFATHERRANOFF.ThefirstclausetellsWHENthe grandmothersentthespeakertothegrouphome.Thesecondclauseisactuallya compoundsentencerenderedsubordinatebythesubordinatingconjunctionafter. Likethefirstclause,ittellsWHENthegrandmothersentthespeakertothegroup home.
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Quiz2.12AnswerKey
I. A.Whentheantecedentisaperson,youdon'tusetherelativepronounthat.Since therelativepronounservesasthesubjectofthesubordinateclause,usethe nominative-casewho.II. B.SincePeanutisaperson,thatisoutofthequestion.Sinceheistheobjectofthe
verbhadinsulted,theobjective-casewhomiscorrect.III. A.Again,sincepeoplearehuman,it'sdowntowhoorwhom.Sincetherelative pronounisthesubjectofthesubordinateclause,whoiscorrect.IV. B.Therelativepronounrenamespeople.Andthosepeoplearethedirectobjectof theverbknows.(JohnBarberknowswhomorwhat?People.)Sotheobjective-case whomiscorrect.V. B.Hopefullythiswasaneasyone.Therelativepronounistheobjectofthe prepositionof.VI. A.Thepronounishalfofacompoundsubject.Sousethenominative-caseI.(You wouldn'tsayMechasedapanther.)VII. B.Thepronounishalfofacompounddirectobject.Sotheobjective-casemeis correct.(Andyouwouldn'tsayApantherchasedI.)VIII. Thanheiselliptical,ashorteningoftheclausethanheistall.Thepronounheisthe subject,thereforeinthenominativecase.IX. Becausetheverbisismissingfromtheellipticalclause,thepronounlooksalot likeanobjectofapreposition.(True,thanisnotapreposition,butnevertheless,it feelslikeoneifyoudon'trealizethatthisisanellipticalclause).Andtheobjectofa prepositionisintheobjectivecase.Hencehim.
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Quiz2.13AnswerKey
I. Theclausebecauseheknowshowtotrainchampionsisadverbial,answeringthe questionWHY.Butwhichverbdoesitmodify?Doesittellwhythecoachyells,or doesittellwhythespeakerputsupwiththecoach'syelling?Onesuspectsthe writermeansthelatter:sheiswillingtoputupwiththeyellingcoachbecausehe knowshowtotrainchampions.Buttheclauseisclosertotheverbyells,sothe grammarisatoddswiththelogicofthesentence.Itgivestheimpressionthatthe coachyellsbecauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.Startbymovingthat adverbialtothebeginningofthesentence: Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampions,Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatme. That'sallright,butit'snotgreat.Hereareacoupleofotheroptions: Mycoachknowshowtotrainchampions,soIputupwithhisyelling.
Iputupwithacoachwhoyellsatme.Why?Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampions.(Inthisconfiguration,Becauseheknowshowtotrainchampionsisasentencefragment.Nevertheless,it'sdefinitelyacontender.)
II. Noticehowthepassivevoicecausesthedanglingmodifierhere.Ifyouturnthe passiveconstructionintoanactiveconstruction,thesentencefixesitself: Fromtheagesoftwelvetoeighteen,IspenthalfmyweekendsatRandall'shouse makingmovies.III. Liketheprevioussentence,thisonestartswithadanglingmodifier.It'sthe microchipthatisnearweightless,notyou.Here'sapossiblerevision: Themicrochipisnearweightless.Youcannotfeelitrestinginyourpalmifyouclose youreyes.IV. Whohasthehardface?Mikeorhisson?IthinkthepointisthatMikehasahard face.Thephraseisadverbial:HOWdidMikelook?Withahardface.Asyouarewell
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awarebynow,adverbialsarehighlymovable.Butinthiscase,thewritermovedthe adverbialtoaplacewhereitcouldbemistakenforanadjectivalmodifyingMike's son(WHICHson?Theonewithahardface).Here'sthegoodnews:themovabilityof theadverbialcausestheproblemhere,butitalsomakesforaneasysolution: Withahardface,Mikelookedathiseldestson.
Or,
Hard-faced,Mikelookedathiseldestson. Andwhilewe'reatit,wemightaswelllookforamorepreciseverb:Hard-faced, Mikeglaredathiseldestson.V. There'salothappeninginthissentence.Peoplearecrossinglogbridges.Peopleare clearingwebs.Thewebsaredrippingwithmorningmist. Onequicksolutionissimplytomovetheadverbialphrasefromthelogbridgeswe crossedtothebeginningofthesentence(onceagain,themovabilityoftheadverbial isahelpfulthingtoremember):Fromthelogbridgeswecrossed,weclearedaway websdrippingwiththemorningmist. That'salittlebetter,butnotawholelotbetter.Trysomethinglikethis:Aswe crossedthelogbridges,weclearedawaywebsdrippingwithmorningmist.VI. Thatphraseatthebeginningofthesentenceisadanglingparticiple.The grammaticalsubjectisballet,butballet,ofcourse,wasn'tbornwithGermanbones orraisedalongsideapuppy. IwasbornwithGermanbonesandraisedalongsideapuppy,frolickinginan overgrownpasture,oftencrawlingalongacreekbedtocatchtadpoles.Butballet mademefeellovelyanddainty. Butevenwhenthedanglingparticipleisfixed,youseethatthissentenceneeds morethanagrammarmakeover.WhatareGermanbones,andhowarethey differentfromotherpeople'sbones?Whataboutthatpuppy?Whatisits relationshiptoballet?Iwouldkeeprevisingthispassagetosomethingmorelike this: Iwasbig-bonedlikemyGermanforbears.AndIwasatomboyaswell,always frolickingwithapuppyinanovergrownpastureorcrawlingalongacreekbedto catchtadpoles.Balletwastheonethinginmylifethatmademefeellovelyanddainty.
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VII. Here'sonepossibility:Myfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxofheroldjewelry.Imade itin2004tohanginherbathroom. Orpossibly, Myfavoriteprojectwasashadowboxofheroldjewelry.Imadeitin2004andhungit inherbathroom.
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Quiz3.2AAnswerKey
I. ThenounclauseWhichevertableyoupickservesasthesubjectofthesentence.II. Thissentenceisverysimilartotheprevioussentence.Thenounclause,asbefore,is whichevertableyoupick.Butinthisversion,thenounclauseisanobjectofthe prepositionwith.Theprepositionalphrasewithwhichevertableyoupickis adverbial,modifyingfine.III. ThenounclausethatGeorgehadhisownagendaservesasthedirectobject.I learnedWHAT?thatGeorgehadhisownagenda.IV. A.ThenounclauseisIwasbeinggenerouswhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdog.This isalittletrickyfortworeasons.First,therelativepronounthathasbeenomitted. Thatomissionisperfectlyacceptable,ofcourse,butitdoestakeawayoneofthe cluesforeasilyidentifyinganounclause.Secondly,thisnounclausecontainsan adverbclause.TheclausewhenIofferedmyhalf-eatenhotdogmodifiesthenoun beingwithinthenounclause. B.Thenounclauseservesasadirectobject.IthoughtWHAT?thatIwasbeing generous.V. Thenounclausewhoeverinterviewedyouservesastheobjectoftheprepositionto. (Theprepositionalphraseisadverbial,modifyingtheverbsend.WHEREshouldyou sendanote?towhoeverinterviewedyou.) Bonusquestion:Iftheclauseservesasadirectobject,whyistherelativepronoun thenominative-casewhoeverinsteadoftheobjective-casewhomever? Answer:becausetherelativepronounservesasthesubjectWITHINthedependent clause.Theroleofthedependentclausewithinthemainclausehasnobearingon thecaseoftherelativepronoun.VI. Thenounclauseisthesameasintheprevioussentence:whoeverinterviewedyou.In thisversion,however,thenounclauseservesasanindirectobject.Youshouldsend athank-younotetowhom?Towhoeverinterviewedyou.
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VII. ThenounclauseWhomevertheyappointservesasthesubjectofthesentence.Note thateventhoughtheclauseisinthesubjectslot,therelativeclauseWhomeverisin theobjectivecasebecauseitservesasadirectobjectwithinthedependentclause.VIII. ThenounclauseWhoeverisappointedservesasthesubjectofthesentence.Thereal reasonIincludedthisquestionwassoyoucouldthinkaboutthatrelativepronoun whoever.ItwasWhomeverintheprevioussentence.WhyisitWhoeverhereinthis sentencethatlookssoverysimilar?Inthisversion,theuseofthepassive construction(WhoeverisappointedratherthantheactiveWhomevertheyappoint) movesthedirectobjectintothesubjectspotofthedependentclause.Andasubject, asyouknow,hastobeinthenominativecase.
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Quiz3.2BAnswerKey
I. B.Theclauseisadverbial,tellingWHENMarthapatsherhairnet.II. D.Thisissimplythemainlineoftheclause:WHODIDWHAT?Marthapattedthe hairnet.Therestofthesentencewillprovideadditionalinformation,butthishair- net-pattingisthecentralaction(andthegrammaticalkernel)ofthesentence.III. A.ThisclausetellsWHICHhairnet,soitisadjectival.IV. C.WhenyouuseyourDirectObjectFinder,itisrelativelyeasytoseethatyouhavea nounclauseservingasadirectobject.Thetravelerseeswhat?whathesees.Inthat secondmainclauseafterthesemicolon,theclausewhathehascometoseeworksin exactlythesameway.V. B.Thewordbecauseisasubordinatingconjunction;itturnstheindependentclause itisnotthereintotheadverbialclausebecauseitisnotthere.Thisclauseanswers thequestionWHY.WHYcan'tGodgiveahappinessapartfromhimself?Becauseitis notthere.VI. A.Thisadjectiveclausemodifiesbest-seller.WHICH(orWHATKINDOF)bestseller? Onethatcouldhavebeenpreventedbyagoodteacher.VII. A.Therelativepronounthat(orpossiblywhen)isomittedfromthisclause,which mightmakeithardeventorecognizeitasadependentclauseatall.Butitisan adjectiveclausemodifyingtime.WHICHtime?Thetime(that)Iencounteredsucha smell.VIII. C.Thisoneisprettytricky.Thatwhenatthebeginningoftheclausemakesitlook likethisisanadverbclause.Buttakeacloserlook:themainlineofthissentenceis Thelasttime…was______.Thatverbwasisalinkingverb,andassuchitneedsa complement—eitherapredicateadjectiveorapredicatenominative.Theclause whenItouredacoleslawfactoryisanounclauseservingasapredicatenominative. ItanswersthequestionWHAT,notWHEN.
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IX. A.Thisisamainorindependentclause.WHODIDWHAT?Shelooked.(Atniceyoung menisn'ttechnicallypartofthemainline.It'sanadverbialprepositionalphrase tellingHOWorWHEREshelooked.)X. B.Thephraseasifisasubordinatingconjunctionturningtheindependentclause shecouldsmelltheirstupidityintoanadverbialclause.HOWdidshelookatyoung men?asifshecouldsmelltheirstupidity.
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Quiz3.3AnswerKey
I. Defendinganyofthecardinalvirtuesisagerundphraseservingastheobjectofthe prepositionof.II. Thisisagerundphraseservingasthedirectobjectoftheverbmeans.Tradition meansWHAT?Givingvotestoourancestors.III. Thetwoitalicizedphrasesarebothpresentparticiplesmodifyingmen.IV. Acceptingoneselfisagerundphraseservingasthesubjectofthesentence.V. Carryinganumbrellaandparcelsinasnowywoodisaparticiplemodifyingfaun. WHICHfaun?Onecarryinganumbrella...VI. Thegrammaticalsubjectisthegerund,spendingalmostsixdecadesatalmostseven feet.VII. Whenasentencebeginswithamodifyingphrase,thatphrasemustmodifythe subject.Inthiscase,thesubjectisthegerundspending.But,ofcourse,spendingisn't headandshouldersaboveanybody.Thepersonwhoisheadandshouldersabove everybodyisthehimmentionedabouttwo-thirdsthroughthesentence.VIII. Here'sonewaytodoit: Hehasspentalmostsixdecadesatalmostsevenfeet,headandshouldersabovemost peoplesincehisearlyteens.Thestrainhaslefthimwithastoopthatgrowsmore pronouncedashegetsolder.IX. Ridingthenow-drenchedscooterbackhomeisagerundphrasethatservesasthe grammaticalsubject.Theverbiswouldsoak.X. Thisisatoughquestion;todecidewhatthisphraseisandwhatit'sdoing,yourbest betisprobablytousetheprocessofelimination.Thereisnonounfunctionitcould
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possiblyserve:it'snotasubject,notadirectorindirectobject,notanobjectofa prepositionorapredicatenominative.Soitcan'tbeagerund. Itmustbeapresentparticiple.Butparticiplesareadjectival;theymodifynouns. Whichnounmightthisparticiplemodify?DoesitmodifythegerundRidingthe scooter?Well,itfeelsmorelikeit'sthebackside-soakingthatforcesthechange,not theriding.Butthatphrasewouldsoakmybacksidedoesn'tprovideanynounor nounequivalentthattheparticiplecouldmodify. Soforcingachangeintodrypantsisaparticiple,butithasnocleargrammatical dutyinthesentence.XI. 1.Apersonridesanow-drenchedscooter. 2.Thescooter-rider’sbacksidegetssoaked. 3.Thescooter-riderneedstochangepants.XII. Here'soneway: IfIweretoridethenow-drenchedscooter,mybacksidewouldgetsoakedandIwould needtochangemypants.
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Quiz3.4AnswerKey
I. B.Leonardrenamescousin.II. D.ThewordnemesisrenamesJohnBarber.Thewholeappositivephraseismy nemesis.III. D.Thissentenceisverysimilartothesentenceabove,butinthiscasenemesisis theobjectoftheprepositionfromandJohnBarberrenamesnemesis.IV. B.Theappositiveinthissentenceismarsupial,whichrenamesthesubject opossum.ThewholeappositivephraseistheonlymarsupialnativetoNorth America.Notethatnon-primateisthepredicatecomplement(thewholephraseis theonlynon-primatewithopposablethumbs).V. E.Thissentencedoesnothaveanappositive.VI. A.Thisisasituationinwhichtheappositiveappearsbeforethenounitrenames. WhydowesaythathockeyplayerrenamesIratherthantheotherwayaround? BecauseIisthesubject.Wholovesbeingonice?Ido.VII. D.Thewordyearrenames1922.ThewholeappositivephraseistheyeartheSoviet
Unionwasformed.TherehasneverbeenabettertimetobeaVanderbiltfan.VIII. A.Thisisanothersentenceinwhichtheappositivecomesbeforetheworditnames. Thesubjectofthemainclauseisthey.Foodsnobsrenamesthey.IX. B.TheManinBlackrenamesJohnnyCash.Theone-wordappositiveisMan.X. E.WhileManinBlackrenamesJohnnyCashasintheprevioussentence,thephrase
isnotanappositivebecauseitappearswithinanadjectiveclausemodifyingJohnnyCash.
XI. A.
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XII. D,E,andF.Remember,gerundsarenoun-equivalentsandthereforecanserveas appositives.Thegerundsyelling,crying,andbangingareallappositives renamingthenounactions.XIII. Anappositiveneedstoberightnexttothenounitrenames.Inthissentence,za creatureofhabitappearstobeanappositive,butitisrightnexttoroutine.A routine,ofcourse,can'tbeacreatureofhabit.ThewritermeansthatIama creatureofhabit.Here'stheeasiestwaytofixthesentence:Acreatureofhabit,I madeaveryrigidroutineformyself.
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Quiz3.5AnswerKey
I. A.II. B.III. B.Thecommasaroundanon-essentialelementsaytothereader,"Here'salittle extrainformation,alittlebonus."IV. A.V. B.Ifithelps,rememberthatwhichclausesaresetoffwithcommas.Thatclauses aren't.Ifanadjectiveclausemodifiesaperson,itstartswithwhoorwhom, whethertheclauseisessentialornon-essential.VI. Thewholepointofapropernounistonarrowacategorydowntosomethingvery precise.(Thecommonnouncityisabroadcategory;thepropernounHonolulu narrowsthecategorydowntoonespecificcity).Anyappositiveormodifierthatis appliedto,say,Honoluluisn'tgoingtomakeitanymorespecificthanitalreadyis.VII. ThoughAnneHathawayisapropernoun,thissentenceinvolvestwodifferent peoplewiththatname,andtheadjectiveclausesnarrowaverysmallcategory (peoplenamedAnneHathaway)downtospecificindividuals.That'swhytheclauses areessentialratherthannon-essential.
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Quiz3.6AnswerKey
I. A,B,andC.Who,whom,andwhichtypicallyintroduceadjectiveclauses.Whereand whenoftendoaswell,butthesewordsjustasoftenintroduceadverbclauses.The relativepronounthatisatoss-up:itisaslikelytointroduceanounclauseasan adjectiveclause.II. E,F,andG.Whoever,whomever,andwhicheveralwaysintroducenounclauses. Wheneverandwherevermayintroducenounclauses,ortheymayintroduceadverb clauses.That,asmentionedintheabovequestion,maysignalanounclauseorit maysignalanadjectiveclause.III. Therelativepronounthatisoftenomittedinadjectiveandnounclauses.In adjectiveclauses,thatcanbeomittedwhenitservesasanobject,thoughnotwhen itservesasasubject.Youcansay"themanthatItoldyouabout"or"themanItold youabout."Eitherisacceptable.Youcansay"thechickenthatIgaveyou"or"the chickenIgaveyou." Butyoudon'tevenhavetodothatmuchanalysisofthegrammar.Inbothadjective clausesandnounclauses,ifitfeelsrighttoomittherelativepronounthat,itis acceptabletodoso.IV. Receivingthisawardwouldbeoneofthegreathonorsofmylife.V. Anappositiveneedstoberightnexttothenounitrenames.Inthissentence,a creatureofhabitappearstobeanappositive,butitisrightnexttoroutine.A routine,ofcourse,can'tbeacreatureofhabit.ThewritermeansthatIama creatureofhabit.Here'stheeasiestwaytofixthesentence: Acreatureofhabit,Imadeaveryrigidroutineformyself.VI. A,D,andFVII. B,C,E,andF
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VIII. Oneoftheprinciplesofthiscoursehasbeentheideathat,allthingsbeingequal,the sooneryougetthroughthesubject-verbnexusthemoreclearyoursentencewillbe. Alengthynounequivalentinthesubjectslotdelaysthearrivalofthesubject. Onceareadergetsthroughthesubject-verbnexus(thatis,afterheknowswhodid what),heisbetterabletoprocesscomplexityintheremainderofthesentence. Complexstructuresthatcomeaftertheverbdon'tfeelascomplextothereaderas thecomplexstructuresthatcomebeforetheverb.
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Quiz4.2AnswerKey
I. A.TheBadNewsBearsisthetitleofamovie,soitistreatedasasingularnouneven thoughitlooksplural.II. A.Asingularsubjecttakesasingularverb,regardlessofthepredicatecomplement.III. B.Apluralsubjecttakesapluralverb,regardlessofthepredicatecomplement.IV. B.Committeeisacollectivenoun.InAmericanEnglish,collectivenounsare typicallytreatedassingular.IfyouareBritish,however,youwouldsay,"The committeerecommend..."V. A.Inthissentence,thesubjectisthepluralmemberssothepluralverbrecommend
isappropriate.Nowcommitteeistheobjectoftheprepositionof,soallofus,BritsandAmericansalike,canagreethatweneedthepluralverbhere.
VI. B.Thesubjectofthissentenceischoir,acollectivenountreatedassingularin
AmericanEnglish.Thepluralnounsboys,delinquents,andtownsdon'tfigureinthequestiononewayoranother.
VII. Here'sonewaytorevisethesentence: Theboys'choirarrivesinanhour.Thechoirismadeupjuveniledelinquentsfrom smalltownsalloverthecountry. Oryoumightsay: Madeupofjuveniledelinquentsfromsmalltownsalloverthecountry,theboys' choirarrivesinanhour.VIII. Oneisthesubjectofthemainclause,buthappenisnottheverbofthemainclause;
rather,itispartoftheadjectiveclausethathappenonlyonTV.Thesubjectofhappenisthepluralthings(technically,thesubjectistherelativepronounthat,whichrenamesthepluralthingsandisthereforeplural).Sotheverbhappenispluraltoo.
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Quiz4.3AnswerKey
I. TheantecedentofTHEYispetal,whichissingular.Sothepluralpronounisn't correct. Betweenmyfingerseachpetalfeelslikesoftsuede,strongerthanitappears.II. Really,theonlyavailableantecedentforITishealth.Butthemother'shealthdidn't causeproblemswiththemarriagerelationship.Quitetheopposite:the deteriorationofherhealthcausedproblems. Possiblecorrections: Asmymother'shealthdeteriorated,problemsgrewintheirmarriagerelationship. Thedeteriorationofmymother'shealthcausedproblemsintheirmarriage relationship. Asmymother'shealthdeteriorated,sodidtheirmarriagerelationship.III. Thisisaninterestingcase.ITisn'twrong,sinceyoucouldeasilymakeacasethatthe antecedentisthesingularhandfulratherthanthepluralleaves.ButifITis correct,THEMcan'tbecorrect.Really,THEMcan'tbecorrectinanycase,sinceyou can'tkickthroughahandfulofleaves.Unlessyou'rereally,reallysmall. Here'soneoptionforcorrectingthissentence: Sniffingahandfulofleavesandthrowingitintotheairwasevenmorefunthan kickingthroughaleafpile.IV. Whatwasthesizeofourkitchen?Goback26words:Lelo'sshop.That'salongway togoforanantecedent. Iwoulddoatleasttwothingstothispassage:FirstIwouldreversethefirst sentencesothatLelo'sshopcomesattheendofthesentence,signalingtothe
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readerthatthesecondsentenceisallaboutLelo'sshop.Then,ratherthanusingthe pronouninthethirdsentenceIwouldrepeattheantecedent. Lelo'smainincomecamefromhisshopneartheedgeoftown.Concreteandmud blockssupportedframesandshelvesofwidehome-craftedlumberofnon-standardized dimensions.Thewholeshopwasthesizeofourkitchen.V. Thegrammardoesn'tmakeitclearwhosebrowwasknitted,whoseeyesflashed,or whosemouthwaspinched.Presumablyit'sthefather.Grammaticallyspeaking, Daveisaslikelyacandidatefortheantecedentasfather,especiallysincefatheris turnedintothemodifierfather's. Onepossiblerewrite: Davelookedupathisfather'sangryexpression.Theoldman'sbrowwasknitted.His eyesflashed.Hismouthwaspinched.
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Quiz4.4AnswerKey
I. For,And,Nor,But,Or,Yet,SoII. B.Theconjunctionanddoesn'tsetupacontrastoracause-and-effectrelationship oranythingmoresubtlethantheideathattwothingshappenedortwothingsare true.III. A.CoordinationsuggeststhattwoideasdeserveasimilarAMOUNTofinterestanda similarKINDofinterest.IV. B.Subordinationallowsyoutosetupallkindsofrelationshipsbetweenideas. Subordinationalwayssays,"Betweenthesetwoideas,oneismoreimportantthan theother,onedependsontheother,oneservestheother."V. C.VI. Thisisacommasplice.Therearenokeysforthoseisanindependentclause.Sois atleastwedon'thaveany.Toconnecttwoindependentclauses,youneeda commaANDacoordinatingconjunction,orelseasemicolon.Whentwo independentclausesareconnectedwithjustacomma,that'sacommasplice. Correction:Andtherearenokeysforthose;atleastwedon'thaveany.VII. Thisisafaultyuseofasemicolon.Asemicolonjoinstwoindependentclauses.The phrasethisonefamiliartohimisnotaclause(noticeithasnoverb).Actually,it's anappositive.Sothesemicoloniserroneous. Correction:Next,shegrabbedalargepinkbottle,thisonefamiliartohim.VIII. Thissentencecontainsacompoundverb,cracklingandfiringoff.Witha compoundverb,youonlyneedacoordinatingconjunction(inthiscase,and),nota comma.
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Correction:Theneurotransmittersinmybrainwerecracklingandfiringofflikea poorlyplannedfireworksdisplay.IX. Herewehavebotharun-onsentenceandacommasplice.Toconnecttwoclauses, youneedBOTHacommaandacoordinatingconjunction,orelseasemicolon. Betweenthefirsttwoclauses(Therootssproutandthewaitingisover)we're missingacomma.Betweenthesecondtwoclausesthewaitingisoverandlife hasreturned),we'remissingacoordinatingconjunction. Correction:Therootsprouts,andthewaitingisover;lifehasreturned.X. Thisisyetanothercommasplice.Onepossiblecorrection: Pressgentlyandthefragilewebbends.Pressharderanditdissolves.
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Quiz4.5AnswerKey
I. B.Whenherfatherwalkedaway...isanadverbclause.II. E.Leavingablankspaceinthedoorwayisaparticiplewithintheopeningadverb clause.Itmodifiesfather.III. A.This(togetherwithAction4,thegirlwatchinghersister)isthemainactionofthe sentence.IV. B.There'sonlyonemainclauseinthislongsentence,butthatclausecontainsa compoundverb:ateandwatched.Theysharethesubjectlittlegirl.V. E.Thephrasecryingonherbedisaparticipialphrasemodifyingsister.VI. Herfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway,andthelittlegirltooka biteofmintchocolateicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonthebed. Oryoucoulduseasemicolon(Ipreferthisversion): Herfatherwalkedaway,leavingablankspaceinthedoorway;thelittlegirltooka biteofmintchocolateicecreamandwatchedhersistercryingonthebed.VII. Asstrangeasitseems, 1.Thisisanadjectiveclause.
2.Itmodifiesbus.VIII. Considertheactionsinthissentence: 1.Aschool-childcarriesapretzelontoabus.
2.Theschool-childwalkstothebackofthebuswiththepretzel. 3.Thebusdriver'saidedoesn'tnoticethepretzel-sneaking.
Actions2and3seematleastasimportantasAction1;youmightsaytheyarethe mainpointofthesentence.Thefactthatthosetwoactionsaretuckedintoan
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adjectiveclausemodifyingbusismisleading.Thisisagoodexampleofthe grammarofasentencegettingcrosswayswiththelogicofthesentence. Possiblerewrites: Icarriedmypretzelontothebus,butthebusdriver'saidedidn'tnoticeitasIwalked tothebackofthebusandfoundaseatbesideawindow.
Icarriedmypretzelontothebus.Iwalkedpastthebusdriver'saideonthewaytomyseatintheback,butshedidn'tnoticethepretzel.
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Quiz4.6AnswerKey
I. 1.Cowboybootsandbandylegsappeartoformacompoundobjectofthe prepositionin.Apersoncanbeincowboyboots,butnotinbandylegs. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Thebandy-leggedstrangercamewalkingupourdrivewayin cowboyboots.(Remember,justbecausefaultyparallelismistheproblem,that doesn'tmeancorrectparallelismisthesolution.Justasoften,it'sbettertogetridof theparallelstructurealtogether.)II. 1.Ononesideofandisanindependentclause(myheartthudded),butonthe othersideisthenounphrasequicksucksofair. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Ibegantopanic:myheartthudded,andItookinquicksucks ofair.(Inthisversion,Iturnedthatlastnounphraseintoanindependentclause, creatingacompoundsentenceafterthecolon.)III. 1.Itappearsthatwehaveacompoundverb:pickeditupandtookabitehavethe samesubject.Butthatthirdactionisexpressedasanindependentclause.The subjectofspillediscontents,nothe. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Hepickeditupandtookabite,buthalfthecontentsspilled outontotheplate.(Inthisversion,thesimpleinsertionofandbetweenthetwoparts ofthecompoundverbseparatesthecompoundverbfromthesecondindependent clausethatstartswithbut.Inotherwords,theinsertionofandtakesawaythe reader'sexpectationthattherewillbeathirdverbinthecompound.)IV. 1.ThisisaSubject-Verb-PredicateComplementsentence:Cynthiawasthefirst...The andappearsatfirsttosignalacompoundpredicatecomplement.Infact,thewriter wasthinkingofthisasacompoundverb:Cynthiawasandcaused.Theproblemhere isthatwasisalinkingverbandcausedisanactionverb.Thatmakesitverytrickyto combinetheminacompoundverb:thefirsthalfofthecompoundisaS-V-PA pattern,andthesecondhalfofthecompoundisaS-V-DOpattern.
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2.Afewpossiblerewrites:Cynthiawasthefirsttocallme'Grandma.'Shecausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.ThefirsttocallmeGrandma,Cynthiacausedmetothinkaboutfuturegenerations.
CynthiawasthefirsttocallmeGrandma,andshewasthefirsttomakemethinkaboutfuturegenerations.
V. 1.Thissentencehasacompounddirectobject.Thepolicemantoldmetwothings:a) togetmycaroutoftheroad,[aninfinitivephrase]andb)thatIshouldgetanew wardrobe[anounclause].Eitheraninfinitivephraseoranounclauseisan acceptablewaytophraseanindirectquotation,butthewriterneedstochoose. 2.Threepossiblerewrites: Thepolicemantoldmetogetmycaroutoftheroadandtogetanewwardrobe. ThepolicemantoldmethatIshouldgetmycaroutoftheroadandalsothatIshould getanewwardrobe. ThepolicemantoldmethatIshouldgetmycaroutoftheroadandgetanew wardrobe.VI. 1.Ifwethinkofthelikeasanequalsign(oraniscongruentsign),itbecomeseasier toseetheparallelismproblemhere.Thewordsheavyandjitteryareadjectives.The wordshavinglowbloodsugarareagerundphrase—thatis,anounequivalent.A noundoesn'tequalanadjective.There'sourparallelismproblem. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Myarmsfeelheavyandjittery,thewaytheyfeelwhenIhave lowbloodsugar.VII. 1.Thismaynottechnicallybeaparallelismproblem,butitisarelatedproblem.The waythissentenceisphrased,thewriterspeaksofhavingmetapairofhandsin 1979.Thatisanoddthingtosay. 2.Onepossiblerewrite:Henolongerhasthebronzedtwenty-year-oldhandsofthe manImetaroundtheswimmingpoolin1979.
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Quiz4.7AnswerKey
I. F.ThatwordabsolutecomesfromtheLatinabsolutus,meaning"setfree."Soa nominativeabsoluteisanounthatisfloatingfreefromthesentencewhereitlives. Nogrammaticalconnectiontothesentenceisholdingitback.II. Thenominativeabsoluteisherbackcurvedlikeanautilusshell.III. Warmfreshbreadtuckedundermyarmisthenominativeabsolutehere.IV. Sadiewalkingbesidehimisanominativeabsolute.V. Thenominativeabsoluteismyfriendswaitingtohelpmeintoabluedresswhile thechoruscontinuedtosinganddanceunderthelights.VI. Thenominativeabsolutehereisdeterminedlittlelegscrossingtheexpanseofthe carpet.Thoughnominativeabsolutesusuallyappearatthebeginningortheendof asentence,sometimestheyappearmid-sentence,asinthisexample.
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