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MASTER THESIS – EXPOSÉ
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands:
The Effects of Classical Background Music on the Attitudes of Costumers
Submitted by
Sara La Vella
23/10/2017 Kassel, Germany
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 1
Abstract
Title: How Luxury Watch Brands Sound Online? The Effects of Classical Background Music
on the Attitudes of Costumers.
Background: it is widely recognized that background music is one of the main sensory
components of advertisement and that help conveying brand values and persuasive messages.
Indeed, the effects of music are twofold: it can either affect cognitive processes, but it may also
influence listeners’ emotions. Hence, the ad evaluations of high involvement groups are not
exclusively driven by rational opinions, but are rather biased toward the emotions expressed
by music. However, little research has been done to analyse both affective and cognitive
responses, and the results are contrasting and difficult to generalise.
Purpose: the aim of the study is to understand whether classical background music, used in
web advertising, may influence the attitudes of luxury watch costumers, and what are the
thoughts and feelings behind.
Method: the hypothesis will be tested through a laboratory experiment. A sample of 60
individuals will be randomly divided into a control group, which will be exposed to the video
ad without background music, and an experimental group, that will watch the video ad with
classical background music. The thought-listing technique will be used to collect thoughts and
feelings. As manipulation check, brand attitude will be measured on a five-point Likert scale.
Finally, results will be analyzed with MAXQDA and SPSS software.
Keywords: luxury, watch brands, online, sound, branding, classical background music.
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 2
Table Of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 1
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Background and Problem Statement ................................................................................ 4
1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis ........................................................................... 5
1.3 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 6
2. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Understanding Costumers’ Responses ............................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Cognitive responses .................................................................................................. 7
2.1.2 Affective responses ................................................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Elaboration likelihood method (ELM)...................................................................... 9
2.2 Key factors of Persuasion .............................................................................................. 10
2.2.1 Motivation and ability ............................................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Involvement ............................................................................................................ 11
2.3 The Role of Music ......................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Cognitive effects ..................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Emotional effects .................................................................................................... 14
3. Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Laboratory Experiment .................................................................................................. 15
3.1.1 Sample..................................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Research design ...................................................................................................... 16
3.1.2 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 16
3.1.3 Variables ................................................................................................................. 16
3.1.4 Measurement and analysis ...................................................................................... 16
3.1.5 Pilot study ............................................................................................................... 17
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 3
3.1.6 Limitations and future research .............................................................................. 17
3. Work Plan ....................................................................................................................... 18
4. Overview of the Chapters .............................................................................................. 18
5. References ....................................................................................................................... 20
List of Abbreviations
e.g. exempli grata
ELM Elaboration Likelihood Method
GEMS Geneva Emotional Music Scale
i.e. id est
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 4
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Problem Statement
The literature recognizes that music is one of the main sensory components of advertisement
and that it plays a prominent role as a communication medium of brand values and persuasive
messages (Kellaris, Cox, & Cox Dena, 1993; Oakes & North, 2006). However, apart from
conveying emotions and influencing the affective responses of listeners, the cognitive
processing of background music is involved in the creation and shaping of brand attitudes
(Brodsky, 2010). Indeed, depending on the structure of background music, cognitive tasks such
as attention and comprehension may be influenced, and may result easier (more difficult)
(Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). Specifically, according to its characteristics and its musical fit with
the ad, the effect of background music is twofold: it may interfere with the elaboration of the
message and inhibit the cognitive process (Oakes & North, 2006), and, on the other hand, it
can draw attention, increase motivation and enhance involvement (Hecker, 1984).
Given the ability of background music to evoke feelings and influence costumers’ ad
evaluations, along with other components, it may bias clients’ perceptions and affect their
experiences. Indeed, Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008, p. 501) argue that “music can
express emotions by symbolically mimicking a broad range of human expressive behaviour”
and thus it can induce positive or negative feelings, changing the felt emotions in the ones that
are perceived.
However, little research has been done to understand how background music is processed and
its influence on both affective and cognitive responses, even though seems obvious its role in
attracting the audience and connecting brands and costumers. Moreover, previous empirical
research results to be inconsistent and it is difficult to generalise (Oakes & North, 2006). In
addition, most of the experiments were conducted for TV or radio ads, while nowadays the
new trend of digitalization is pushing watch luxury brands to go online, and thus, use their
website to replicate the brand essence. This is the reason why new insights for understanding
the effectiveness of web advertising is needed (Novak, Hoffman, & Yung, 2000; Okonkwo,
2009).
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 5
1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis
RQ1: Does classical background music influence the costumers’ attitude toward the brand?
Processing an advertisement requires attention and motivation (e.g. rewards), which in turn
may influence the audience attitudes (Park & Young, 1986). Since in the literature has been
proven that classical music, given its fit with the commercial (Macinnis & Park, 1991), may
enhance both factors and have a positive effect on listeners (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Kellaris
& Cox, 1989; Kellaris & Kent, 1994; Menon & Levitin, 2005), the overall attitude toward the
brand will be positively affected.
HP0: Classical background music has a positive effect on the attitude of the audience toward
the brand.
RQ2: Does classical background music influence the in-depth elaboration of online
advertisements?
Petty and Cacioppo (1986) demonstrated that peripheral cues of the message can inhibit the
cognitive response to it. Indeed, classical background music may reduce cognitive complexity
and make more fluent and effortlessly the elaboration of the ad (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; R.
E. Petty, 1977; Schwarz, Bless, & Bohner, 1991).
HP1: Classical background music reduces the in-depth processing of the advertisement.
RQ3: Does classical background music influence the affective responses to the advertisement?
Even though the group is highly involved and should not base his judgments on feelings,
cognitive and emotional responses are related (G. L. Clore, Gasper, & Garvin, 2001; Zajonc,
1980). Hence, the evaluations will be polarized and more favourable thoughts will be generated
(G. Gorn, Tuan Pham, & Yatming Sin, 2001). Moreover, given the misperception of emotions
felt and perceived, higher number of emotions will emerge (Zentner et al., 2008).
HP2a: Classical background music influences the audience in making more positive and
general evaluations
HP2b: Classical background music increases the number of feelings expressed
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 6
1.3 Significance of the Study
This research will either have managerial implications for luxury watch brands, but it is also
meant to be a theoretical contribution to the academic field, which only recently started to
experiment with background music and advertisements.
From the ’60s to our days, watch brands have been challenged several times by the new trends
that are pushing luxury clients to desire digital products and communications (, 2016). Even
though luxury companies would like to keep their exclusiveness for a small niche, Internet is a
communication channel that cannot be avoided, and the luxury world is now going digital to
reinforce the lost relationship with their customers (Okonkwo, 2009). However, it is not yet
clear how these brands should approach the online environment (Okonkwo, 2009) and manage
media richness (Daft & Lengel, 1986). Indeed, McMillan and Hwang (2002) argue that Internet
does change the relationship between brands and costumers, but they suggest a better
understanding of the effects of persuasive advertising in the online environment.
For example, background music is a persuasive tool that not only can influence listeners’
feelings, but that “may convey brand information that words cannot” (Zander, 2006, p. 478).
Since watch brands are now worried of losing the “human emotional connection” with their
costumers (Garfield, 2016, para. 16), new insights on how background music may influence
costumers’ attitudes and perceptions could have important implications. Hence, this research
is meant to have implications for luxury watch brands that want to enhance the ad
persuasiveness and increase emotional involvement.
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 7
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 Understanding Costumers’ Responses
The following chapters are intended to be a framework for categorizing and understanding the
models and methods of persuasion that may help in designing effective online advertisements.
To pursue the change of cognitive and affective attitudes toward the message, the product and
the source, practitioners should know under which conditions peripheral cues of the ad might
have an effect.
2.1.1 Cognitive responses
According to the “cognitive response approach” (Greenwald, 1968, p. 149), the mediators of
the acceptance or the reject of a persuasive message are its cognitive reactions. In other words,
the recipient of the message is expected to connect the new information with his or her previous
knowledge and, in the case of a positive persuasion, create a new one (R. E. Petty, 1977, para.
3). To understand how this connection happens, Greenwald (1968, p. 157) assumed that:
“cognitive effects of the communication could be assessed by comparing the issue-relevant
thoughts of subjects who received this communication with thoughts on the same issue
expressed by control subjects who had received a communication on a different topic”. In
conclusion, the analysis of cognitive processes of persuasion may be useful for explaining how
the change of attitudes occur after a persuasive communication (Greenwald, 1968).
In this context, “attitude” is interpreted as the recipient evaluation about themselves, other
people or objects, and it may be depends on experiences that, in turn, influence the cognitive,
affective and behavioural processes (R. E. Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). When a judgement is
triggered, different paths that define the outcome of the evaluation can be undertaken. Indeed,
the cognitive response to a communication can either agree or disagree with its content, and
result is the positive or negative change of attitude. In addition, it might happen the so-called
“boomerang effect” (Greenwald, 1968, p. 151): if the recipient believes are much stronger than
the ones exposed in the communication, the attitude change goes in exactly the opposite
direction of the persuader’s will (R. E. Petty, 1977). Cialdini and Goldstein (2004) explain this
effect through the human urgency of conforming with their own opinions and decisions, so that
the cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) that would be faced in the case of a discrepant
information received, would be avoided.
The cognitive response approach has been applied to understand the level of effort that
costumers make to cognitively process the advertising stimulus and to analyse their evaluations
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 8
of the message(Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). It is relevant to notice that, when the
costumer has high knowledge about the product, costumers’ judgements may be affected in the
long-term and their attitudes be changed (Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992). However, the
subject must perceive the message as being personally relevant (that is, he or she must be
involved) or that the accuracy of his or her opinion might have consequences for himself or for
other people (that is, he must feel motivated) (Chaiken, 1980).
However, feelings and emotions may affect this process; it is controversial whether the
cognitive influences the affective state, or the other way around, but it is assumed that mood
and emotions do play a role in processing persuasive messages (Batra & Stayman, 1990;
Bruner, 1990; Gerald L Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Schwarz et al., 1991). Indeed, when
a threat is perceived, negative feelings arise, attention increase and a deeper cognitive effort is
applied to solve the adverse situation (consistency approach (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; R. E.
Petty, 1977)). Hence, to avoid this mental effort, there is the tendency to avoid unfavourable
situations and the focus will not be on details but on the overall, positive, experience (Cialdini,
2016; Schwarz et al., 1991). For instance, Petty (1977) demonstrated that whether the dominant
response to a message is negative, peripheral cues will enhance persuasiveness: the distracting
element will function as short-cut for avoiding the elaboration of unfavourable evaluations
(Cialdini, 2016).
2.1.2 Affective responses
When it comes to persuasive messages, even though cognitive and affective attitudes are
generally studied and analysed separately, it is difficult to not consider both of them and avoid
correlations (Zajonc, 1980). Indeed, Schwarz and Clore (2003) argue, with the affect-as-
information theory, that evaluative judgements are based on feelings. The emotional state that
people experience when are exposed to an ad tend to influence their evaluations (Gorn, Pham
& Sin 2001, p. 44); which in turn induce the polarization of responses (G. J. Gorn, 1982, p.
43).
When there is high involvement with the product or issue of the advertisement, evaluations
should be based on the claims of the product and not on feelings (R. E. Petty, Cacioppo, &
Schumann, 1983). However, there is still an emotional involvement that unconsciously plays a
role when, for example, external cues such as music are present in the communication (G. Gorn
et al., 2001). In general, costumers that are trying to understand their feelings toward an ad
(e.g. fun, tension), could make more extreme evaluations because biased by their own
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 9
emotions; even though there are some individuals that are naturally inclined to elaborate deeper
the information and, thus, are more resistant to manipulations (Haugtvedt et al., 1992). For
instance, some brands use shocking advertisements for inducing costumers to be more attentive
and increase their cognitive processes (Dahl, Frankenberger, & Manchanda, 2003, p. 271).
Indeed, leveraging on certain feelings may have an impact on the way the advertisements are
processed. For example, the literature has given much attention on arousal, and it has been
shown that its level (high, moderate or low) have important consequences on persuasion (Pham,
1996). When costumers are aroused, they may be biased in their evaluations about product
characteristics and be influenced in their brand attitude. Pham (1996, p. 385) claims which are
the necessary conditions so that arousal may have a positive, and not intrusive, effect:
executional cues should be present up to the point that the ability of elaboration is not
hampered.
2.1.3 Elaboration likelihood method (ELM)
According to the ELM model, a persuasive communication can be processed through two
routes: central or peripheral (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p. 126). In the first case, the recipient
scrutinizes the message, thus the “elaboration likelihood” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986, p. 128) of
the ad is high. In the second case, when the peripheric route is undertaken, the subject does not
focus on the ad and the arguments is superficially elaborated. In line with the “principle of least
effort” (Zipf, 2016), recipients rely on the peripheral system because it is easier to take
decisions and make judgements, since the assessment comes from the information given by
external cues such as pictures or music (Kahneman, 1973; Tiedens & Linton, 2001).
When the peripheral system is activated, the attention goes toward external cues and the
information is not carefully analysed (Cialdini, 2016). Therefore, in the case of central
processing, the attitude change will last longer, and it will be more resistant to opposite
messages (Schwarz, Bless & Bohner, 1991; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Haugtvedt, Petty &
Cacioppo, 1992). Hence, to change costumers’ attitudes it should be clear on which feelings
and reasonings costumers rely on when they are exposed to persuasive message. For instance,
since it is not possible to analyse every stimulus received by the environment and deeply
elaborate it (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Cialdini, 2007), motivation and ability play the major
role in influencing the audience involvement.
In conclusion, individuals assess the information through two different cognitive systems
(Kahneman, 2003, p. 1451):
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 10
• System 1: fast, associative and emotional. Hence, the peripheral route.
• System 2: slow, effortful and controlled. That is, the central route.
2.2 Key factors of Persuasion
Practitioners should be aware that the attention is controllable and selective (Kahneman, 1973,
p. 201), hence, factors such as motivation, ability and involvement should be influenced, or at
least taken into consideration, to guide the costumers through emotional experiences.
2.2.1 Motivation and ability
In the case of central processing, whether and how a costumer shapes (or changes) his attitude
depends on:
• The comprehension and evaluation of the message;
• His or her existing knowledge.
On the other hand, when the peripheral processing occurs, costumer’s attitudes can be
influenced by (Mackenzie & Spreng, 1992):
• His or her impressions about the quality of the message;
• His or her current mood;
• The source of the message;
• Anything else that could be helpful in assessing is the feeling perceived at that
moment.
For instance, Petty and Cacioppo (1986) suggested that an increase of motivation to elaborate
the message, along with high involvement, leads to more effortful processes and hence to
stronger attitudes. Batra and Ray (1986, p. 433) confirm that individuals are more likely to
make judgements when there is high motivation for getting involved with the communication
and that higher ability helps in eliciting an effortful response. Therefore, motivation can be
considered as the desire to make judgements (Deci et al., 2001), while ability is the capability
to make evaluations (Ho & Tam, 2005). Furthermore, Petty (1977) showed that, to achieve a
resistant attitude change, a minimum level of cognitive work has to be induced to the audience.
In this way, there is higher motivation to elaborate the information, retrieve old believes, and
update them with the existing ones (Alpert & Alpert, 1991, sec. introduction)
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 11
Even though the concepts of motivation and ability derived by the ELM model have led to the
development of several theories, in this context they should be treated as highly interdependent
(Batra & Ray, 1986). Mackenzie and Spreng (1992, p. 520) argue that “motivation influences
the nature rather than the amount of a consumer’s information processing”. In other words,
motivation could have a role in influencing the recipient to make a cognitive effort and focus
on the message, rather than relying on more appealing short-cuts (MacInnis, Moorman &
Jaworksi (1991);Macinnis & Park, 1991).
Kahneman (2011) argues that human beings have limited capacities, thus limited abilities,
when it comes to cognitive thinking. However, McInnis and Park (1991, p. 35) listed some
strategies that may increase the levels of attention toward an advertisement and motivation:
• Aim to trigger hedonic needs to guarantee a more pleasant experience;
• Use novelty for eliciting curiosity, such as unexpected changes;
• Choose a prominent stimulus, such as loud music or pictures.
Furthermore, the importance of motivation to define the depth of processing has been
highlighted also in the literature about the Internet usage and web advertisements (Ho &
Bodoff, 2014; Kim, Kim, & Park, 2010; Rodgers & Thorson, 2000; Sicilia, Ruiz, & Munuera,
2005). For instance, Ho and Bodoff (2014, p. 507) suggest that motivation and ability do have
positive impact on a person’s depth of processing. Moreover, Sicilia, Ruiz and Munuera (2005,
p. 40) found out that interactive Web sites increase the motivation to process the information
of people with low ability cognition.
2.2.2 Involvement
So far, it has been given much attention to the concept of involvement and, for the sake of
clarity, it must be highlighted that in this context it will be considered as either the “product
involvement”, but also as the “cognitive elaboration that occurs in a communication process”
(Liu & Shrum, 2002, p. 60). Indeed, the level of involvement plays a relevant role on which
route, between central or peripheral, will be undertaken by the recipient. For instance, high
involvement with the product advertised (R. E. Petty et al., 1983) and highly interactive online
experience cause the users to make a cognitive effort deeper than usual (Liu & Shrum, 2002).
According to Petty & Cacioppo (1986, p. 145), subjects might be motivated to pay attention to
persuasive messages according to the “personal relevance” of the issue. In other words, the
interest toward a message is proportional to the consequences that may have in someone’s life.
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 12
Moreover, in the case of high involvement, it is assumed to be high ability to assess the
information, given an existing knowledge of the issue.
Greenwald and Leavitt (1984, p. 591) define different levels of involvement and processing:
1. Bottom up: if at the beginning the involvement is low but the individual perceives the
message to be relevant, he or she moves forward to a deeper elaboration;
2. Top down: when the involvement is high but the content is irrelevant or well-known,
the attention is shifted somewhere else;
3. Competence limitation concerning the ability to elaborate the information. For instance,
foreign language or a distracting cue;
4. Capacity limitation: the costumer is not able to be attentive and in this case the focus
and the involvement is reduced.
In conclusion, the relevance of the message influences the in-depth processing and cognitive
responses (Greenwald & Leavitt, 1984, p. 587): at high involvement there is deeper processing
and long lasting attitude changes, while at low involvement there is little cognitive effort, and
the elaboration will not go further.
2.3 The Role of Music
Music plays a relevant role in advertising due to its ability of involving costumers and evoking
emotions (Oakes & North, 2006). Indeed, the elements that build up the structure of music,
such as pitch, rhythm, tempo and so on, have the property of attracting the audience and make
it feel connected to the advertisement or the brand (Brodsky, 2010). Moreover, has been found
in several experiments (Gueguen & Jacob, 2012; Milliman, 1982; North, Hargreaves, &
McKendrick, 1999) that a rational thinking behind the responses to the musical stimulus is
missing (Cialdini, 2016, p. 198). Therefore, the following sections aim at exposing and
understanding the relevant effects that music has on the cognitive and affective responses.
2.3.1 Cognitive effects
When a sound reaches the ear, neural events are activated as a chain, and eventually the sound
is transformed into a perception (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005, p. 90). Without going into the details
of how music affects the brain, it is important to highlight that storing a heard sound is
automatic and it does not require much effort, but listening to the sound means that the recipient
is giving attention to the source and he or she is trying to attach meanings to the music. Indeed,
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 13
music influence cognitive activities such as “understanding and remembering auditory
information” (Buchholz & Smith, 1991, p. 5) and can make the task more (or less) easier.
According to its structure and characteristics, background music has different degrees of
complexity, which can make some tracks more difficult to listen to than others. Thus, the level
of cognitive effort needed to elaborate the information can be increased (decreased), e.g. using
intrusive and loud popular songs (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). In other words, there are cases in
which music help the in storing and understanding the message received, but, on the other hand,
when the overall activity requires too much effort, peripheral cues such as background music
may interfere with the cognitive effort music (Lantos & Craton, 2012; Park & Young, 1986).
In conclusion, it is relevant to know which is the meaning of the commercial that needs to be
conveyed and the level of effort that is needed to process it (Greenwald, 1968). Moreover, the
familiarity that the audience has with the background music has relevant effects on the
evaluations. Indeed, when a track is listened to for the first time, it may cause the attachment
of specific thoughts and feelings, either positive or negative, to the experience or the music
itself (e.g. earworms)(Williamson et al., 2012). Finally, when there is background music
playing, the perception of time itself changes: given the higher motivation to listen to it, songs
with positive valence may increase the perceived duration of a time period and costumer give
longer estimation of time (Kellaris & Kent, 1992, p. 373)(Kellaris & Kent, 1992, p. 365).
Given the several ways in which background music may affect the listeners, the results
achieved in the literature are often different and contrasting (Ziv, Hoftman, & Geyer, 2012).
When costumers are highly involved with the advertised product, they are more motivated to
elaborate the commercial, and, as mentioned previously, invasive or familiar music might
lower the attention (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p. 31; Park & Young, 1986). Indeed, the capacity
to focus on the message is limited (Greenwald & Leavitt, 1984). For instance, Park and Young
(1986) advertised a natural product using a famous and popular song in the background. Hence,
they registered a negative response from the high involvement group. However, the opposite
reaction was received from the low involvement group, which presumably enjoyed the overall
commercial (Alpert & Alpert, 1991; Lantos & Craton, 2012). Apart from intrusiveness and
familiarity, wrong musical fit leads to negative reactions. In line with this argument are the
results obtained by MacInnis and Park (1991): music that is not consistent with the primary
message of the advertisement works as a distractor and it negatively affects attitudes and
feelings.
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Mentioning the positive effects, the literature presents studies in which background music
facilitated the message processing. For example, MacInnis and Park (1991) showed that
background music may have a positive impact both for high and low involvement groups, when
the condition of musical fit is met. In other words, attention given to the commercial and the
involvement with it both increase if background music and the ad message carry a similar
emotional meaning. Hence, background music may work as a communication vehicle and it
may lead to polarized thoughts, e.g. more favourable (Hoyer, Srivastava, & Jacoby, 1984).
Indeed, Ziv, Hoftman and Geyer (2012) demonstrated that music with a positive valence
increase the acceptance of unethical messages exposed in online commercials (i.e. a “website
allowing pension payments’ cheating” (Ziv et al., 2012, p. 759).
In conclusion, Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 233) argue that the selection of background music
should be based on:
• The aimed cognitive or affective involvement of the audience (e.g. informative or
emotional ad);
• The meaning that wants to be transmitted;
• The level of involvement of the recipient (high or low).
For instance, a person stating that an advertisement is humorous, informative, or classy is
involved on a cognitive level. This type of involvement is the “thoughtful information
acquisition” (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p. 31) and is important when the aim of the ad is to
change the target attitude through the claims of the product or the brand, reducing the impact
of peripheral cues. On the other hand, affective involvement is based on emotions and
experiences. Therefore, judgements are based on “hedonic needs” (Lantos & Craton, 2012, p.
31), such as fun, amusement or empathy and the advertisement should focus on giving an
experience.
When hearing a piece of music, the right and left hemispheres of the brain work together to
process the melody and analyse the structural components of the music, while the limbic system
activates an emotional response in the listener (Hampton, 2007; Weinberger, 1998)
2.3.2 Emotional effects
In the literature has been largely discussed the power of music in involving customers,
conveying emotions, enhancing experiences and priming their choices (Bruner, 1990; Gueguen
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 15
& Jacob, 2012; North, 2012; Williamson et al., 2012; Zentner et al., 2008). Koelsch (2014)
points out several social functions that music has and that can be applied to marketing:
• Creation of bonds and connections, i.e. between brand and costumer (Yorkston &
Menon, 2004);
• Communication of intentions through associations, i.e. luxury brands commercials
(Brodsky, 2010);
• Increase of empathy;
• Synchronization to a beat (Milliman (1982) showed that in-store background music can
influence the customers’ pace of walk);
• Increase of social belonging to a community. For instance, higher levels of pleasure and
arousal induced by classical music may enhance consumer’s desire to affiliate with the
sellers (Dubé, Chebat & Morin, 1995, p. 316).
From the examples it can be understood that it is difficult to define the boundaries between
cognitive and affective responses, since the “feeling is not free of thought, nor is thought free
of feeling” (Zajonc, 1980). Indeed, the emotional component of an advertisement can influence
the cognitive process of the target, and it may impact the brand’s attitude as well. Moreover,
the literature expresses significant ambiguity when it comes to assessing whether is the emotion
that shapes cognition or the other way around (Oakes, 2007).
However, beyond every doubt, music is able to increase the audience motivation and the feeling
of reward (Zentner et al., 2008). Indeed, studies about these effects go beyond the marketing
field and several neurologists (Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Menon & Levitin, 2005) argue that
music involves people through the activation of the brain’s areas of reward, motivation and
pleasure. Hence, emotions such as joy, thrills or happiness are released.
3. Methodology
3.1 Laboratory Experiment
The hypothesis will be tested through an artificial experiment conducted in laboratory.
However, to enhance realism (Lynch, Jr., 1982, p. 231), the participants will be exposed to a
watch advertisement using the website www.luxurynewsroom.com, which presents a dedicated
section to luxury watches. Hence, it is possible to control the effects of extraneous variables
that otherwise would have hampered the validity of the results during a field experiment, such
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 16
as: other sounds, own background music, dislike of the website and consequent avoidance of
the advertisement.
3.1.1 Sample
To ensure highly involved participants, the sample will be composed of adult luxury watch
costumers, which will be recruited through snowball sampling.
3.1.2 Research design
The experiment is designed as a “true experimental posttest-only control group” exposed by
Malhotra (2010). In other words, the sample will be randomly divided into two groups:
• The control group, which will be exposed to the video ad without background music;
• The experimental group will be exposed to the video ad with classical background
music.
Moreover, below the ad there will be the full description of the product.
3.1.2 Procedure
After the exposure to the stimulus, participants will be instructed to list their thoughts and
feelings, with a time limit of 3 minutes (Cacioppo & Petty, 1981; R. Petty, Ostrom, & Brock,
2014). Finally, they will fill out a questionnaire about demographics and brand attitude and
will be dismissed.
3.1.3 Variables
Classical background music is the independent variable of the research that is going to be
manipulated. Indeed, ceteris paribus, the treatment group will evaluate the advertisement
without any background sound or distraction. Relevant differences from the two groups will
be sought in the cognitive and affective responses. As manipulation check, brand attitude will
be measured together with the demographics.
Furthermore, extraneous variables that should be taken into consideration are the artificial
environment that could hamper natural behaviours; and the mood antecedent to the exposure,
which may influence ad responses (Batra & Stayman, 1990; Schwarz et al., 1991).
3.1.4 Measurement and analysis
The thought-listing technique (Cacioppo & Petty, 1981) is the recommended method for
measuring cognitive responses to ads. Indeed, even when individuals’ responses are the same
on the attitude scale, the “thoughts behind the ratings are different” (R. Petty et al., 2014, p. 6).
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 17
Therefore, for understanding the dynamics of attitudes change, this technique will be used to
measure the in-depth processing of participants’ (as the average number of thoughts (R. Petty
et al., 2014)); their thoughts (types and valence) and their feelings.
The thought sampling methodology will follow the one drawn up by Wright (1980). In
addition, the thoughts will be coded on the grounds of the “coding scheme of cognitive
responses” provided by Buchholz and Smith (1991, p. 17); while the feelings will be coded
relying on the emotion categories synthesised by Batra and Ray (1986a, pp. 236–240) (see
Appendix). However, since the literature is lacking clear and defined coding schemes ad hoc
for feelings, the Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS) will be used as supportive material.
Indeed, according to Zentner, Grandjean and Scherer (2008, p. 500), the emotions expressed
by music may influence listeners’ feelings and what is perceived becomes what is felt.
Finally, the attitude toward the brand in the ad will be measured with a five-point, Likert-type
scale with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91 (1 = Strongly disagree; 5 = Strongly agree) (see Appendix).
The results will be analysed with MAXQDA (categorization and coding) and SPSS software
(ANOVA).
3.1.5 Pilot study
A pre-test to will be conducted to ensure the effectiveness of the experiment. Five video ads
have been chosen among the ones of luxury watch brands that gave the authorization for
copyrights (see Appendix). The selection was based on background music characteristics (e.g.
genre, tempo, texture, arousal, intrusiveness) (Kellaris & Kent, 1994) and their fit with both
gender.
3.1.6 Limitations and future research
This research presents several limitations due to time and budget constraints. For instance, the
choice of the ads was very limited because of the copyrights authorization and the artificial
environment may undermine the external validity of the results. Moreover, it would have been
interesting to have a second experimental group to evaluate an ad with popular music, which
is nowadays commonly used among luxury brands to attract younger generations and create
catchy ads. Indeed, new types of musical genres are arising, due to the technology, and
widening the existing range of styles. Thus, it is more difficult to generalise the conclusions of
the experiment and each case should be analysed on the grounds of its own purpose. Finally,
further research is needed first to experiment in the field, and secondly to study the effects of
other music styles.
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 18
3. Work Plan
Activity Timeframe
Pre-Test 30/10/2017 – 05/11/2017
Experiments and
Integration of Literature
Review
06/11/2017 – 17/12/2017
Analysis of Results 18/12/2017 – 07/01/2018
Conclusions 08/01/2018 – 21/01/2018
4. Overview of the Chapters
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1. Introduction
1.1 Background and Problem statement
1.2 Research Questions and Hypothesis
1.3 Significance of the Study
1.3.1 The digitalization of luxury
2. Literature Review
2.1 Structure of the Thesis
2.2 Understanding Costumers’ Responses
2.2.1 Cognitive Responses
2.2.2 Affective Responses
2.2.3 Elaboration Likelihood Method (ELM)
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 19
2.3 Key factors of Persuasion
2.3.1 Motivation and Ability
2.3.2 Involvement
2.4 The role of Music
2.4.1 Characteristics of Music
2.4.2 Cognitive Effects
2.4.3 Emotional Effects
3. Theoretical Framework
4. Methodology
4.1 Laboratory Experiment
4.1.1 Research Design and Sample
4.1.2 Procedure
4.1.3 Variables and Measurement
4.1.4 Analysis of Results
4.1.5 Discussion
5. Conclusions
5.1 Contribution
5.2 Limitations
5.3 Future Research
6. References
7. Appendix
The Online Sound of Luxury Watch Brands 20
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