MASTERING"'---------

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL HISTORY

MACMILLAN MASTER SERIES

BankingBasic English LawBasic ManagementBiologyBritish PoliticsBusiness CommunicationBusiness MicrocomputingCatering ScienceChemistryCOBOL ProgrammingCommerceComputer ProgrammingComputersData ProcessingEconomic and Social HistoryEconomicsElectrical EngineeringElectronicsEnglish GrammarEnglish LanguageEnglish LiteratureFinancial AccountingFrenchFrench 2German

HairdressingItalianJapaneseKeyboardingMarketingMathematicsModern British HistoryModern European HistoryModern World HistoryNutritionOffice PracticePascal ProgrammingPhysicsPractical WritingPrinciples of AccountsSocial WelfareSociologySpanishSpanish 2StatisticsStatistics with your MicrocomputerStudy SkillsTypewriting SkillsWord Processing

DAVID TAYLOR

MMACMILLANEDUCATION

© W. D. Taylor 1988

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmissionof this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copiedor transmitted save with written permission or in accordancewith the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended),or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copyingissued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place,London WCIE 7DP.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation tothis publication may be liable to criminal prosecution andcivil claims for damages.

First published 1988

Published byMACMILLAN EDUCATION LTDHoundmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XSand LondonCompanies and representativesthroughout the world

Typeset in Great Britainby TecSet Ltd, Wallington, Surrey

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataTaylor, David, 1945 July 10-Mastering British economic and social historysince 1760. - (Macmillan master series).1. Great Britain-History-George III,1760-1820 2. Great Britain-History19th century 3. Great Britain-History20th centuryI. Title941.07 DA470

ISBN 978-0-333-36804-6 ISBN 978-1-349-19377-6 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-19377-6

CONTENTSv

Preface xviii

Acknowledgements xx

1 Population1.1 Introduction 11.2 Population trends 1750-1820 41.3 Population trends 1820-1901 101.4 How useful are the nineteenth-century Census

returns to the historian? 121.5 Population trends 1901-81 131.6 Conclusion 16

2 The Agrarian Revolution 1750-18502.1 Introduction: What was the open field

system? 212.2 What were the disadvantages of the open field

system? 232.3 What was the agrarian revolution? 232.4 Why did changes take place in British

agriculture between 1750 and 1850? 242.5 The enclosure movement 242.6 Technical improvements and the agricultural

pioneers of the eighteenth century 312.7 What contribution did the 'propagandists'

make to the agrarian changes? 362.8 Conclusion 37

3 The Industrial Revolution3.1 Introduction 433.2 Terminology 443.3 Alternative views of the 'Industrial

Revolution' 443.4 Why was Britain the first country to become

an industrialised society? 463.5 The controversy between the 'optimists' and

the 'pessimists' 473.6 Conclusion 48

CONTENTS

4 The textile industry 1700-18504.1 Introduction 504.2 What processes were involved in the

manufacture of textiles in 1700? 504.3 What was the state of the textile industry in

1700? 524.4 The domestic system 534.5 Why did the cotton industry develop more

rapidly than the woollen industry from thelate eighteenth century onwards? 55

4.6 Inventions of spinning and weaving machines 564.7 Why was factory weaving slow to establish

itself? 624.8 Why did the cotton industry become

concentrated in south-east Lancashire andcentral Scotland? 62

4.9 What changes took place in the woollenindustry? 63

4.10 How important was the role of the cottonindustry in the context of industrialisation? 64

4.11 Conclusion 64

5 The Luddites5.1 Introduction 715.2 What were the origins of the term 'Luddite'? 715.3 The Luddite counties and main events of the

movement 725.4 What caused Luddism? 735.5 How far did Luddism have political aims? 745.6 How and why did Luddism fade away? 755.7 Conclusion 75

6 The coal industry1700-1850

6.1 Introduction 806.2 How was coal mined in 1700? 806.3 Why did the demand for coal increase after

1750? 816.4 The growth of British coalfields 826.5 What were the dangers of deep shaft mining

and how did the mining industry attempt toovercome them? 83

6.6 How far did techniques of cutting coalimprove? 87

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6.7 Conclusion: How important was thecontribution of the coal industry to theprocess of industrialisation? 88

7 The iron industry 1700-18507.1 Introduction 917.2 What were the main processes involved in the

manufacture of iron in the early eighteenthcentury? 91

7.3 Why was the iron industry unable to increase 92its output in the early eighteenth century?

7.4 What contribution did the 'Darby Dynasty'make to the development of the ironindustry in the eighteenth century? 94

7.5 What is the importance of Henry Cort in themass production of iron? 96

7.6 What impact did the technical advances iniron-manufacturing have on theindustrialisation of Britain? 98

7.7 Why was steel produced in small quantities inthe eighteenth and early nineteenthcentury? 100

7.8 Conclusion 101

8 The pottery industry 1700-19008.1 Introduction 1058.2 How and why did North Staffordshire become

the main centre of the British potteryindustry? 105

8.3 Josiah Wedgwood (1730-95) 1078.4 What was life like for a pottery worker in the

nineteenth century? 1098.5 Conclusion 110

9 The development of power9.1 Introduction 1149.2 Traditional forms of power 1149.3 What role did Thomas Savery play in the

development of steam-power? 1159.4 What role did Thomas Newcomen play in the

development of steam-power? 1159.5 James Watt (1736-1819) 1169.6 How important was Watt's partnership with

Matthew Boulton? 1179.7 Conclusion: What impact did the

steam-engine have on the British economy? 119

CONTENTS

10 Road transport10.1 Introduction 12410.2- What were roads like in pre-industrial

Britain? 12410.3 Why were Britain's roads in such poor

condition? 12510.4 Why was an improvement in the quality ·of

the roads essential after 1750? 12510.5 Government attempts to improve the roads in

the eighteenth century 12610.6 What was the role of the turnpike trusts and

how successful were they in improvingBritain's roads? 126

10.7 What was the contribution of 'The GreatRoad Engineers' to road improvement? 128

10.8 What were the benefits of road improvementsduring this period? 130

10.9 Why did the coaching era come to an end? 13110.10 Conclusion: How far did road improvements

1750-1830 contribute to the industrialisationof Britain? 131

11 Canals11.1 Introduction 14011.2 What forms of water transport were available

before the mid-eighteenth century? 14011.3 Why were canals needed? 14111.4 How did the canal network develop in Britain

between 1760 and 1830? 14111.5 What difficulties faced engineers in

constructing canals? 14411.6 How were canal companies started and

financed? 14611.7 What beneficial results did canals have for the

British economy? 14811.8 When and why did canals decline? 14811.9 Conclusion 149

12 Railways12.1 Introduction 15512.2 How and where did railways originate? 15512.3 Who were the inventors of the early

locomotives? 15612.4 The tockton to Darlington railway 1825 15712.5 The Liverpool to Manchester railway 1830 158

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12.6 How quickly did the railway network grow? 16112.7 What problems were encountered by the

promoters when establishing a railwaycompany? 161

12.8 What problems were encountered in theconstruction of railway lines? 163

12.9 How far did the navvies deserve theirnotorious reputation? 165

12.10 Why did amalgamations take place? 16512.11 What was the role of the government in the

growth of the railway network? 16612.12 What were the social effects of railway

growth? 16812.13 What were the economic effects of the

railways? 17112.14 Conclusion 172

13 The development of shipping 1800-193913.1 Introduction 17913.2 From wood to steel 17913.3 The development of the steamship in the

nineteenth century 18113.4 Why were sailing ships able to compete with

steamships for so long? 18413.5 What developments took place in marine

engineering? 18613.6 What part did Parliament play in the

development of shipping? 18713.7 What effects did the steamship have on the

British economy? 18713.8 The age of the passenger liner 18913.9 Conclusion 189

14 Factory reform14.1 Introduction: The factory system 19414.2 Who were the 'first generation' of factory

workers? 19514.3 What difficulties faced the first generation of

factory-owners? How did they enforce acode of discipline? 196

14.4 What early attempts were made at factorylegislation and why were they unsuccessful? 200

14.5 The struggle to reform the factories 20114.6 Why and how was the Mines Act (1842)

passed? 206

CONTENTS

14.7 The climbing boys 20814.8 Conclusion 209

15 Social and economic conditions in Britain1793-1822

15.1 Introduction: Background 21915.2 What were the economic and social effects of

the French wars (1793-1815)? 21915.3 What caused the distress and discontent

among the labouring classes immediatelyafter the French Wars in the period1815-22? 222

15.4 In what ways was the Parliamentary systemoutdated? 223

15.5 Who were the Radicals and why were theyprominent in the period 1815-22? 225

15.6 What action did the labouring classes take toprotest against their distressed condition? 226

15.7 What measures did the government take todeal with the disturbances? 229

15.8 Why did the government adopt a repressiveattitude? 230

15.9 Was Britain close to revolution in this period? 23115.10 Conclusion 231

16 The Poor Law 1750-194816.1 Introduction 23816.2 How was the Poor Law administered before

1834? 23916.3 What were allowance systems? Why were

they introduced and what effects did theyhave on the poor? 240

16.4 Why was a Royal Commission of Inquiry intothe poor laws appointed in 1832? 241

16.5 What were the terms of the Poor LawAmendment Act 1834? 243

16.6 How did the Central Poor Law Commissionput the Act into operation? 244

16.7 How did the New Poor Law work in practice? 24516.8 How far was the Poor Law Amendment Act

accepted? 24616.9 How successful was the New Poor Law? 247

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16.10 What other changes were made in Poor Lawadministration after 1834? 247

16.11 Conclusion 248

17 Law and order 1700-190017.1 Introduction 25317.2 Who kept law and order during the

eighteenth century? How effective werethey? 253

17.3 What improvements in law-enforcement tookplace during the eighteenth century? ,255

17.4 What factors highlighted the need for aregular police force? 256

17.5 In view of the growing lawlessness why was aregular police force not established until1829? 256

17.6 What contribution did Robert Peel make tothe reform of law and order? 257

17.7 How were police forces extended over thecountry as a whole? 259

17.8 How effective were the police? 26017.9 What were prison conditions like in the

eighteenth century and early nineteenthcentury? 261

17.10 What was transportation? 26217.11 What steps did John Howard and Elizabeth

Fry take in an attempt to reform prisonconditions? How successful were they? 262

17.12 What were prisons like in the mid-nineteenth century? 265

17.13 Other legislation and measures 26717.14 Conclusion 268

18 Education 1750-194418.1 Introduction 27718.2 How were working-class children educated in

the early nineteenth century? (elementaryeducation) 278

18.3 What means of education were available forthe middle and upper classes in the earlynineteenth century? (secondary education) 281

18.4 What developments took place in elementaryeducation between 1833 and 1862? 282

CONTENTS

18.5 What improvements took place in PublicSchools and Grammar Schools in the'mid-nineteenth century? (SecondaryEducation) 285

18.6 Why was the Elementary Education Act of1870 passed and what were its terms? 286

18.7 What did the 1870 Education Act achieve? 28818.8 Why was the 1902 Education Act passed?

What were its terms and how far was itsuccessful? 290

18.9 How was the Act received and what was itsimportance? 292

18.10 What developments took place in educationbetween 1902 and 1944? 294

18.11 Conclusion 296

19 Public health in Britain 1750-190019.1 Introduction 30119.2 What were the main environmental problems

of the growing towns in the first half of thenineteenth century? 301

19.3 What was the health of the people like in thecities? 305

19.4 Why was so little done to improve livingconditions in the first part of the nineteenthcentury? 308

19.5 Why and how did the 'sanitary reformmovement' originate in the mid-nineteenthcentury? 310

19.6 How did the 1848 Public Health Act come tobe passed and how effective was it? 312

19.7 Why did the government playa more directrole in public health legislation after 1865? 314

19.8 What legislation was passed between 1866 and1900 to improve public health? 315

19.9 Medical advances 31719.10 Conclusion 324

20 Trade and trading policy since 175020.1 Introduction 33220.2 What were the main features of Britain's

trading policy in the eighteenth century? 33320.3 How did the free-trade movement originate? 341

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20.4 What policies were adopted by William Pittand William Huskisson to help transformBritain into a free-trade nation? 343

20.5 The achievements of Sir Robert Peel(1788-1850) - Tory Prime Minister from1841 to 1846 345

20.6 What contribution did William Gladstone(1809-98) make to the achievement offree- trade? 351

20.7 Free trade challenged 35220.8 What events led to protection returning? 35520.9 Britain's trading policy since 1945 35520.10 Conclusion 358

21 Working-class movements21.1 Introduction 36821.2 The origins of the trade union movement

1789-1850 36821.3 New model unions 1850-80 37421.4 Growth of the new unions 1880-1900 37821.5 What legal set-backs did trade unions suffer in

the period 1880-1910? 38121.6 Industrial disputes 1910-14 38421.7 Chartism 38621.8 The growth of the Labour Party 39821.9 Self-help movements: friendly societies and

co-operatives 40521.10 Conclusion 409

22 Industrial developments 1850-191422.1 Introduction 41522.2 What was the importance of the Great

Exhibition? 41622.3 Why did Britain enjoy prosperity between

1850 and 1873? 41922.4 Outline developments in the staple (basic)

industries between 1850 and 1914, referringto coal, textiles, and iron and steel 423

22.5 What 'new' industries were developed in thisperiod? 428

22.6 Why was Britain's industrial supremacychallenged in the last quarter of thenineteenth century? 430

CONTENTS

22.7 How far is it true to say that Britain suffereda 'depression' in this period? 433

22.8 Conclusion 435

23 Agriculture in Britain 1815-191423.1 Introduction 43723.2 The landowners and farmers 43823.3 The agricultural labourers 44323.4 The 'Golden Age of Agriculture' 1850-73 44823.5 Agricultural depression 1873-1914 45323.6 Conclusion 460

24 The emancipation of women24.1 Introduction 46424.2 What was the position of women in 1850? 46424.3 What improvements in their status did women

achieve during the nineteenth century? 46524.4 How and why did the suffrage movement

originate? 46924.5 Which groups made up the 'women's suffrage

movement'? 47124.6 What were the arguments used against the

women's suffrage movement? 47424.7 What were the main events of the suffrage

movement between 1905 and 1914? 47724.8 Did militant tactics further the cause of the

suffragists? 47924.9 How far is it true to say that the work of

women during the First World War(1914-18) brought them the vote? 479

24.10 Conclusion 481

25 The social reforms of the Liberal Government1906-14

25.1 Introduction 49125.2 Who held the main Cabinet posts between

1908 and 1914? 49325.3 What did the Liberals do to help children? 49325.4 The elderly 49425.5 What did the Liberal Government do to help

workers who were exploited? 49525.6 What legislation was passed concerning

coal-mines? 497

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25.7 What did the Liberal Government do to assistworkers who were injured at work orabsent from work due to sickness? 497

25.8 How did the Liberals deal with theunemployed? 499

25.9 How successful were the Liberals and howwere the social reforms received at thetime? 500

25.10 Conclusion 503

26 The First World War (1914-18) and its effects26.1 Introduction 51226.2 What measures were initiated by the

government to deal with a total warsituation between 1914 and 1918? 513

26.3 The economic and social effects of the war 51426.4 Attempts at reconstruction 1918-22 51726.5 Conclusion 520

27 The trade unions 1914-3927.1 Introduction, 52127.2 The position of trade unions after the First

World War 52127.3 What caused the General Strike of 1926? 52327.4 The nine days of the General Strike 4-12 May

1926 52927.5 How and why did the strike come to an end

on 12 May 1926? 53127.6 What were the effects of the General Strike

on the trade-union movement? 53327.7 Conclusion: changed attitudes 1926-39 534

28 Industry between the wars 1919-3928.1 Introduction 54128.2 The basic industries 1919-39 54128.3 The new industries 54528.4 What developments took place in British

agriculture between 1914 and 1930? 54928.5 Conclusion 551

29 The Wall Street Crash and the depression ofthe thirties

29.1 Introduction: the international background 55429.2 The Wall Street Crash - The collapse of the

American Stock Exchange 555

CONTENTS

29.3 The economic and political crisis inBritain - 1931 557

29.4 What immediate steps were taken by thenational government to deal with the crisis? 560

29.5 Which areas of Britain were hit most badly bythe depression and why? 562

29.6 What long-term measures did the nationalgovernment adopt to alleviate the effects ofthe depression? 563

29.7 What were the social effects of long-termunemployment? 569

29.8 How progressive were government policiesand were they successful in bringing arecovery? 571

29.9 What alternative theories to combat thedepression were suggested at the time? 572

29.10 Conclusion 573

30 The Home Front during the Second World War1939-45

30.1 Introduction 57730.2 The blitz and evacuation 1939-41 57730.3 How was the labour force mobilised? 57930.4 What measures were taken to overcome the

shortage of food during the war and howsuccessful were they? 583

30.5 How were other shortages overcome? 58430.6 How did the government finance the

war-effort? 58530.7 In what ways did the war benefit British

society? 58730.8 How was civilian morale maintained during

the war? 58830.9 What plans were laid for reconstruction? 58930.10 How much damage had the war caused? 59130.11 Conclusion 592

31 The Labour Government 1945-5131.1 Introduction 59831.2 What immediate financial problems faced the

Labour administration? 59831.3 Why did the Labour Government nationalise

key industries? 600

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31.4 The Welfare State: National Insurance 60531.5 The National Health Service 60731.6 How successful was the Labour Government

in other areas of social reform? 61131.7 Financial and economic policy 1945-51

61531.8 Conclusion - what was the achievement of the

Labour Government? 620

32 Communications and transport since 184032.1 Introduction 62632.2 How important was Rowland Hill (1785-1879)

in the development of the postal service? 62732.3 Why was the invention of the electric

telegraph important? 62932.4 How did the telephone come into being? 63032.5 What have been the major developments in

broadcasting? 63132.6 The cinema 63432.7 The press 63532.8 Developments in transport 1900-1950 63832.9 Conclusion 642

33 Britain 1951-8633.1 Introduction: The Festival of Britain 64733.2 The British economy since 1951 64833.3 Trade unions 1951-86 65533.4 Education since 1951 66233.5 Industrial developments 1951-86 66933.6 Energy since 1951 67833.7 Transport developments 68233.8 What social problems face modern Britain? 68733.9 Conclusion: the future 691

Bibliography 696

Index711

xviii

PREFACE

(a) Mastering Economic and Social History is geared towards pre­paring students for the General Certificate of Secondary Education.This examination demands a much more analytical approach anddoes much to make History a relevant subject which develops anumber of skills needed throughout life. No longer will it be sufficientfor a candidate to learn a body of historical knowledge in a'parrot-like' fashion to regurgitate in the examination. It will now benecessary to develop skills of analysis, selection, judgement andsource-evaluation. The factual background now forms a frameworkwhich the candidate has to apply and use rather than memorise for itsown sake. I hope that this book will help the student to develop thesehistorical skills.

(b) The approach adopted in this book follows the successful formatof the Macmillan Master Series and has the following featuresdesigned to help the GCSE student:

e Structured chapters which focus on the key issues.e Sections which discuss matters of historical controversy and

invite the student to make a judgement.e Questions at the end of each chapter.

(c) The questions at the end of each chapter have been framed withthe GCSE directly in mind. The majority of them have been devisedby the author, but some have been taken from the syllabuses of thenew Examining Groups. It is worth noting that the The NationalCriteria for GCSE History state that all History courses will test thefollowing assessment objectives:'The candidate will be expected:

1. To recall, evaluate and select knowledge relevant to the contextand to deploy it in a clear and coherent form.

2. To make use of and understand the concepts of cause andconsequence, continuity and change, similarity and difference.

3. To show an ability to look at events and issues from theperspective of people in the past (empathy).

4. To show the skills necessary to study a wide variety of historicalevidence which should include both primary and secondary

xix

written sources, statistical and visual material, artefacts, textbooks and orally transmitted information by:e comprehending and extracting information from it,e interpreting and evaluating it - distinguishing between fact,

opinion and judgement; pointing to deficiencies in the ma­terial such as gaps and inconsistencies; detecting bias,

e by comparing various types of historical evidence and reach-ing conclusions based on this comparison.'

(Quoted from The National Criteria for GCSE History, p. 1).In all cases I have stated the assessment objective at which thequestion is broadly targetted.

(d) lowe a great deal to many people who have helped me tocomplete this book. In particular, I would like to thank Peter Oatesof Macmillan who gave me every possible assistance and encourage­ment. My wife, Pat, gave me constant support and spent many hourstyping the manuscript. This book is dedicated to her and my twounderstanding daughters, Zoe and Rachel.

(e) Finally, to the reader I apologise for any imperfections or errorsin the book.

DAVID TAYLOR

xx

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe author and publishers wish to acknowledge, with thanks, thefollowing illustrative sources:

BBC Hulton Picture Library (pp.77; 121; 234; 175; 191; 134; 270;272; 273; 297; 326; 329; 330 top; 330 bottom; 411; 484; 540; 552;593)

British Waterways Board (p. 146)Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office (p. 679)Durham Public Record Office (pp. 139-9)Mary Evans Picture Library(p. 112)Ford Collection, University of Southamton (p. 216)Glasgow Bulletin (p. 539)Hampshire Chronicle (p. 265)Helmsham Local History Collection (p. 197)Imperial War Museum (p. 595)Ironbridge Museum Trust (pp. 103, 104)London Express News and Features Service (pp. 594; 622; 623; 624)Manchester Public Libraries (pp. 69; 236; 237)Mansell Collection (pp. 18; 66; 67; 177; 211; 213; 214; 233; 271; 359;

360· 362· 364· 365· 461· 485· 486· 487· 488· 506· 508· 509· 510· 538), , , , , , , , , , , , ,Metropolitan Police (p. 275)Nottingham County Council Local History Collection (p. 78)The Open University (p. 152)Science Museum (p. 121)

The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright-holders,but if any have been inadvertently overlooked they will be pleased tomake the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.