masters composite final draft 03 12 2014a

Joseph Oliver Clancy s 1108080

Identifying Opportunities and Constraints for the Implementation of Biophilic

Design Patterns in UK Landscape Architecture

Joseph Oliver Clancy

Presented as part of the requirement for the award of the

MA Degree in Landscape Architecture

at the University of Gloucestershire

December, 2014


(i) Declaration

This Dissertation is the product of my own work and does not infringe the ethical

principles set out in the University’s Handbook for Research Ethics.

I agree that it may be made available for reference via any and all media by any

and all means now known or developed in the future at the discretion of the

University.

Signed

Joseph Oliver Clancy

5th December 2014


(ii) Abstract

This dissertation aims to identify the opportunities and constraints for the

implementation of biophilic design patterns and assess its need/importance in

UK landscape architecture. This dissertation has utilized various sources,

including peer reviewed academic journal articles, recent publications, online

sources and personal communications with leading experts in the field of

biophilic design, including William Browning, Catie Ryan, Timothy Beatley, Gayle

Souter-Brown, Stephen Kellert, Val Kirby and Nick Grayson. The methodology

of this dissertation has included a literature review, professional work experience

with Terrapin Bright Green (a company specialising in biophilic design in the built

environment), interviews with professional UK landscape architects and biophilic

design experts, two online surveys of UK based landscape architects and an

educational workshop on biophilic design for UK based landscape architects.

The main findings of this dissertation have been: a knowledge deficit exists

among UK landscape architects on biophilic design; no direct references to

biophilic design exist in either local or national planning policy and; clients do not

envision biophilic design as being important or necessary in their developments.

It is the recommendation of this dissertation to: incorporate biophilic design into

landscape architecture university curricula; establish biophilic design CPD

events; produce individual guidance documents for each project type on biophilic

design; incentivise developers to incorporate biophilic design in their projects to

increase acceptance and awareness; incorporate biophilic design into local and

national planning policy and; found a national, multi disciplinary professional

body for biophilic design in the UK, to oversee and help implement these

recommendations.


(iii) Acknowledgements

The author of this dissertation would like to thank the following:

Timothy Beatley, Teresa Heinz Professor of Sustainable Communities at the

University of Virginia School of Architecture, founder of the Biophilic Cities

Project;

David Booth, Postgraduate Programme Director, Landscape and Environment at

the University of Gloucestershire and the author's mentor for this dissertation;

Gayle Souter-Brown of Greenstone Design UK;

Nick Grayson, Climate Change and Sustainability Manager at Birmingham City

Council, head of Birmingham's Biophilic City initiative;

Stephen Kellert, Tweedy Ordway Professor Emeritus of Social Ecology and

Senior Research Scholar at the Yale University School of Forestry and

Environmental Studies;

Val Kirby of the Landscape Institute;

Barry Lupton of Blackrock Further Education Institute;

The staff at Pegasus Planning Group Ltd, and finally;

William Browning and Catie Ryan of Terrapin Bright Green, for taking me under

their wing since the Summer of 2013 and inspiring me to pursue my curiosity

further into the field of biophilic design.


Dedicated to the memory of my mother,

Breda Clancy,

who's love of nature she passed to her son.

"....for nothing loved is ever lost".


(iv) Table of Contents

(i) Declaration ....................................................................................................... 3

(ii) Abstract ........................................................................................................... 4

(iii) Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 5

(iv) Table of Contents ........................................................................................... 8

(v) List of Figures................................................................................................ 10

(vi) List of Tables ................................................................................................ 11

(vii) List of Acronyms Used ................................................................................. 11

Section 1: Introduction ........................................................................................ 13

1.1 Aims .......................................................................................................... 13

1.2 Definitions and Concepts .......................................................................... 15

1.3 Biophilic & Restorative Responses ........................................................... 16

1.4 Section Conclusion: The Need for this Paper ........................................... 17

Section 2: Biophilic Design Patterns .................................................................. 18

2.1 Terrapin Bright Green's 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design ........................... 18

2.2 Compatibility and Feasibility of Biophilic Design Patterns with UK

Landscape Architecture Projects .................................................................... 19

2.3 Section Conclusion: Are the 14 Biophilic Design Patterns, Formulated by

Terrapin Bright Green Suitable, for Implementation in UK Landscape

Architectural Projects? .................................................................................... 21

Section 3: UK & Global Context ......................................................................... 22

3.1 UK Context ................................................................................................ 23

3.2 Section Conclusion: Are Biophilic Design Patterns Needed in the UK? .... 26

Section 4: European, National and Local Planning Policy .................................. 27

4.1 European Landscape Convention ............................................................. 28

4.2 The Localism Act 2012 and the National Planning Policy Framework

(NPPF) (2012) ................................................................................................. 28

4.3 Health and Social Care Act 2012 .............................................................. 28

4.4 Local Plans ............................................................................................... 29

4.5 Community Infrastructure Levy ................................................................. 29

4.6 Section Conclusion ................................................................................... 29

Section 5: Variability in the Built and Natural Environment ................................. 30

5.1 Climate & Ecology in the UK and how it Impacts Upon Biophilic Design

Patterns........................................................................................................... 31

5.2 Culture & Demographics ........................................................................... 32


5.3 Character, Density and Landscape Typologies ......................................... 36

5.4 Project Types and Scope .......................................................................... 37

5.5 Section Conclusion ................................................................................... 43

Section 6: Evaluation of Current Knowledge among Landscape Architects in the

UK ...................................................................................................................... 45

6.1 Method ...................................................................................................... 45

6.2 Results ...................................................................................................... 46

6.3 Baseline & Analysis .................................................................................. 58

6.4 Section Conclusion: Why this dissertation is needed ................................ 59

Section 7. Conclusions and Recommendations: ................................................ 59

7.1 Limitations of Study ................................................................................... 59

7.2 Rectifying the Knowledge Deficit through Education ................................. 60

7.3 Increasing Awareness and Understanding of Biophilic Design ................. 61

7.4 Perceived Cost of Investment & Budget Cuts ........................................... 62

7.5 Utilising Current Housing Growth & the Garden Cities Competition as an

Opportunity ..................................................................................................... 63

7.6 Further Ascension of UK Cities to the Biophilic Cities Project ................... 64

7.7 Integration of Biophilic Design into BREEAM ............................................ 64

7.8 Production of Biophilic Design Guidance Documents ............................... 65

7.9 Integration of Biophilic Design into National and Local Planning Policy .... 65

7.10 Formulation of a Biophilic Design Case Study Template ........................ 66

7.11 Formation of a National Multi-Disciplinary Body for Biophilic Design in the

UK ................................................................................................................... 66

Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 68

Appendix ............................................................................................................ 95

Appendix A: Glossary ..................................................................................... 95

Appendix B: 14 Biophilic Design Patterns ....................................................... 97

Appendix C: Applicable References to Biophilic Design in the NPPF (DCLG,

2012) ............................................................................................................. 106

Appendix D: Key Publications ....................................................................... 109

Appendix E: Timeline Development of Biophilic Design and Contextual Factors

...................................................................................................................... 113


(v) List of Figures Figure 1 (5.4.1) Clancy (2014) Eastside City Park [Photograph] In possession of:

The author: Birmingham, UK. ............................................................................. 38

Figure 2 (5.4.2) ‘West Green Road Tropical Park’ (2013) [Photograph]

At: http://now-here-this.timeout.com/2013/11/17/west-green-road-tropical-park/

(Accessed on 01.11.14) ..................................................................................... 40

Figure 3 (5.4.3) Thames Barrier Park (2012) [Digital photograph] At:

http://ericbwongderivatives.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/thames-barrier-park.html

(Accessed on 01.11.14) ..................................................................................... 41

Figure 4 (5.4.4) The Lost Gardens of Heligan (2014) [Digital photograph] At:

http://www.torrhousecottages.co.uk/special-houses-gardens/ (Accessed on

01.11.14) ............................................................................................................ 42

Figure 5 (6.2.1) Question 1: UK biophilic design survey (Clancy, 2014b) .......... 46





Figure 10 (6.2.6) Question 6: UK biophilic design survey (Clancy, 2014b) ........ 49



Figure 13 (6.2.9) Question 9: UK Biophilic design survey (Clancy, 2014b) ........ 51

Figure 14 (6.2.10) Question 1: Sample group survey on biophilic design (Clancy,

2014c) ................................................................................................................ 52


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 53


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 53


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 54


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 54


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 55


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 55


2014c) ................................................................................................................ 56



2014c) ................................................................................................................ 56

(vi) List of Tables

Table 1: 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design by Terrapin Bright Green (Browning,

Clancy and Ryan, 2014)......................................................................................97

(vii) List of Acronyms Used

BREEAM: Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment

Methodology

CIL: Community infrastructure Levy

CPD: Continuing Professional Development

DCLG: Department of Communities and Local Government

DEFRA: Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

EDHAC: Evidence-based Design Accreditation and Certification

ELC: European Landscape Convention

GI: Green Infrastructure

ISB: International Society for Biourbanism

LEED: Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design

LI: Landscape Institute

NHS: National Health Service

NPPF: National Planning Policy Framework

NPPG: National Planning Policy Guidance

RED: Restorative Environmental Design

SPD: Supplementary Planning Document

WHO: World Health Organization


Section 1: Introduction

The intent of this study is to identify the opportunities and constraints to

implementing biophilic design patterns in UK landscape architectural projects, by

examining: policy; existing knowledge among UK landscape architects; current

UK context and the feasibility of adopting biophilic design patterns.

Under a definition, put forward by Rachel and Stephen Kaplan (1998),

patterns "describe a problem which occurs over and over again in our

environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem, in such

a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without ever doing it the

same way twice". Patterns are used to apply biophilic design to the built

environment, due to the fact that no two applications of a biophilic design pattern

will result in the same solution, these patterns will not create a rigid formulaic

process, but will instead inform, guide and assist in the design process. This

guide can be thought of as another tool in the designer’s kit (Browning, Clancy

and Ryan, 2014).

The intended audience for this paper are professional landscape

architects, along with other related built environment professions operating in the

UK. This paper will also help inform communities, organisations, employers and

developers of the benefits of biophilic design and provide guidance on how to

consider it within new landscape projects.

There is still much unknown about the human-nature health connection

(Soule, 1993). Given the infancy of biophilic design as a design approach and

the lack of literature relating specifically to landscape applications (Lee and

Maheswaran, 2010), it can be concluded that there is a knowledge deficit on how

to implement biophilic patterns successfully in landscape architecture. No

publication to date has strictly dealt with the applications of biophilic design

patterns to landscape architecture. Indeed, no publication discusses biophilic

design in the context of the UK or any built environment profession, and its

variable factors (i.e. climate, demographics, policy) in adequate depth.

1.1 Aims

The overall aim of this proposed study is to identify opportunities and constraints

for the integration of biophilic design patterns in the built environment by

examining existing national planning policy, current UK demographics, possible

policy mechanisms and assessing the current level of knowledge among UK

based landscape architects.

This study will discuss the importance of biophilic design, the rationale

and empirical evidence behind the 14 design patterns, developed by Terrapin

Bright Green (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) (see appendix B). This

research into design patterns and the built environment builds on the work of


Alexander et al (1979), the Kaplans (1998), Kellert (2008) and Jacobson,

Silverstein and Winslow (2002). Patterns have the potential to offer solutions to

almost universal problems across a variety of scenarios, settings and user

groups (Alexander et al, 1979). A suitable solution results from a pattern being

applied in a manner that responds to the local conditions appropriately. Due to

each solution responding to local conditions and context, no two applications will

yield the same result (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1998). The challenges to implementation

of biophilic design patterns, the knowledge deficit regarding the subject in the UK

and the applications of biophilic design to landscape architecture will be

examined in depth.

This dissertation aims to act as an introduction for landscape architects to

the cognitive and behavioural neurosciences behind biophilic responses, backed

by empirical evidence, research and case studies. Suggesting that common

ground for discussion between built environment professionals, cognitive &

behavioural neuroscientists, environmental psychologists and healthcare

professionals can be found. This in turn could lead to more integrative

approaches to projects in future (Eberhard, 2009). Such a discussion on

integrative approaches builds on momentum following several initiatives: the

establishment of EDHAC (Evidence-based Design Accreditation and

Certification) from the Centre for Health Design in 2009 for architects, designers

and healthcare providers (Kent, 2012); the founding of the International Society

for Biourbansim in 2010 (Serafini et al., 2010) and; the launch of the Biophilic

Cities Project in 2013 (Beatley, 2013b).

This dissertation will then discuss the various scales of projects to which

biophilic design might be applied, from retrofits to renovations and new

constructions. With current levels of interest growing in the UK on wellbeing and

'natural' or 'green' exercise, with the release of the DCLG's prospectus on

Garden Cities (2014), the Landscape Institute's position statement on healthy

landscapes (2013b) and MIND's publication on 'Ecotherapy' (2013), this study

will build on such momentum and investigate possible areas of

synergy/collaboration.

To help define the scope of the study and in an effort to garner an insight

into the current level of knowledge on biophilic design, it is proposed to conduct a

workshop on biophilic design, involving UK landscape architecture professionals.

The workshop will also seek to identify what level of experience landscape

architects have of implementing biophilic design patterns.

The product of this study will be a document identifying opportunities and

constraints on implementing biophilic design patterns in UK landscape

architecture that will act as a design tool; informing decisions, providing

reference material to support biophilic design in the UK and aiding a design

process that aims to create a connection to nature between the user and the


designed/built environment. It will also produce recommendations for how to

integrate biophilic design into UK landscape architectural practice.

1.2 Definitions and Concepts

Before engaging with the detail of a biophillic approach, it is worth noting a few

established definitions of the term and approach (for more definitions, see

appendix A) (for timeline context, see appendix E).

“E. O. Wilson calls it "biophilia," Albert Schweitzer called it "reverence," Rachel

Carson called it "a sense of wonder." But by any name it is the sense of

belonging in nature and particularly in one's place. I think everyone has that

feeling to one degree or another. But it requires opportunity and the right

circumstances to flourish....” -David W. Orr (Richard, 2011)

Biophilia

Biophilia literally means "love of life or living systems." Erich Fromm stated it as a

psychological orientation of being attracted to living things and natural processes

(Fromm, 1964). However, it was biologist E.O. Wilson who popularized the

concept in 1984 (Wilson, 1984). Born from this, biophilic design aims to restore

natural stimuli in the built environment to maintain, restore, and enhance our

physiological and psychological connections to the natural world (Kellert et al,

2008).

The Biophilia Hypothesis

The biophilia hypothesis is an evolutionary theory, stating that the majority of

humanity's evolution was spent in natural environments (Tveit, Sang and

Hagerhall, 2013). This hypothesis was proposed by E.O Wilson and was

developed alongside Stephen Kellert in 'The Biophilia Hypothesis' (1993). The

hypothesis argues that humanity has spent 95-99% of its history in natural

environments. With the migration to cities only occurring in the last 200 years, it

is too short a timeframe to adapt to such a drastic change in environments that

urbanisation has brought (Juniper, 2013).

Biophilic Design

Biophilic design aims to restore natural stimuli in the built environment to

maintain, restore, and enhance our physiological, cognitive and psychological

connections to the natural world. It is a design ethic, which also goes by the term

Restorative Environmental Design (RED) (Kellert, 2005). Guidelines and criteria

for biophilic design have become incorporated, in some form or another in LEED

rating systems (Kieran, 2008) and the Living Cities and Living Building

Challenges(Herman Miller, 2013), respectively. The UK equivalent of these

development rating systems is BREEAM; however, no allowances are made for

the inclusion of biophilic design within this specific rating system.


Biophilic design is not just simply the presence of nature, but the content

within the scene, its configuration and associated semantic content (Browning

and Cramer, 2008). Configuration of natural scenes to reflect the landscape

preferences of certain user groups 1) increases rates of restoration (van der Berg

et al, 2003) and 2) encourages higher participation rates by user groups,

resulting in greater numbers engaging in outdoor activities (Forsyth & Musacchio,

2005). In turn, biophilic design has economic, health, cultural, environmental

value and (when used as part of an integrative approach) ecological benefits

(Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

1.3 Biophilic & Restorative Responses

A 'biophilic response' can be defined as a measurable response triggered by

natural stimuli that leads to the restoration (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) of

depleted facilities (allostasis) (McEwen, 2000) or the enhancement of these

facilities to buffer environmental stressors (instoration) (Hartig, Mang and Evans,

1991). These responses can be classed as being either psychological (mood,

self-esteem) (Hartig et al, 1996), physiological (blood pressure, hormone levels)

(Barton and Pretty, 2010) or cognitive (creativity, mental performance) (Berman,

Jonides and Kaplan, 2008).

Cause and Effect

The underlying causes for triggering biophilic responses are still unknown to a

degree (Lee and Maheswaran, 2010). This is despite the measurable effects

which have been recorded throughout numerous studies and have attributed the

cause to experiencing (passively or actively) natural environments and stimuli

(Brown, Barton and Gladwell, 2013) or even representational nature (de Kort et

al, 2006). Current explanatory theories for why such a mechanism exists can be

classed as being either evolutionary or cultural (van der Berg, Joye and de Vries,

2013). Evolutionary theories (i.e. the Savannah Hypothesis) claim that humanity

developed such an underlying mechanism to trigger a restorative response to aid

habitat selection (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993) and to restore psycho-

physiological conditions to baseline following predatory encounters (Ulrich,

1993). Cultural theories on the other hand (i.e. the Aesthetics of Care) state that

such a mechanism exists due to landscape visual preferences of natural

environments with a specific character and geographic range, due to cultural

development (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013).

Efficacy of Triggers and Responses

Due to numerous factors (to be discussed in section 6), the efficacy of triggers

and thus their responses can be positively and negatively affected (Bilotta and

Evans, 2013). Such factors include climate (Aldred, 2014), ecology (Nassauer,

1997), socioeconomic demographics (Elmendorf et al, 2005) (Buijs, Elands and


Langers, 2005), gender (Kopec, 2006), ecological literacy (Pilgrim et al, 2008)

and even the contextual setting of the environment (Felonneau, 2004). Certain

biophilic patterns will also be more/less effective at triggering biophilic responses

depending on the time of day and year, due to the temporal and seasonal

attributes of nature (Heerwagen and Gregory, 2008).

1.4 Section Conclusion: The Need for this Paper

At the time of writing, there are no publications, position statements,

prospectuses or papers discussing biophilic design in a UK context. There are

also few publications discussing biophilic design, in the context of landscape

architecture, in adequate depth or in a global context, thus limiting the awareness

and development of biophilic design with landscape architects.

Biophilic design; by triggering either a cognitive, physiological or cognitive

response, offers an opportunity to act as part of a salutogenic approach to health

rather than the standard pathogenic approach to health (Souter-Brown, 2014).

The salutogenic approach sees 'health' as encompassing multidimensional

factors such as psychological, cognitive, social and environmental influences,

rather than just biological (van der Berg, Joye and de Vries, 2013). This ties in

with Dr. William Bird's call for a preventative, rather than a curative approach to

health (namely tackling chronic stress, which leads to chronic inflammation,

causing higher susceptibility in individuals to cancer, depression and diabetes)

(Bird, 2013). However, given the variability of efficacy of restorative responses in

individuals across cultures and demographics (Kopec, 2006) (Tveit, Sang and

Hagerhall, 2013), education on how to implement biophilic design patterns is

necessary.

This paper also comes at a crucial time, with biophilic design becoming

integrated into the LEED rating system, the Living Building and Living City

Challenges in the USA (Kieran, 2008). With no current requirement or credits

garnered from the incorporation of biophilic design in the BREEAM rating

system, the UK equivalent of the LEED rating system, this dissertation may open

up discussion for future integration of biophilic design into BREEAM.

Given the knowledge deficit about biophilic design and how to implement

it, increasing rates of urbanisation, depression (World Health Organisation,

2010), the inclusion of Birmingham City into the Biophilic Cities project (Beatley,

2014) and the call to build 40 garden cities (Policy Exchange, 2014), now is the

time to begin discussing how biophilic design patterns can be appropriately

integrated into planning policy and the design process of landscape architecture.


Section 2: Biophilic Design Patterns

The descriptive term 'pattern' is being used for several reasons:

To set out a clear and standardized term for biophilic design

implementation (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014);

To avoid confusion with multiple terms that have been used to describe

biophilic strategies (metrics, attributes, characteristics, typologies, etc)

(Kellert, 2008); and

To be accessible for designers by using a familiar term of design language

(Alexander et al, 1977).

Patterns have the potential to offer solutions to almost universal problems

across a variety of scenarios, settings and user groups (Alexander et al, 1977). A

suitable solution results from a pattern being applied in a manner that responds

to the local conditions appropriately. Due to each solution responding to local

conditions and context, no two applications will yield the same result (Kaplan &

Kaplan, 1998).

However, biophilic design is dependant among a number of factors

(Soule, 1993) and as such, emphasises the need for guidelines on implementing

biophilic design patterns in landscape architecture. This is why patterns are

better suited than metrics, as they are less rigid and respond to the local

conditions with an appropriate response (Alexander et al, 1977). While this

offers an opportunity in terms of adaptability and wide ranging applications, it

may present a constraint in the terms of unpredictable consistency and even

reliability of its application.

2.1 Terrapin Bright Green's 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design

The patterns (see appendix B) discussed throughout this dissertation and applied

to the profession of landscape architecture within the context of the UK, were

developed by Terrapin Bright Green in their publication "14 Patterns of Biophilic

Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment" (Ryan et al,

2014) (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014). This dissertation offers an example of

how Terrapin Bright Green’s work can be adapted in scope to suit the

parameters of a built environment design profession, located in a specific

geographic context, serving a certain population demographic user group.

Three Overarching Pillars of Biophilic Design

The 14 design patterns discussed in this paper fall under three pillar categories. These three broad categories help explain how spaces can be designed to be restorative, in terms of their content, spatial configuration and semantic representation.


Nature in the Space

This is the presence and diversity of plant life, water, animal and insect

species and other natural elements within the built, natural and designed

environment (Browning and Cramer, 2008). The strongest responses are

provided by direct connections with nature (Kahn et al, 2008) with spaces

that are rich in diversity (Fuller et al, 2007).

Nature of the Space

This category encompasses the various psychological and physiological

responses triggered by different spatial configurations (Ryan et al, 2014).

Natural Analogues

This category covers natural and synthesized objects, materials and

patterns that evoke nature (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014). These can

be representational artworks of nature, biomorphic forms and natural

materials (Kellert, 2008). Natural analogues mostly consist of non-direct

connections to nature (Green, 2010). While they register less effective

responses compared to direct contact with nature (Salingaros, 2012), they

offer strategic potential in spaces that offer limited resources for nature to

thrive.

2.2 Compatibility and Feasibility of Biophilic Design Patterns with UK Landscape Architecture Projects

Patterns that fall under the categories of Nature in the Space and Nature of the

Space are perhaps more compatible and more likely to be feasible in outdoor

landscape environments, than interior environments. This is due to the spatial

and area requirements of patterns such as prospect (Hildebrand, 1991), refuge,

mystery (Herzog and Bryce, 2007) and connection to natural systems (Browning,

Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

Patterns within the category of Natural Analogues do have their uses

within landscape architectural projects, but are more likely to be superseded by

patterns of actual nature, as landscape projects have greater capacity for

sustaining living organisms and natural processes, than interior environments do,

in general. With actual, natural stimuli triggering a greater restorative response

than representational or symbolic nature (Grahn and Stigsdotter, 2003) (Kahn et

al, 2008), it would make sense to utilise patterns of actual nature over

representational nature, where conditions allow. However, Natural Analogues do

have their role to play in landscape architectural projects, especially in projects

with restrictions on space, soil depth, irrigation and daylight, making the inclusion

of living nature, such as vegetative species, unfeasible.

Another key factor to establish when implementing biophilic design

patterns, is at what scale, frequency and quantity is necessary to illicit a


restorative response from the potential users of the designed space and how a

designer may do so. This of course is dependent upon a number of factors

outside of the designer's control (Ryan et al, 2014). However, the following will

provide some guidance to the designer to make an informed design decision, by

helping to identify potential constraints and opportunities to biophilic design

patterns on site. In turn, this will help inform which patterns are suitable and/or

suitable.

Scale

While certain patterns such as prospect and mystery will require uninterrupted

views of 30m (Hildebrand, 1991) (Herzog and Bryce, 2007), the space itself does

not necessarily have to be 30m in length, as prospective views can exist external

to the site and can be framed from within the site itself.

Visual and non-visual connections to nature, access to natural systems

and non-rhythmic stimuli depend to a degree on wildlife and the presence of

living organisms and living processes (Wilson, 2008). This can be achieved on

smaller sites by integrating into surroundings natural sites. If none exist, simpler,

less complex ecosystems may be more suitable, such as aviaries, apiaries and

fish ponds.

Specific to the pattern of presence of water, bodies of water should

occupy no more than 60% of a visual scene or space. Excessively more than

this and the presence of the body of water can trigger feelings of isolation. 60%

has been found to be the preferred amount for water to occupy within a space,

following studies on landscape preferences and specifically water (Mador, 2008)

(White et al, 2010).

It is important to note that psycho-physiological benefits of green space do

not increase as land area increases. Interestingly however, it has been recorded

that psycho-physiological benefits from green space increase with higher levels

of biodiversity (Fuller et al, 2007). This is important, as it means small spaces

can be biophilic and thus, biophilic design is achievable within high density built

environments where land is scarce (Wall and Waterman, 2010).

Frequency

As previously discussed, large scale biophilic design endeavours are not always

possible, with restrictions on developing within the green belt (DCLG, 2014a) and

space within high density urban centres becoming scarce (Wall and Waterman,

2010). Another factor to consider is the distances people will travel themselves

or allow their children to travel alone to nature, which is often less than 300m

(Natural England, 2010). Given, as the previous paragraph explained that small

spaces can trigger biophilic responses (Fuller et al, 2007) the answer lies in

creating small, high frequency biophilic spaces/environments along key routes

(to work, school, shopping) (Joye and van der Berg, 2013).


Quality and Quantity

It should be remembered that one high quality biophilic design pattern is better

than several low quality biophilic design patterns. This is due to biophilic spaces

being greater than the sum of their parts, as they interact with one another to

trigger a restorative response (Hunter et al, 2010).

As regards patterns, their proportion and ratio can also influence their

efficacy. Material connections to nature and biomorphic/fractal forms should be

limited to known preferences, as excessive ratios/frequencies can lead to

negative, even toxic effects (dizziness, nausea) (Tsunetsugu et al, 2007) (see

appendix B). The quantity of mystery and peril patterns should also be limited,

depending on the scale of the site, to avoid creating a perception of danger or

sense of fear (Herzog and Bryce, 2007) (Petherick, 2000).

Adaptability and Resilience

With variability in the built and natural environments to be discussed in greater

detail in section 5, it is important to discuss the adaptability and resilience of

patterns to change. These changes in the built and natural environment can be

due to numerous factors, such as gentrification, change in local demographics

and climate change.

Changes in these factors can affect the efficacy of biophilic design

patterns and the responses they engender in individuals. For instance,

landscape preferences vary among cultures and demographics (Buijs, Elands

and Langers, 2009), especially for patterns such as: visual connection to nature;

connection to natural systems; prospect; mystery and; refuge (Forsyth and

Musacchio, 2005). However, generally speaking, there are universal landscape

preferences that can be implemented. While still being capable of triggering a

restorative response, its efficacy could be greater if designed to a specific

demographic. However, given the dynamic nature of the urban fabric, it is not

feasible for a designer to prepare for every scenario (Browning, Clancy and

Ryan, 2014). The inclusion of universal landscape preferences (Kopec, 2006)

and climate change resilient plant species and materials (Kieran, 2008) can help

ensure the adaptability and efficacy of patterns.

2.3 Section Conclusion: Are the 14 Biophilic Design Patterns, Formulated by Terrapin Bright Green Suitable, for Implementation in UK Landscape Architectural Projects?

It must be stressed, that the 14 biophilic design patterns put forward by Terrapin

Bright Green (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014), are wide ranging in scope and

are not specific to any geographic location, demographic or climatic region. The

patterns are also not specific to any one profession, although there is a distinct

bias towards architecture and interior environments. However, this may be due

to people now spending up 90% of their times indoors (Louv, 2012), with the

benefits of biophilia having greater impact on stressed individuals in indoor


environments, than on individuals who regularly visit actual nature (Heerwagen

and Hase, 2001). This means that for many reasons (to be examined further in

section 5), specific patterns will not be applicable to certain professions for

successful implementation into the built environment.

In terms of adopting the 14 patterns, research (outside the scope of this

dissertation) should look into modifying and even developing new patterns

specific to landscape architecture in a UK context. From the literature review

and examination of the patterns, it can be argued that not all of the patterns are

directly applicable to landscape architecture. The only pattern, examined in this

dissertation, that is to a large degree incompatible with implementation in

landscape architecture, is the pattern of dynamic and diffuse day lighting (see

appendix B). This is due to the interior architectural bias of the pattern

(Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) and the outdoor, open character (in

comparison to many interior environments) of landscape (van der Berg, Joye and

de Vries, 2013). The effects of the pattern would be negligible in landscape

projects, as the pattern only exists to bring daylight into buildings that have (in

the last century) primarily depended on artificial light (Loftness and Snyder,

2008). The outdoor environment does not suffer from the same predicament.

However, it is still an important pattern for landscape architects to understand,

especially when designing around/near existing buildings. This is due to the

possibility of introduced vegetation blocking daylight from entering existing

buildings or introducing excessive artificial light pollution and negatively affecting

the health and well-being of the building's occupants/users (Chepesiuk, 2009).

But, for the most part, the 14 patterns developed by Terrapin Bright Green are

suitable for applications in the built environment by landscape architecture

professionals in the UK.

Section 3: UK & Global Context

While the dawn of modern man begun 200,000 years ago, it is only in the last

two hundred years that the majority of humanity began the shift to being urban

dwellers (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993). A relatively short period, considering as

that only as recent as 2007 has the majority of the global population become

urban (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2010). Humanity has spent 95-99% of

its history adapting and evolving in natural environments (Kellert, 1993). 200

years is too short a timeframe to adapt to such a drastic change in environments

that urbanisation has brought (Juniper, 2013).

Currently, over 50% of the world’s population lives in urban centres and

this is expected to rise to 60% in 2030 and 70% by 2050 (WHO, 2010). Added to

this, 80% of the built environment in America and Europe standing today will be

standing in 2050, while 80% of the built environment in China and India standing

in 2050 has yet to be constructed (Doyle, 2013). Less and less time is being


spent in natural environments that have restorative properties, with people

spending up to 90% of their time indoors (Louv, 2012).

Another issue to consider is the global phenomenon, known as

Environmental Generational Amnesia (EGA). EGA describes the shifting

baseline for what is considered a normal environmental condition (Kahn et al,

2008). As environmental degradation continues, the baseline continues to shift

with each ensuing generation, each perceiving this degraded condition as the

non-degraded condition; what they perceive as the baseline for what nature

should be (Kahn, 2002). This shifting baseline varies across cultures, geographic

regions and sub-groups (Kopec, 2006).

The phenomenon of EGA is being accelerated by factors such as climate

change (Hipp and Ogunseitan, 2011) and the continued migration of populations

to urban environments (Kahn, 2002). Today, it is estimated that people in

western societies spend up to 90% of their day indoors, decreasing opportunities

for contact with nature (Kahn, 2009). Other factors, such as concerns over child

safety and the erection of physical and psychological barriers in urban

environments have reduced the distance or 'roaming range' of children

(Derbyshire, 2007). One study showed a decreased roaming range over 4

generations, from 8km to 300m (Bird, 2007). This has reduced opportunities for

interaction with nature among children.

However, it is important to note important developments in the field of

biophilic design, with the launch of the Biophilic Cities Projects (Beatley, 2014),

the founding of the International Society for Biourbanism (Serafini et al, 2010)

and the increasing frequency at which publications, research papers and

conferences are being released/held, with publications from Kellert (1993, 2005,

2008), Terrapin Bright Green (2012) (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014), and

Beatley (2008), spreading awareness of biophilic design globally.

3.1 UK Context

The percentage of the UK population living in urban areas is set to hit 92.2% in

2030 (Brown, 2013). However, it should be broken down to clarify what is meant

by urban, built and natural. Following the completion of the UK National

Ecosystem Assessment, the total land areas of the following have been broken

down (Watson and Alban, 2011):


% of UK Land Area Classed as Urban 7% (16,089 km2)

England 10.6% (13,822 km2)

Scotland 1.9% (1,489 km2)

Northern Ireland 3.6% (498 km2)

Wales 4.1% (852 km2)

It is interesting to note that urban and built-on are not the same thing. For

instance, 54% of land in England classed as ‘urban’ is green space (broken

down to include parks, allotments and recreational green space). On top of this,

private domestic gardens (18%) and water bodies (6.6%) make up 24.6% of

urban land area (Easton, 2012). This means that 78.6% of urban areas in

England are classed as being ‘natural’. Further breakdown of the figures reveals

that only 2.7% of England’s land area is in fact ‘built on’. These figures may be

slightly skewed as they do not take into account the quality of the space, its

accessibility, ownership, function and location in relation to major population

centres or the fact that some cities are more/less urban than others. While these

figures may be relieving to some to see only 7% of the UK being classed as

‘urban’, they are in fact a lot more worrying. This is due to the challenge of trying

to retrofit new and improve access to, existing natural spaces into less than 4%

of the land area (that is not built on) where 92% of the UK population live (Brown,

2009).

These constraints will only lead to an exacerbation of environmental

stresses (Bilotta and Evans, 2013). The stresses of urbanisation and

displacement of connections to nature from the built environment (Orr and Pyle,

2008) is costing the UK population its wealth and perhaps more importantly, its

health (Marmot, 2010). For instance:

Stress is now the biggest cause of sickness in the UK

Stress related illnesses cost 105 million working days each year

Stress affects 1 in 5 of the working population

Cost of stress related illnesses annually: £105 billion

Cost of maintaining 27,000 green spaces annually: £630 million

(Source: UK Health and Safety Executive, as appears in Juniper, 2013)

But why do we need to reduce stress? Chronic stress occurs throughout

our days and lives and originates from numerous factors, i.e. quality of life at

home, relationship with others, financial income and expenses, etc (Bird, 2013).

But environmental stressors, such as those in urban areas (traffic, crowds,

thermal discomfort, and perception of danger) also trigger and exacerbate

chronic stress (Bilotta and Evans, 2013).


It needs to be understood, that chronic stress is related to chronic

inflammation, which in turn is the fundamental root cause of major disease

burdens, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, depression, anxiety and

dementia. This is due to chronic stress triggering an increase in unhealthy

behaviours (alcohol, nicotine, fatty/sugary foods) in individuals as a coping

mechanism (McEwen, 2000). In tandem, not only do these behaviours damage

cell mitochondria, chronic stress has a direct effect on cell mitochondria, causing

the release of cortisol, a stress hormone. Damage to the mitochondria makes

individuals more susceptible to developing heart disease, cancer and diabetes.

Chronic stress also causes physical inactivity, which in turn leads to sedentary

mitochondria producing oxidative phosphorylation (oxidants), which can increase

risk of developing cancer (Bird, 2013).

Yet, despite the figures stated above, problems posed by chronic stress,

cost comparisons and the fact that a recent report by CABE found that 85% of

people feel the quality of a public space “has a direct impact on their lives and on

the way they feel” (Carmona et al, 2004), cuts to funding across municipalities in

the UK for parks and recreational green space continue (Abbott, 2014). For

instance, Liverpool City Council, in 2014, cut funding for the city's parks by 50%

(Cosgrove, 2014a), despite cuts of £1million in 2012 and reductions of 20% in

2011 (Abbott, 2012). While over the next four years, Birmingham City Council,

Europe's largest municipality, plans to cut £10.4 million from green space funding

(Cosgrove, 2014b). Wigan Council meanwhile have frozen council tax levels in

exchange for citizen stewardship of green spaces, in an attempt to make ends

meet and uphold quality of public green space after their budget was slashed by

£14 million (Appleby, 2014). In total, £60 million has been slashed from park and

green space budgets since 2010 under the conservative government, with the

north and midland regions being hit hardest (Ellis, 2014). These cuts have taken

place; despite recent evidence pointing to UK cities with the lowest life

expectancies had a fifth less green space than areas with the highest life

expectancies (Roberts-Hughes, 2013). These are steps in the wrong direction for

heavily urbanized UK cities with growing populations and increasing rates of

stress related illnesses. From the sources reviewed, a clear north-south divide is

appearing in terms of investment in green space, as the City of London is in the

midst of a new pocket parks programme worth £2 million across thirty projects

(Bloomfield, 2013).

Another factor to keep in mind is the recent release by the Department of

Communities and Local Government, a prospectus on 'Locally-Led Garden

Cities' (DCLG, 2014b) and the subsequent Wolfson Economics Prize

competition, with the winning entry calling for forty garden cities to be built over

the next three decades, housing 150,000 people (Hope, 2014).

In terms of biophilic design in the UK, the release of the Birmingham

Green Living Spaces Plan (Birmingham City Council, 2013a), the Trees, People


and Built Environment II Conference and perhaps most importantly, the

admission of Birmingham City to the Biophilic Cities Project (Beatley, 2014), all

show growing support and political will to enhance the human-nature connection

and incorporate biophilic/restorative experiences into the UK built environment.

3.2 Section Conclusion: Are Biophilic Design Patterns Needed in the UK?

“Better health is related to green space regardless of socio-economic status.”

- Fair Society, Healthy Lives (Professor Sir Michael Marmot, 2010)

With current trends, over 70% of the world's population will be urbanized by

2050, with that number standing at 92.2% for Britain in 2050 (Brown, 2013). An

ageing, multicultural, urbanized population, with higher rates of depression and

stress related illnesses, exacerbated by the effects of climate change, living in an

ageing built environment (World Health Organisation, 2010). That is the scenario

presented. By discussing, developing, integrating and implementing biophilic

design patterns into national planning policy and the built environment,

landscape architects and other built environment professionals can help reduce

and eliminate the negative effects of living in a heavily populated urban

environment, while reducing pressure on an already struggling NHS (Juniper,

2013). Education on landscape preferences and the efficacy of biophilic design

patterns across cultures, ethnicities and demographics will also help create an

inclusive society that has equitable access to restorative environments and green

space. Again, this justifies the need for this dissertation.

By providing opportunities for restoration of cognitive, physiological and

psychological capacities at appropriate and regular intervals (Joye and van der

Berg, 2013), the negative effects of chronic stress can be dealt with at the

source, as a preventative, rather than a curative strategy (van der Berg, Joye

and de Vries, 2013). It must be remembered that reductions in stress and

elevated moods can occur within five minutes of visual engaging natural stimuli

or being present in a natural environment (Ulrich, 1999) and within twenty

minutes, concentration levels improve for children with attention deficits (Faber

Taylor and Kuo, 2009). As discussed before, access to and interaction with,

natural stimuli triggers these restorative responses. Strategies to reduce a user’s

level of chronic stress through the use of biophilic design is two-fold: firstly by

providing restoration (Hartig, Bringslimark and Patil, 2008) and reducing stress

levels through interaction with natural stimuli (Green, 2009) and; secondly, due to

reductions in stress, levels of physical activity will increase, due to chronic stress

acting as deterrent to physical activity (Bird, 2013) and the fact that individuals

and are more likely to visit and exercise if they live near a natural green space,

thus further reducing occurrences of chronic stress and inflammation in the local

population (Nielson and Hanson, 2007) (Kaczynski and Henderson, 2007).


“The conditions of the physical environments in which residents are living greatly

influence this chronic stress—by creating conditions that inadvertently foster it or

alternatively help to diminish or control it. Nature and greenery are key stress-

reducing elements in cities.”

– Timothy Beatley (Beatley, 2014)

It is becoming evident that escalating costs and austerity are crippling

some sectors of the NHS (Chorley, 2014). This is where biophilic design can

create restorative environments to mitigate against, reduce or eliminate

environmental stressors from the environment (Joye and van der Berg, 2013).

Biophilic design could be integrated into the exterior built environment to help

create a 'natural health service' (Juniper, 2013) by triggering stress reduction,

mental restoration, improving mood and lowering blood pressure (Steg, 2013).

In addition, nearly two thirds of the world's population will be urbanized in

the next 15 years (Brown, 2009) and that psychological disorders in Western

Europe are set to rise from the current level of 10% to 15% by 2020 (Juniper,

2013). These numbers are accompanied by the fact that depression, a stress

related illness, is expected to be the number one disease burden worldwide,

overtaking cancer and heart disease, by 2030 (Whooley and Wong, 2013).

Biophilic design patterns offer health, well-being, and economic,

environmental and social benefits to the population of the UK. Due to the degree

of overlap in the aims of biophilic design and the Garden City Movement, the

recently published prospectus on Garden Cities (DCLG, 2014b) offers an

opportunity to biophilic design. With strong political support and emphasis on

health, well-being and equitably distributed accessible green spaces within the

Garden City movement (Howard, 1902), 'Locally-Led Garden Cities' could

provide a suitable mechanism for implementing biophilic design patterns in the

built environment.

Section 4: European, National and Local Planning Policy

The links between planning policy and biophilic design are not as clear as the

long established links between planning and health (Landscape Institute, 2013b).

However, there is a degree of overlap and relevancy between planning and

biophilic design, seen in the UK context with events such as: the rise of

importance placed on green infrastructure (Landscape Institute, 2009); the

release of guidance for Garden Cities by the DCLG (2014b); the release of a

position statement by the Landscape Institute (2013b) on the role of landscape in

health and well-being; and the release of 'Green Living Spaces Plan' by

Birmingham City Council (2013a).


4.1 European Landscape Convention

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) is the first international convention

to focus specifically on issues relating landscape and was introduced by the

Council of Europe. The convention seeks to protect, maintain and enhance the

landscape through management, planning, restoration and co-operation between

European member states on landscape issues, especially those of a trans-

boundary nature (Council of Europe, 2000). The convention applies to all

landscapes (whether designated or not), their typologies, characters, forms and

conditions (Ahern and Cole, 2009a).

4.2 The Localism Act 2012 and the National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) (2012)

The Localism Act decentralised planning powers from national and regional level

to local authorities, giving them greater power over local planning decisions and

development (DCLG, 2011). Local Development Frameworks (LDFs) developed

by local authorities and guided by adherence to the National Planning Policy

Framework (NPPF), which carries the central theme of "presumption in favour of

sustainable development" (DCLG, 2012). This translates into not hindering

development, as long as it is sustainable nor violates local environmental

protection orders. The key understanding of sustainable development, put

forward by the government under the NPPF, must integrate three pillars of

sustainability:

Economic: Enhancing and creating a resilient, adaptive and competitive

economy

Social: Supporting and enhancing vibrant, resilient and healthy

communities

Environmental: Enhancing and conserving our natural, built and historic

environments for now and future generations

There are no direct references to biophilic design in the NPPF or NPPG

(see appendix C). However, many of the paragraphs of the NPPF can be utilised

as policy mechanisms for implementing biophilic design, as green space and

access to nature is recognized within the NPPF as a key health resource,

especially in urban areas (DCLG, 2014a). However, the lack of direct references

to biophilic design in the NPPF demonstrates the knowledge deficit and lack of

awareness of biophilic design and its benefits among policy makers and built

environment professionals.

4.3 Health and Social Care Act 2012

In 2012, the Health and Social Care Act transferred responsibility for public

health to local authorities, an important development given the shift in national


planning policy to 'localism'. This act has given communities greater control over

how health services are run and delivered within their own community, leading to

actions that respond to the local environmental and socioeconomic conditions, in

tandem to resources available to the local authority (Department of Health,

2012).

4.4 Local Plans

Upon the abolishment of Local Development Frameworks in 2010, the NPPF

states that every local planning authority in England must have a clear, concise,

up to date Local Plan. Local plans must operate within the NPP framework,

while meeting the needs of the local population, local development and reflect

the local community’s and stakeholder’s vision of how the area should develop

(DCLG, 2012). No local plan to date makes any direct references to biophilic

design. The closest exception is Birmingham City Council's supplementary

planning document (SPD), 'Green Living Spaces Plan' (2013a), but it is not

statutory.

4.5 Community Infrastructure Levy

The Community Infrastructure Levy (CIL) is a new levy that was introduced under

the National Planning Policy Framework (DCLG, 2012) and can operate in

conjunction with Section 106 agreements. The CIL allows local authorities the

choice over whether or not to charge new developments in their area. When

enacted, the CIL results in land owners and developers paying charges to the

local council, which are in turn used to fund services within the local authority

and community (most likely in relation to communities affected by the nearby

development that is being levied). These charges are determined by the local

authority by assessing the size, type and land area of the new development

along with its environmental impact (DCLG, 2013). Following clarification by the

Department for Communities and Local Government, the CIL can be used to

fund existing green spaces, an important development given the current austerity

measures and their impact on local authority green space budgets (Anderson,

2014).

4.6 Section Conclusion

Biophilic design, with its aims and benefits, directly ties in with the NPPF's aim of

creating healthy communities, through the reduction of health inequalities by

increasing opportunities for access to and interaction with natural environments

and natural stimuli, a strategy recommended by Marmot (2010) and Natural

England (2014). The NPPF also recognises the importance of green space in

delivering health and well-being to communities (DCLG, 2014a), thus making

biophilic design a key medium for achieving sustainable development, a role for

biophilic design that has been discussed previously by Kellert (2005).


The introduction of the Health and Social Care Act (2012) has lead to the

creation of Health and Wellbeing Boards, allowing healthcare professionals from

local communities to co-operate together to improve health and wellbeing, while

reducing inequalities in terms of access and delivery of health services among

the local population (Landscape Institute, 2013b). Health and Wellbeing Boards

potentially offer a go to point for landscape architects to consult on the current

baseline conditions, needs and inequalities of a local population, who would be

directly affected by a new landscape development.

The CIL is a significant opportunity, as a suitable policy mechanism, for

the implementation of biophilic design patterns in the built environment.

Publications such as The Marmot Review (Marmot et al, 2010) and

Microeconomic Evidence for the Benefits of Investment in the Environment 2

(Natural England, 2014) could be used as part of an evidence base for justifying

the levy charge and its subsequent use for funding biophilic design. However,

the charged amount and its determined use are all dependent upon the baseline

needs of the local population and the local plan (DCLG, 2013).

Overall, on a national basis, biophilic design is not accommodated in the

NPPF, but this could be enhanced to further encourage the use of increasing

access to nature and natural stimuli through policy. As regards the transition

from national to local policy; local plans do conform to the framework set out by

the NPPF, but each plan varies across each local authority. This is due to many

factors, such as demographics, culture, character, density, typology, etc, to be

discussed in greater detail in Section 5. As such, no existing local plan to date

makes any direct references to biophilic design.

Section 5: Variability in the Built and Natural Environment

Variability in the built and natural environment can be defined, in the context of

this dissertation, as describing the varying styles of architecture, character, age

of built environment, climate, geography, ecology, socioeconomic demographics

and local cultural traditions and how all these factors interact with one another to

produce a sense of place. This variability in the environment can affect, to

differing degrees, the efficacy of and responses triggered by biophilic design

patterns (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

In a UK context, variability in the built and natural environment is vital to

address wherever a designer seeks to implement biophilic design patterns. This

is due to numerous factors, such as:

The UK has an ageing building stock, with 80% of the buildings

standing today will still be standing in 2050 (Doyle, 2013);

The UK is one of the culturally diverse countries in the world, with

London being the most culturally diverse city in history (Benedictus,


2005) and Birmingham being the second most culturally diverse

city in Europe (Birmingham City Council, 2014b)

Climate change has triggered increased flooding and visible

changes within the landscape (IPCC, 2014)

The current housing shortage puts pressure on maintaining the

character of existing communities with new developments (Policy

Exchange, 2014)

Increases in prevalence of chronic stress related illnesses among

UK demographics and pressure on the NHS (Bird, 2013)

5.1 Climate & Ecology in the UK and how it Impacts Upon Biophilic Design Patterns

Traditionally, the built environment has been constructed of locally sourced

materials and vegetation that reflect the contextual landscape and ecology. This

strengthens local identity and has been utilised for centuries (Bender, 2008).

However, factors such as climate change, invasive non-native species a, shifts in

plant species ranges (Harvey, 2011) (Gray, 2011) and shifts in thermal comfort

baselines (Muller et al, 2014) have made certain material choices and plant

species unfit for purpose (Gill et al, 2007). This obstacle has become more

pronounced in high density urban areas, such as London, where the effects of

the urban heat island have decision and policy makers looking into research on

tree species that can adapt and thrive within the urban heat island long enough

to become large established trees (Greater London Authority, 2005). This use of

new tree species may impact negatively on an area’s character and connection

to a region’s ecology, hindering attempts to trigger a biophilic response.

Climate change is also driving species across the world to change their

geographic ranges, moving around 18km further north every decade. In the UK,

the Comma Butterfly has moved 220km north over only two decades (Gray,

2011). These changes in geographic ranges will result in significant changes in

local ecosystems, with the added loss of an established sense of character and

place attached to built and natural environments associated with those

ecosystems (The Countryside Agency, 2002). It is important for designers to be

aware of this when establishing biophilic design patterns, to ensure efficacy of

the patterns utilised.

Aside from the previously described problems, varying climates and

ecologies across the UK offer unique opportunities for each project. One is

education. An inaccurate ideal of nature held by much of the population is that it

is always green; even what constitutes natural is often debated (Natori and

Chenoweth, 2008). By utilising local vegetative plant species, materials and

replicating natural ecosystems in coastal, moor, floodplain or highland locations,


designers can help improve the user of the spaces' ecological literacy. These

can be achieved by reflecting the local regions ecology and character, instead of

imposing an alien scheme which does not connect to the surrounding landscape

(Pilgrim, Smith and Pretty, 2007). Biophilic design patterns can still be integrated

into these locations, not just in character, but in terms of climate and ecology as

well.

The dynamic properties of climate and ecology also introduce a temporal

nature to biophilic design patterns that incorporate living materials/organisms.

Vegetation such as trees and flowering shrubs have seasonal qualities, which

can result in varying degrees of the quality of connection to nature established

(Nelson, 2001). While this can be seen as a constraint, the seasonality factor

can be utilised as an opportunity in establishing biophilic design patterns such as

'connection to natural systems' (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) (see

appendix B). Recognizing this variability, designers must develop strategies to

maintain the efficacy and ability of biophilic design patterns to engender a

restorative response.

5.2 Culture & Demographics

While many landscape preferences and views of nature are, to a degree,

universal across human demographics, discrepancies in how people view,

appreciate, interact with, or how they are even affected by nature occur across

cultures (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013), ethnic groups (Forsyth and

Musacchio, 2005), genders, ages (Kopec, 2006) and various other factors, such

as one’s profession (Natori and Chenoworth, 2008) or education level (Pilgrim et

al, 2008). It must be stressed however, that this does not mean that one group

values or appreciates nature or that the need/right to have restorative nature

nearby is any less significant than another’s; all it means is that differing

demographic groups interact with nature in different ways (Zube and Pitt, 1981).

The primary difference between evolutionary (innate) and cultural

(learned/conditioned) responses to nature is that cultural responses are the

result of an intentional cognitive evaluation of functions available from the natural

environment to individuals and communities; while evolutionary responses are

passive, immediate affective experiences (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013).

Cultural Theories

Topophilia

Topopihlia is an emotional connection to a place that has a distinct natural

and/or built character unique to that region. As a theory, it states that

people seek out and place attachment to what one knows (Tveit, Sang

and Hagerhall, 2013). The term was first used by W.H. Auden as a

'special love for peculiar places' and was applied as an architectural and

cultural theory by Gaston Bachelard, in his 1958 publication, 'The Poetics


of Space'. This is an important theory to understand in terms of biophilic

design, as it states that experience and learned, conditioned responses

are the deciding factor for one’s landscape preferences. This theory is

evident among immigrants from far and Middle Eastern cultures, who

have low participation/user rates of public green space in western

countries (Buijs, Elands and Langers, 2009). This is due to differing

landscape preferences. The response from many immigrants is to create

and design in landscape styles within their own communities,

demonstrating the topophilic desire to seek out what one is familiar with.

This theory links in with the Aesthetics of Care theory and the

phenomenon of Environmental Generational Amnesia, which can be

thought of as a ‘temporal topophilia’.

Aesthetics of Care

This theory, prevalent in Middle Eastern and agrarian

cultures/communities, emphasizes the importance of direct and visually

evident influence of human activity on natural environments. Landscapes

that seen to be managed, manicured and maintained are preferred over

unkempt, naturalistic nature (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013). This

‘aesthetic’ is valued over ecological function, and clashes with current

landscape preferences in western countries for ‘wild’ nature, again

complicating the problem of low user rates of green space among

immigrants to western countries (Buijs, Elands and Langer, 2009).

Ecological Aesthetic Theory

In contrast to the Aesthetics of Care, the Ecological Aesthetic Theory puts

forward a preference for natural and wild settings. The theory states that

ecological literacy and knowledge of the natural environment leads to

greater preference for natural developing landscapes, absent of visual

human intervention (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013). Initial research

into this area found that higher income groups (thus those who had better

access to education) had greater preferences for naturalistic settings in

contrast to lower socioeconomic groups (Yu, 1995) (Pilgrim, Smith and

Pretty, 2007). However, recent research has shown a decline in

ecological literacy, in western countries, correlating with increasing rates

of urbanisation and rising standards of living, while in poorer, undeveloped

countries, ecological literacy and appreciation for nature remains high,

due to a greater, obvious dependency on natural resources (Pilgrim et al,

2008).

Savannah Hypothesis

This theory proposes to explain why humans from different cultural,

geographic and ethnic backgrounds have “an odd cross-cultural


uniformity” when it comes to landscape preferences (Wypijewski et al,

1997). The theory states that this is due to modern humanity’s evolution

taking place in the East African Savannah. Having preferences for certain

landscapes over others (i.e. a lush savannah over a void desert) to create

a habitat in would give an individual a greater chance of survival. This

move to the savannah and out of the forest may have also built in our

deep seated fear of heights, in turn encouraging more Homo sapiens to

leave the forest and settle on the savannah (Hartmann and Apaolaza-

Ibanez, 2010). Spatial and contextual characteristics of the African

savannah are still present inhumanity’s landscape preferences today

(Heerwagen and Orians, 1993). This theory forms the basis for biophobia

and prospect-refuge theory (Ulrich, 1993).

Biophobia

Biophobia is the polar opposite of biophilia yet is an integral part of it as a

concept. Biophobia is a fear of or aversion to nature, natural

environments and associated stimuli (Ulrich, 1993). Biophobia is

hypothesised to be genetic to varying degrees, but it is essentially a

learned/conditioned response. It is hypothesised, like biophilia, to have

been an evolutionary trait to avoid danger and enhance survival. This is

evident in typical biophobic responses occurring to the sight of blood,

spiders and snakes (van der Berg and Heijne, 2005). Yet, biophobic

responses are not always negative, with patterns of peril and mystery

engendering a biophilic response, through a biophobic experience


Prospect-Refuge Theory

This theory, first proposed by Appleton in 1975, and later built on by

Hildebrand (1991), sets out that humanity is attracted to landscape scenes

that have certain conditions, including: broad prospective views; visible

locations of refuge; presence of water; plant life and; other living non-

threatening species (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993). This theory also

states that humanity has a deep seated need to be on the edge of defined

spaces, for security and to ease perception of fear/danger. The need for

overhead cover as well is preferred, as it allows the restriction of views

into the space, but allows external views from within the space, while

providing a degree of protection to the surveyor (Hildebrand, 2008).

Ethnicity

As described in the preceding paragraphs, variations among various ethnic

groups as regards landscape preferences can be explained through cultural

theories, demonstrating that there is a learned/conditioned response to biophilic

experiences and landscape preferences (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013).

These learned, in combination with evolutionary, responses are conditioned and


modified by social, cultural and life experiences, as explained through the theory

of topophilia.

When considering this subject, it must be remembered that ethnicity

cannot explain all issues to do with green space use and ethnic groups. Other

factors, such as crime, psychological barriers, planning policy, social justice and

inequalities in green space distribution all contribute to skewing the figures of

park usage. The differences between ethnic groups are focused mostly on

landscape preferences and how they use the space and interact with nature in

ways that are compatible with their needs and cultural background (Forsyth and

Musacchio, 2005).

The previously explained theories show how landscape preferences can

affect usage and differ across ethnic groups. Yet, these low participation rates

among Middle Eastern immigrants to western countries do not occur to the same

extent in 2nd and 3rd generation immigrants, but still remain lower than the rest of

the comparable, non-immigrant descendant population (Buijs, Elands and Langer

2009).

Age

Desired uses of space or how people use a space and interact with nature varies

considerably over one’s lifetime (Scopelliti and Giuliani, 2004). Younger age

groups prefer spaces with present patterns of prospect, mystery, risk, access to

natural systems and presence of water (Castonguay and Jutras, 2009), while

teenagers prefer spaces with more refuge (Chawla et al, 2014) and elderly age

groups seek spaces with refuge, clear lines of sight and manicured vegetation

and absence of mystery/risk (Takano, Nakamura and Watanabe, 2002).

In terms of effects, younger age groups benefit the most from contact with

nature, in terms of self-esteem, with this response of an enhanced state

decreasing with age. While both the very young and elderly, in terms of

improved mood, benefit the least from contact with nature (Berto, 2007).

Gender

Even across cultures and ethnic groups, there are similarities in the differences

between the genders and how they respond to natural stimuli. The reasons for

these differences are proposed to be due to our cultural evolutionary history, with

men as hunter gatherers and women as domestic carers (Kopec, 2006).

The differences are significant and can strongly influence design decisions

for the built environment and who will ultimately use the space for restoration of

capacities. In terms of how the genders use the space, compared to men,

women prefer spaces with high density crowds of people; with little or no

personal space. The reversal of these conditions, spaces with low spatial

density, has been shown to lead to a higher occurrence of negative moods in

women. The difference between the sexes and their preferences are further

shown by the fact that men report much higher restorative responses from

patterns of refuge with low overhead cover (ceilings, tree canopies, etc).


Conversely, men’s cognitive functionality has greater resistance to becoming

depleted due to noisy conditions, unlike women’s’ (Petherick, 2000) (Kopec,

2006).

In terms of need for nature, women report higher levels of daily stress

than men, yet, they are much less likely to use nearby outdoor natural spaces

(Richardson and Mitchell, 2010), in contrast to men, who will travel greater

distances to visit green space (Cohen et al, 2007). The reasons for why this is

may be due to women regarding vegetative areas with danger and possibility of

attack, most likely a result of cultural conditioning (Taylor, Kuo and Sullivan,

2001).

In regards to the effects of nature following a restorative response being

engendered, still, differences remain. For instance, following a walk in a forest,

natural killer cell activity (vital for destroying cancer cells) was enhanced in both

genders; but the timeframe duration of enhanced natural killer cell activity

differed significantly (30 days for men, 7 days for women). The reasons why are

unknown (Li, 2010) (Park et al, 2009).

5.3 Character, Density and Landscape Typologies

The character and density of the built and natural environments will strongly

influence what patterns can be implemented and the degree to which a

restorative response can be engendered. The two extremes of character and

density can be shown by comparing low density rural and high density urban

environments.

“In medicine, where the body is really matters, health is essentially place-based”.

– Dr. Richard Jackson (Green, 2012)

Within rural environments, which typically have higher levels of

biodiversity and less visual obstructions, there are fewer obstacles for

engendering a restorative experience, in comparison to urban environments.

This is due to a phenomenon known as perceptual fluency; the demand on

cognitive resources required for perceiving and processing a specific stimulus

(Joye, 2007). Natural environments and stimuli are perceptually processed with

ease by a user, thought to be the result of our species familiarity with how visual

information is structured, layered and arranged in natural environments, due to

our evolution taking place in such environments (Parraga, Troscianko and

Tolhurst, 2000). With lower demands placed on cognitive functions for

perceptually processing environmental stimuli, attentional resources are given

the opportunity to be replenished, allowing for a restorative response to occur

(Joye and van der Berg, 2013).

On the other hand, when it comes to typical, high density urban

environments, people are perceptually inarticulate, due to unfamiliarity with

processing the sensory information present in urban environments (Song and


Schwars, 2009). Sensory overload is a common occurrence in urban

environments, as users’ cognitive resources are being continually depleted by

having to process excessive stimuli (Ulrich et al, 1991) (Bonnes et al, 2013). For

example, checking for traffic, waiting for lights to change, avoiding other

pedestrians, checking signs, way finding and being aware of your surroundings

all deplete cognitive resources and increase stress. Such demands are absent

from restorative environments (Karmanov and Hamel, 2008).

It is interesting to note, as previously mentioned in the sub section on

gender preferences, that clear sights lines and low density, large spatial

environments are generally preferred (Bilotta and Evans, 2013). These qualities

do not commonly occur together in high density urban environments. This poses

a problem; as such qualities quite often require large parcels of land, which is

limited and fragmented within urban cores (Wall and Waterman, 2010).

Van der Berg, Koole and Wulp (2003) stated that high levels of stress

were correlated by a greater preference for natural over urban environments.

This has positive and negative implications for biophilic design in urban

environments. In terms of positive effects, people with higher stress levels

respond with greater levels of restoration to biophilic stimuli, in comparison to

non-stressed subjects (Barton and Pretty, 2010). Thus, this factor may

compensate for the lower responses that occur when experiencing

representational nature (in comparison to real nature) (Kahn et al, 2008), which

can be more feasible to implement in urban environments than resource

demanding vegetative/natural features.

5.4 Project Types and Scope

Strategies for implementing biophilic design patterns have already been broken

down to examine variable elements that can affect it in a UK context, but this is

still a wide scope. The following, is a brief section that deals with the scope and

projects types that landscape architects operate in a design role for. This section

will only skim the surface, as investigations into the applications and

opportunities for biophilic design in these areas are deserving of their own

publications to be dealt with in adequate depth. This section will:

How to implement biophilic design patterns in each respective project type

Identify the most appropriate patterns for each project type

Identify opportunities and constraints for implementing biophilic design

patterns in each project type

New build

New build projects, in some respects, have the greatest potential for biophilic

design, with fewer space constraints. However, new build projects need greater

investment in terms of time, money and resources to integrate/implement new


and existing services, while existing spaces and retrofit projects would most likely

have these services already in place (Dunham-Jones and Williamson, 2011).

New build projects allow for the establishment/introduction of biophilic patterns

that can turn a source of environmental stress, into a restorative space. They

also allow for a much greater degree of enhancement of biophilic

attributes/qualities that exist in the surrounding context (Browning, Clancy and

Ryan, 2014), like Eastside City Park (Figure 1). While retrofit projects are more

likely to be shaped by their surrounding context, new build projects (of an

adequate scale and area) have the ability to influence their surrounding context.

Figure 1 (5.4.1) Clancy (2014) Eastside City Park [Photograph] in possession of: The author: Birmingham, UK.

New build projects, developed on either open brownfield land or atop a

demolished site, like Eastside City Park (Birmingham City Council, 2013a) have

fewer restrictions in terms of having to accommodate existing built form on site.

This allows for a complete re-configuration of spatial conditions, an introduction

of a new material palette and natural stimuli to occupy the space. Operating with

essentially a blank slate (not always the case), a designer can effectively

spatially configure the space to enhance (visual and non-visual) connections to

nature, internal and external to the site by effectively responding to the

surrounding contexts’ typology, character and spatial form.

Due to the opportunity of total spatial re-configuration of a space and how

it responds to the surrounding context, the most space demanding biophilic

design patterns can be implemented, including: prospect; mystery, peril and


connection to natural systems. New build projects offer the opportunity (where

site conditions permit) to establish or restore ecosystems within the space,

effectively ensuring the implementation of the connection to natural systems

pattern (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) (see appendix B).

Retrofit

Retrofit projects are essentially the introduction of new elements that did not exist

at the time of original construction into spaces with a set spatial configuration,

consisting of existing built form and features (Dunham-Jones and Williamson,

2011). Retrofit, for the purpose of this dissertation, does not mean significant

removal of existing features within in the space, but rather introducing

complimentary patterns to those already existing. The inclusion of new elements

must successfully respond to and enhance existing features within the space, i.e.

enhancing natural elements with the introduction of biophilic patterns to the point

where they induce a restorative response to users of the space. Retrofit

projects; aim to enhance the existing character of the space and surrounding

environment (example shown in Figure 2).

"Retrofitting is one of the key methods for introducing these biophilic principles

and projects in cities around the world, as practitioners are working with a built

landscape, envisioning a new green layer on top of the grey one." -Katherine

Forster (2013)

Retrofitting biophilic design patterns into existing green and public spaces

provides a cheaper alternative to biophilic new builds; however, it does have its

limitations. The most apparent of these are (Dunham-Jones and Williamson,

2011):

Space/Area

Spatial configuration

Surrounding built form

Planning restrictions

Soil quality and depth

While it has been previously discussed that small spaces can be biophilic

(Joye and van der Berg, 2013), as restorative responses rise with increases in

biodiversity, rather than increase in land area (Fuller et al, 2007); restrictions on

space (common in retrofit projects) can affect the spatial quality of a space,

hindering restorative responses.

These space restrictions translate into limitations on the levels of

vegetation that can be installed and effectively reducing access to actual nature,

further exacerbated by poor soil quality in urban areas and restrictions on root

growth (Wall and Waterman, 2010). The set spatial configuration of the space,

due to its existing built form and features on site, significantly influences whether


or not certain patterns, such as prospect, mystery and refuge can be successfully

implemented (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014) (see appendix B).

Figure 2 (5.4.2) ‘West Green Road Tropical Park’ (2013) [Photograph] at: http://now-here-this.timeout.com/2013/11/17/west-green-road-tropical-park/ (Accessed on 01.11.14)

With restrictions on space and a set spatial configuration ruling out

significant elements of vegetation and prospective views of actual nature,

landscape architects can utilize natural analogues; representational nature, to

implement biophilic design patterns (Salingaros, 2012). This can be down

through the use of natural materials (material connection to nature), biomorphic

forms (biomorphic forms and patterns) and fractal geometries (complexity and

order) (Browning and Cramer, 2008) (see appendix B). Retrofit projects can

possibly implement patterns such as prospect and visual connection to nature by

framing and creating prospective views to nature that are external to the site

boundary, lying within the surrounding visual context.

Renovation

This project type lies in between on the scale of ‘retrofit’ to ‘new build’.

Renovation implies the removal of significant amounts of existing built form and

features to the point where the spatial configuration of the space has changed

(unlike retrofit projects), yet its spatial relationship to the surrounding context has

not (unlike new build projects) and; then introducing new built form and elements

into a space to a new set spatial arrangement. Renovation projects may


enhance an existing character or develop to the point where the prescribed

character of the space is longer suitable or recognizable (like Thames Barrier

Park, shown in Figure 3). Renovation projects can and should connect to the

history and past use of the site through the design, to create a greater sense of

place attachment and character. While the character of the space may change,

the renovation project should aim to respond and reflect the character of the

surrounding context (Dunham-Jones and Williamson, 2011).

Renovation projects (depending on their scale, scope and area) may be

restricted by space requirements, as regards to suitable/feasible biophilic design

patterns. However, unlike retrofit projects, this project type results in the

elimination of the existing spatial configuration and content within the space

(Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014). Generally, this means that the only

restriction in terms of area is the site boundary (and relevant local planning

policy).

Figure 3 (5.4.3) Thames Barrier Park (2012) [Digital photograph] at: http://ericbwongderivatives.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/thames-barrier-park.html (Accessed on 01.11.14)

Renovation projects are essentially only limited by their surrounding

context. Thus, projects of this nature should aim to reflect the surrounding

character by using vegetative species and materials present in the existing

context. The project should also aim to create visual connections to nature

within the site from external viewpoints (visual connection to nature/prospect).


By making nature visible from exterior built environments, it will signify the site as

a place of refuge, enticing users into the space (Hildebrand, 1991).

Restoration

Restoration is a mixture of the previous three project types. These projects can

be degraded, neglected or abandoned spaces, i.e. community gardens, historic

parks and gardens. These spaces often have a strong, if degraded, character, a

sense of place. Many may have pre-existing biophilic attributes or conditions

existing, but have become damaged. Other restoration projects may focus on

restoring an ecosystem or landscape, such as river, that no longer exists or has

lost its original character. The aim of such projects is to restore the

ecosystem/landscape to its previous state (Busquets et al, 2011).

Figure 4 (5.4.4) The Lost Gardens of Heligan (2014) [Digital photograph] at: http://www.torrhousecottages.co.uk/special-houses-gardens/ (Accessed on 01.11.14)

In some ways these projects are retrofit in nature due a strong existing

spatial configuration and on site character. While in other ways a restoration

project is like a renovation project due to the fact that many elements have

become so degraded, that they need to be replaced with a new spatial

arrangement. New build may be incorporated into this project type to ensure the

space has a relevant purpose and is able to meet the needs of the local

population. Elements of restoration to the sites’ previous condition and form are

also included to ensure the previous character is not overpowered by the

introduction of new elements (Dunham-Jones and Williamson, 2011).


In terms of limitations, choice of vegetative species and materials should

match the present or previous character of the site, in an effort to repair and

enhance the sense of place within the site (Busquets et al, 2011). Due to the

aged, damaged or weathered features of the site and the possibility of

established, overgrown vegetative communities, a connection to natural systems

may be possible to establish, like in the Lost Gardens of Heligan (Figure 4).

5.5 Section Conclusion

As biophilic design utilises natural elements directly affected by climate change,

such as wildlife and vegetation; species choices must be robust, resilient and

adaptive in the face of climate change. Otherwise, changing weather patterns,

shifts in species’ ranges and environmental degradation, due to climate change,

could lead to existing biophilic design patterns becoming less effective or useless

at engendering a restorative response (Hipp and Ogunseitan, 2011).

The combining of several patterns which have permanent and/or

overlapping/alternating seasonal/temporal qualities can overcome the seasonal

obstacles posed by climate. This combination and overlapping of biophilic

design patterns can lead to even greater restorative responses by engaging a

larger proportion of the brain (Liu, Wu and Berman, 2012) (Hunter et al, 2010).

Indeed, seasonal patterns can be implemented to further strengthen the

connection to the surrounding environment of the region, through its climate,

ecology and character (Kellert, 2008). Such a strategy and understanding of the

dynamics of biophilia will help establish a year round biophilic space, resilient

and adaptive in the face of climate change.

The importance of taking into account cultural values and social

demographics cannot be understated. The UK is becoming an increasingly

diverse society, with London being the most ethnically diverse city in the history

of the world (Benedictus, 2005) and Birmingham being the second most diverse

city in Europe (Birmingham City Council, 2014b). The differing landscape

preferences and degree of responses to nature poses an obstacle to

successfully implementing biophilic design. This is due to the dynamics of the

urban fabric and its demographics, which are in a constant state of flux, due to

the rise and fall and regeneration of neighbourhoods (Wall and Waterman,

2010), making it impossible to design a long term restorative environment, solely

for one demographic group. Indeed, designing a space that doesn’t meet the

needs of a specific demographic group, could lead to gentrification of urban

areas (Forsyth and Musacchio, 2005), effectively creating inequalities in access

to green space, despite green space being in reachable distance. However,

applying broad and universal landscape preferences can negate this from

happening.


When designing spaces, it is important to create inclusive environments

for both genders. For women, nearby, manicured, non-threatening nature, with

noise mitigation and clear lines of sight (prospect) are recommended. While for

males, several locations for refuge, allowing personal space and wide open

spaces with prospective views, connecting to wider landscape, are preferred

(Kopec, 2006). As with responding to tangible, physical elements of the natural

or built environments, it is important to consider the effects of these

environments on the populations that occupy them. Populations from areas of

differing character and densities will have their own respective baselines, as a

result of the reciprocal influences the population and the environment exert on

one another. This will lead to local demographics and Health and Well-Being

Boards being consulted (Landscape Institute, 2013b), to establish a baseline,

identify the needs of the population and produce a desired response to

implement that will meet those needs. Otherwise, the efficacy of biophilic design

patterns and their responses can be affected or even negated (Browning, Clancy

and Ryan, 2014).

As regards to incorporating large scale patterns into dense urban cores

that require large land areas, the solutions to creating a restorative environment

in such as typology lie in developing a design strategy that allows for multiple,

brief sensory interactions with nature across several locations, which promote a

sense of well-being. This strategy is known as micro-restorative experiences

(Joye and van der Berg, 2013). These strategies are widely utilised in Japanese

garden design and in the use of parklets in cities such as San Francisco, where

the urban core is deficient in green space (Byrne and Rupprecht, 2014). When

employing such a strategy, opportunities for micro-restorative experiences need

to be located along known routes of high footfall and intersect routes adjacent

other opportunities for nature interaction. Across several micro-restorative

experiences, the desired response can be achieved.

When it comes to character of a natural and built environment, it is

important to integrate new patterns introduced through design with the existing

biophilic patterns of the surrounding natural, built and historic environment. This

can mean reflecting scales, forms, materials and species used in the existing

context (Kellert, 2008). This will help strengthen the local character of the

environment and incorporate landscape preferences of the local population, as

previously explained through topophilia (Tveit, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013) and

perceptual fluency (Joye and van der Berg, 2013).

In rural environments, where conditions and land requirements are more

appropriate, biophilic patterns implemented will more likely be actual nature,

whereas urban environments, with numerous constraints, will be more likely to

incorporate biophilic patterns that are representative and symbolic of nature

(Joye, 2007). This again emphasizes the difficultly in creating biophilic

environments in high density urban areas, as actual nature is preferred to


representational nature, and it registers a stronger biophilic response and effect

(de Kort et al, 2006) (Kahn et al, 2009).

The varying types of projects landscape architect's encounter will also

pose constraints to the implementation of biophilic design in the built

environment. Existing character, spatial configurations and site context all have

to be taken into account (Dunham-Jones and Williamson, 2011). These factors

may mean some patterns are less suitable than others and vice versa. However,

each project type offers its own opportunities, with new build project types

offering fewer spatial restrictions, while restoration projects offer unique,

established characters (Busquets et al, 2011).

Section 6: Evaluation of Current Knowledge among Landscape

Architects in the UK

To make recommendations at the conclusion of this dissertation, and indeed to

help shape the development and identify opportunities, it is necessary to engage

with landscape architecture professionals in the UK. This is required to gain an

understanding of the current level of knowledge on biophilic design in the UK and

to establish a baseline to work from.

6.1 Method

An initial online survey of landscape architecture professionals (all levels) was

conducted to gauge the current level of awareness and knowledge of biophilic

design, as well as the profession's general attitude to this design ethic. Surveys

were sent, via email, to over 63 landscape architecture firms across the UK, with

instructions to forward the survey on to each of the firm's landscape architects for

completion. A total of 41 completed responses were received (Clancy, 2014b).

These surveys were conducted through the online survey tool, Survey Monkey.

Following this survey, another was issued. This time to a smaller sample

group of 13 landscape architects, who would later take part in a workshop on

biophilic design. This second survey would be used, in conjunction with the

initial survey, to gain an understanding of the current baseline knowledge and to

help determine what level of information should be presented in the workshop

(Clancy, 2014c). Following the second survey of the sample group, an

educational workshop on biophilic design was conducted, working from the

established baseline, in terms of existing level of knowledge, awareness and

misconceptions of biophilic design. The intention of this workshop was to clarify

the role of biophilic design, explain its benefits, how it can be implemented and

marketed to existing and potential clients. A small sample group was chosen for

feasibility reasons, due to time and logistical constraints, and also to facilitate

and encourage active discussion (Clancy, 2014d).


6.2 Results

Initial Survey of Practicing Landscape Architects in the UK

To garner a wider ranging view of landscape architects in the UK, more varied

than would be offered by the small sample group at the Pegasus Birmingham

Office, a survey was emailed to 60+ Landscape Institute registered landscape

architecture firms and practices across the UK, with a response rate of approx

60%. The survey was conducted from September 1st 2014 to September 24th

2014 (Clancy, 2014b). This was in an attempt to gain a more representative

view of the industry in the UK on biophilic design. The results of this survey

would be used in conjunction with the results of the survey and workshop

conducted with the small sample group at Pegasus Planning Group, in

Birmingham, to identify constraints and opportunities for biophilic design in UK

landscape architecture, and from this, concluding recommendations.

The survey began with an introductory paragraph, explaining biophilia and

the benefits of biophilic design, to frame the context of the survey for those

unfamiliar with the subject.

Figure 5 (6.2.1) Question 1: UK biophilic design survey (Clancy, 2014b)

Surprisingly, the answer to this question seems to indicate that the

landscape architects surveyed do possess a degree of knowledge about biophilic

design. However, the introductory text, which explained biophilic design, may

have simply struck the reader/survey participant as being just another description

for designing with nature. Yet, this still reflects, that the majority is aware of

biophilic design.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Yes No

Q.1 Prior to the inductory text, did you have any previous knowledge of biophilic design?




Reinforced by comments made by V. Kirby during a conversation on 17th

July 2014, it is evident in Figure 6 and 7 that the majority of landscape architects

hold strong environmental values and aim where possible to establish

connections to nature. Yet, as question three shows, the majority of landscape

architects surveyed feel that landscape architects in the UK are not adequately

trained to implement biophilic design. This is despite being familiar with the term

biophilic design. It can be hypothesised that guidance is needed on methods of

implementation for biophilic design. Especially since question two shows that

landscape architects set out intentionally to create connections to nature. While

these intentions are good and welcomed, the follow up question shows that the

majority of those surveyed feel landscape architects are not trained adequately

enough at university to do so.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Yes No

Q.2 With the introduction in mind, do you intentionally aim to design spaces with connections to nature in your work?

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Yes No

Q3. Do you feel landscape architects in the UK are adequately trained/educated at university to implement biophilic

design/connections to nature?



Those surveyed feel the most challenging obstacle to implementing

biophilic design in UK landscape architectural projects is the client, followed

closely by the budget, as shown in Figure 8. Both understandable factors; given

the current economic climate and the fact that a client’s inclinations to

sustainable development will determine whether or not implementing biophilic

design is a priority. However, lack of awareness about biophilic design among

the public, clients and policy makers was ranked only marginally lower than the

top two factors. This offers an insight into perhaps the low profile of biophilic

design and how it is not understood widely by the public or developers. This

offers a significant obstacle to biophilic design, exacerbated by the complex,

multi-disciplinary nature of the field, along with its relative infancy as a design

ethic (Kellert, 2008).

0 0.5

1 1.5

2 2.5

3 3.5

4

Budget Client Lack of guidance/policy

Lack of awareness

Knowledge deficit among

landscape architects

Q.4 Which potential obstacle you feel presents the greatest challenge to implementing biophilic design/connections to

nature in UK landscape architecture projects



One of the aims of biophilic design is to re-focus the designer on the

occupant, the individual experiencing the space. While material choices and

energy inputs/outputs are all vital for sustainable development, especially in the

face of climate change, the sustainable design movement has focused solely on

material and embodied energy in design, making the user's experience of a

space less of a priority (Kellert, 2005). However, landscape architects surveyed

in this exercise have shown that establishing a connection to nature in a design

is of a higher priority than meeting the design brief (Figure 9). While this may not

be unique to landscape architecture, it does reinforce the finding that landscape

architects hold strong environmental values and view connections to nature in

the built environment as vital.


As previously examined, the NPPF and NPPG make no direct references

to biophilic design, although it does acknowledge the link between green

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Low energy Budget Climate resilience

Connection to nature

Maixmize developable

land

Meeting the brief

Q.5 What you feel is most important to achieve in a project

0

10

20

30

40

Yes No

Q.6 Do you feel the NPPF/NPPG provides adequate guidance to built environment professionals, policy makers,

communities and local authorities on biophilic design?


space/access to nature and health and well-being (DCLG, 2012) (see appendix

C). However, there is an apparent gap between the objective and the

methodology of achieving adequate access to green space. This is where

biophilic design can be utilised, as shown in Figure 10, those surveyed feel the

NPPF is inadequate in this respect.


As previous responses have shown, landscape architects hold strong

values for establishing connections to nature in their designs, yet landscape

architects are not in sole control of projects. Figure 11 shows that the majority of

landscape architects feel that many developers and clients are not supportive of

incorporating design features and connections to nature within their designs.

This presents a significant constraint to developing biophilic design in the UK, as

without the financial support and approval of developers and clients, this design

ethic will not be utilised to its fullest extent in the UK.


0

5

10

15

20

Yes No

Q.7 Through your work, do you find that clients/developers are supportive/accepting of design proposals that incorporate

biophilic design features/connections to nature?

0

10

20

30

40

Yes No

Q.8 Do you think integration of biophilic design credits into a BREEAM style rating system would offer incentive to clients to

utilise biophilic design and create connections to nature in their developments?


Figure 12 shows how the idea of integrating biophilic design as additional

credits into a BREEAM style rating system would be received among landscape

architects, as a means of offering incentive to clients to integrate biophilic design

in their developments. A precedent for this exists in the USA LEED rating

system and the Living City and Living Building challenges, respectively (Kieran,

2008). While the majority do believe it would do so, many of those surveyed

added additional comments. 30% (10) of the respondents left additional

comments, which raised concerns about integrating biophilic design into

BREEAM. These concerns are justified considering BREEAM for landscape is

ambiguous (Dunnett, Townsend and Gibson, 2013) with many loopholes and not

all categories (such as biophilia if it was included) have to be met to achieve a

BREEAM rating (Landscape Institute, 2014a).

Other respondents are concerned over the integration of biophilic design

into BREEAM simply becoming another box ticking exercise, much like the use

of native plant species in BREEAM (Landscape Institute, 2013c). In the long

term, this could do more harm than good to the reputation and efficacy of

biophilic design. Interestingly, one respondent did state that they felt that

education and increasing awareness of biophilic design would not be enough to

encourage clients/developers to incorporate biophilic design into their

developments. While they stated that BREEAM does offer a potential vehicle for

biophilic design to be adopted by clients and developers to a greater degree, the

respondent went on to state that the proper solution lies in integrating biophilic

design into national and local planning policy. No precedents for this exist;

however, Birmingham City Council does encourage biophilic design in its

supplementary planning document (SPD) 'Green Living Spaces Plan' (2013a), as

part of the city's ascension to the Biophilic Cities Project (Beatley, 2014). This

inclusion of biophilic design in the SPD carries no weight in granting or refusing

planning permission to new developments, however, as confirmed by one of its

authors, N. Grayson, in a conversation on 1st April 2014.

Figure 13 (6.2.9) Question 9: UK Biophilic design survey (Clancy, 2014b)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Yes No

Q.9 Do you feel connections to nature (biophilic design) in the built environment are important?


Figure 13 confirms what much of the existing literature has stated; that

landscape architects hold strong environmental values and feel that connections

to nature in the built environment are important (Souter-Brown, 2014).

This survey laid a baseline to compare the smaller sample group from the

workshop to. This would allow for the sample group's survey responses to be

framed in a larger context and give more weight to the findings.

Initial Survey of Biophilic Design Workshop Attendees (Pre-Workshop)

Before the workshop was undertaken, ten of the thirteen attendees participated

in an online survey, to garner an insight into their understanding and attitude to

biophilic design, before the presentation. This survey was conducted between

the 1st and 22nd of October 2014 (Clancy, 2014c).

Figure 14 (6.2.10) Question 1: Sample group survey on biophilic design (Clancy, 2014c)

The data presented in Figure 14 links to a point made earlier in this

dissertation. While the existence of the nature-health connection is intuitive to

many, it is known by many different terms and names. These include:

reverence; fascination; biophilia and restoration (Kellert, 2005) While most

respondents answered as to not having any knowledge of either of the three

terms, it must be remembered that this is a small sample group and therefore

should not be held as a view over the entire landscape architecture profession in

the UK.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Yes, all three No Yes, but not all three

Q.1. Have you heard of any of the following; Restorative Environmental Design, Biophilic Design or the Biophilia

Hypothesis?



The makeup of this small sample group traverses many of the hierarchical

levels within the landscape architecture profession and allows for varying

perspectives on the issue from those recently graduated, to professionals who

have 30 years of experience within the industry.


The data shown in Figure 16 reinforces an earlier point that much of

biophilia and the nature-health connection are intuitive to a degree, regardless as

to whether or not an individual has heard of biophilia, biophilic design or any

other of its descriptive terms. Using other sources, in conjunction with this

survey result and the results of the initial survey, it is easy to argue that

landscape architects hold strong environmental values for establishing

connections to nature in the built environment (Souter-Brown, 2014).

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Q.2 Please state your title/level:

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Yes No

Q.3 Do you believe that establishing connections to nature in the built environment can benefit people's physical and

mental health and well-being?



While the majority of this group (90%) have received educational and

theoretical training on how to establish a connection to nature, a third of the

group felt that this training was inadequate. This signals the identification of a

potential restraint for implementing biophilic design in UK landscape architecture:

a knowledge deficit among landscape architects on biophilic design, reflecting

the findings of the initial survey conducted between 1st and 24th September

2014 (Clancy, 2014b).


Evident from Figure 18, the majority of respondents ranked their

universities for putting a moderate to strong emphasis on establishing

connections to nature through design on their university curriculum. Within in

this small sample group, it could be hypothesised that while the idea of

establishing connections to nature was promoted in third level education, the

methods of implementation was not taught in sufficient detail.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Yes Yes but it was inadequate No

Q.4 Whether through university education or CPD, have your ever participated in an educational module or event, to

incorporate connections to nature within the built environment through design?

0

1

2

3

4

Strong Moderate Low Inadequate/none

Q.5 In your opinion, how much emphasis did your university education place on establishing connections (visual, non-

visual, physical) to elements of nature and representational nature through your design work?



Figure 19 demonstrates that while landscape architects within this sample

group have ample opportunities for incorporating connections to nature within

their work, the previous survey questions have revealed a knowledge deficit for

doing so. This may result in landscape designs that have a less effective

connection to nature, than would have been so if the space was designed by a

landscape architect with knowledge on how to implement biophilic design. This

is a significant issue, as it shows that as a profession, we are not designing our

landscapes for maximum efficiency of services (services including cognitive

psycho-physiological restoration). This is not done intentionally or due to apathy,

but more to do with ignorance on the human-nature health connection.


Following on from the last point, it is interesting to note that 'knowledge on

how to establish a connection to nature' was ranked only marginally lower than

'the client', and more surprisingly, ranked higher than the project's budget, as an

influencing factor on establishing connections to nature within design projects

(Figure 20). While the 'site and its surrounding context' received the highest

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Ample Few None Do not work in a design capacity

Q.6 In your design projects, how many opportunities do you have to incorporate connections to nature?

0

1

2

3

4

5

Client Budget Knowledge on how to establish a connection

to nature

The site and its surrounding context

Q.7 Which of the following has the greatest influence on establishing a connection to nature in your projects (whether

a positive or negative influence):


ranking, showing that landscape architects, like many built environment

professionals, see already existing nature on site as necessary for establishing

connections to nature. This is despite the majority of biophilic design research

originating from interior office environments, which began existence devoid of

nature (Kellert, 2005). These findings again support the previous point that a

knowledge deficit is holding back the profession of landscape architecture from

creating biophilic spaces within the built environment (Clancy, 2014c).


While the landscape architects within this sample group values nature

and establishing connections to it within their work, they lack understanding of

how to implement biophilic design, as shown from the data of the other questions

in this survey (Figure 21).


As shown in previous sections, the NPPF has no direct references to

biophilic design (DCLG, 2012) (see appendix C). The majority of respondents for

this question feel that current guidance and policy is either not fit for purpose or

needs to improve (Figure 22). This can be translated into the need among

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Very important Important Important, but other issues take priority

Not Important

Q.8 How important do you feel is it to establish a connection to nature in your current project(s)?

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Fit for purpose Fit for purpose, but can be improved

Not fit for purpose

Q.9 In terms of incorporatng connections to nature into the built environment, current guidance and policy is:


landscape architects to have sufficient guidance on how to implement biophilic

design, rectifying the knowledge deficit, identified through this dissertation.

Biophilic Design Workshop October 22nd 2014

On the 22nd October 2014, an educational workshop on biophilic design was

held at the Birmingham office of Pegasus Planning Group Ltd, a planning

consultancy that offers numerous services including landscape architecture. The

company's landscape architecture division works on a wide range of landscape

type projects, such as: new housing developments, hospitals, commercial

developments, spa and hotel developments and renewable energy projects. The

workshop was attended by thirteen of Pegasus's landscape architects from the

Birmingham office, ranging in varying levels of seniority, from director to graduate

(Clancy, 2014c) (Clancy, 2014d).

The intention of this workshop was to present biophilic design in greater

detail to a sample group of landscape architects. Following the presentation, a

discussion on the constraints and opportunities for biophilic design in UK

landscape architecture would be held, along with ideas on how this design ethic

could be integrated into practice.

The workshop commenced with a presentation on biophilic design,

specific to UK based landscape architecture. The presentation included:

Definitions and background of biophilia and biophilic design

Importance and context of biophilic design and why it is needed

Cognitive psycho-physiological benefits of interacting with nature

14 biophilic design patterns, developed by Terrapin Bright Green and how

they can be applied in landscape architectural designs (see appendix B);

and

How UK landscape architects could market biophilic design to existing and

potential clients of varying types (local authorities, communities,

developers, medical facility managers, education professionals, employers

and commercial retailers).

Following the workshop feedback for the integration of biophilic design

into landscape architecture in the UK was generally positive and welcomed.

Many of the attendees stated that following the presentation on biophilic design,

they felt that the subject was very much intuitive to landscape architects, but they

each admitted to not having adequate knowledge to create biophilic spaces,

because they have not explored the subject in sufficient depth.

In terms of constraints, the sample group felt that clients and developers

will be the most significant obstacle to integrating biophilic design into the built

environment. In the case of housing developers, many attendees felt that

developers would rather use available land area to maximize developable land

area, rather than release any more land area than necessary to green


space/connection to nature. When the economic benefits of biophilic design

were raised, many still felt that the return on investment (ROI) for biophilic design

would either not be sufficient or the time period of return would be too long

(Ryan, 2014). In the current economic climate, this could be a crucial factor.

Still, the attendees felt that much of the problem may be lack of awareness of

biophilic design on the client's behalf and successful marketing of biophilic

design to current and potential client's may be the solution. As previously noted,

the sample group also felt that a distinct deficit in knowledge among landscape

architects on biophilic design would not only hinder the wider integration of the

ethic into practice, but also contributes to the lack of awareness on the subject.

In terms of opportunities, the sample group identified growth in the

housing sector (Policy Exchange, 2014), Birmingham's ascension to the Biophilic

Cities project (Beatley, 2014) and the marketing of biophilic design to medical

facilities as key opportunities for the growth and integration of biophilic design

into landscape architecture. The sample group also noted that opportunities

exist for the creation of guidance on integrating biophilic design patterns in

landscape architecture, as many of the attendees did not feel there is sufficient

literature on the subject, specific to landscape architecture. As an extension of

this, the sample group also recommended the inclusion of biophilic design on

third level landscape architecture curricula, although there was divided opinion

as to whether or not biophilic design should be taught as a separate module or

integrated throughout the course as a whole (Clancy, 2014d).

6.3 Baseline & Analysis

Following the two surveys and workshop on biophilic design, It can be

summarised that majority of UK landscape architects surveyed feel that

connections to nature in the built environment are important and where possible,

those surveyed would incorporate them (Clancy, 2014b). However, many

respondents felt that, despite being familiar with some terms used to describe

biophilic design, there was a distinct lack of knowledge on biophilic design and

that they would not feel confident in designing a biophilic space (Clancy, 2014d).

Many respondents are in favour of integrating biophilic design into landscape

architectural practice, but feel that many obstacles lie in the way, specifically, the

economic climate, a lack of guidance for designers and awareness among

clients, policy makers and the general public (Clancy, 2014c) (Clancy, 2014d).

It should be noted however, that with a total of only 54 landscape

architects surveyed between the two surveys and workshop, these findings are

only representative of a very small portion of the profession in the UK. However,

the findings in general are significant and may reveal a trend among the

profession, but further research is needed to substantiate this.


6.4 Section Conclusion: Why this dissertation is needed

The repeating themes of the findings are (Clancy, 2014b) (Clancy, 2014c)

(Clancy, 2014d):

A distinct deficit in knowledge among landscape architects

A call among landscape architects for more in depth education and

guidance on biophilic design at university level and post qualification level

A need for an awareness/marketing campaign/strategy on biophilic design

aimed at clients, developers, communities, local authorities and policy

makers

A need to incentivise clients to adopt biophilic design measures into new

developments

A need for the integration of biophilic design into national and local policy

A distinct valuing of creating connections to nature among landscape

architects through their work

Through the course of this research and conducting the mentioned

surveys among UK landscape architects, this dissertation has begun to frame the

discussion on identifying opportunities and constraints for integrating biophilic

design in landscape architectural practice in the UK. By doing so, this

dissertation is laying the groundwork for the wider integration of biophilic design

into the industry of landscape architecture in the UK.

Section 7. Conclusions and Recommendations:

7.1 Limitations of Study

While much research and literature has looked at how to apply biophilic design to

the built environment or a specific space, none have looked at the larger

problems facing the wider adoption of biophilic design into the built environment

profession. Little or no literature which deals primarily with biophilic design in

landscape architecture has been produced at the time of writing either, a fact

echoed by G. Souter Brown during a personal communication with the author on

16th November 2014. These two factors impacted upon the literature review

conducted for this dissertation. However, this was negated by using wide

ranging and varying sources across numerous disciplines, including the built

environment and health professions, and establishing personal communications

with both domestic and international experts on biophilic design.

Another factor was the lack of responses to the general survey on

biophilic design, which was sent to 60+ landscape architecture practices cross

the UK, with instructions to forward the survey onto each of their landscape

architects. Overall, only 41 individual responses where received, a response


rate just over 75% (Clancy, 2014b). Such numbers do not provide enough data

to generate results that could be stated to be representative of landscape

architects across the UK on biophilic design. Added to this, only one biophilic

design workshop was conducted, with a sample group of 13 landscape architects

(Clancy, 2014d). If time and other factors had permitted, the findings would have

been more conclusive if a total of ten workshops had been conducted, with an

attendance of at least ten landscape architects at each.

The lack of case studies and data on biophilic design in landscape

architecture, specific to the UK was also a limitation to the study. Without case

studies and an evidence base specific to the UK, applications of biophilic design

will be limited (Green, 2012). While many case studies exist, showcasing the link

between health, well-being and green space in the UK, such as in the LI's 'Public

Health and Landscape' (2013b) publication, it does not make direct references to

biophilia, biophilic design or restorative environmental design. Such case studies

also lack specific details, such as: post occupancy studies; area assigned to

green space, water, tree cover, and refuge, distance of prospective views;

recorded cognitive psycho-physiological effects and; number of users/frequency

of use. These are details identified by C. Ryan, in a personal communication

with the author on 29th July 2014, as necessary for case studies to be fit for

purpose.

7.2 Rectifying the Knowledge Deficit through Education

There is a distinct knowledge deficit present in the profession of landscape

architecture in the UK on the subject of biophilic design and how to implement it

(Clancy, 2014d). This is evident at the university level and at the post

qualification professional level, with no university level course or continuous

professional development (CPD) event teaching biophilic design, as confirmed

by V. Kirby in a telephone conversation with the author on 17th July 2014. While

many landscape architects are familiar with the human nature-health connection

and the benefits of interacting with nature, as shown through the surveys, they

are unaware of how to create such connections effectively (Clancy, 2014b)

(Clancy, 2014d). It may be simply a case of building on this awareness with

specific methodologies of how to implement biophilic design in the built

environment.

This factor is a constraint in several ways. For one, the lack of education

on the subject contributes to the lack of awareness of biophilic design among the

landscape architecture profession itself and thus will restrict the adoption of

biophilic design strategies into the design of the built environment. Secondly,

this lack of knowledge could lead to reduced efficacy. Thirdly, insufficient

knowledge on implementing biophilic design could be dangerous and damage

the reputation/image of biophilic design in the long run. For example, certain

biophilic design patterns, such as material connection to nature depend on the


use of materials in certain ratios. At high ratios of certain materials, negative

effects, such as nausea, dizziness and reduced brain activity have been

recorded (Tsunetsugu, 2007). Other patterns, such as peril depend on

introducing an element of danger with a trusted element of safety, Executed

carelessly, this pattern could pose a legitimate danger to users of the space (van

der Berg, Sang and Hagerhall, 2013).

This knowledge deficit needs to be tackled at the university and post

qualification levels. To do this at university level, it is recommended to either

incorporate biophilic design throughout the curriculum across all years of the

undergraduate degree, which is preferable and generates a higher degree of

exposure or as an individual module at the post graduate level, while less

preferable, would be easier to accommodate in the short term. In personal

communications with the author, on 10th December 2012 and 5th March 2013,

respectively, such a measure was supported by S. Kellert and T. Beatley. For

post qualification professionals already working the field of landscape

architecture, intensive, one day CPD courses could be utilised to bridge the gap

in knowledge. These CPD events themselves could operate as feedback

sessions from professionals, helping shape methods of applying biophilic design

to the built environment through landscape architecture in the UK. With the

workshop on biophilic design revealing that landscape architects simply don't just

want to know how to implement biophilic design, but also how to market it to

existing and potential clients (Clancy, 2014d).

7.3 Increasing Awareness and Understanding of Biophilic Design

Given the low profile of biophilic design in the UK, there appears to be a lack of

awareness and even poor understanding of the subject. This has been observed

at talks on biophilia and biophilic design at Ecobuild 2013 (Beatley 2013a) and

Trees, People and the Built Environment II conference (Beatley, 2014). Several

audience members at these talks posed questions to the speakers of various

talks (Grayson, 2014), often dismissing the subject of biophilia and biophilic

design as buzzwords and unnecessary. While these events did help raise the

profile of biophilic design in the UK, it was observed that many audience

members were confused by or dismissive of the subject. This is can be

hypothesised to be due to the following reasons:

1. The relative infancy of biophilic design as a design ethic (Clancy, 2014a),

with the theory of biophilia only being put forward by EO Wilson in 1984

and the definition of the field of biophilic design circa 2005 (Kellert, 2005).

A lack of understanding and low awareness is to be expected when the

field of biophilic design is still emerging and defining itself.

2. The origins of biophilia are rooted, to a large degree, in the field of

environmental psychology (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). However, many

other professions have contributed to the development of biophilic design,


including: anthropology; sociology; social ecology; cognitive and

behavioural neuroscience and evolutionary psychology (Kellert, 2008).

This multi-disciplinary origin, along with the jargon and descriptive terms

used by each discipline, has led to biophilia and biophilic design being

easily misunderstood by someone outside of these professions. Indeed,

the descriptive language itself may be a barrier to wider acceptance.

Much like education is needed to bridge the knowledge gap for landscape

architects on biophilic design, so too is education needed for current and

potential clients. Marketing the benefits, the need for and the return of

investment on biophilic design patterns could help sway clients and developers

to adopting biophilic design into their new and existing developments. Using

recent reports and publications such as Terrapin Bright Green's 'The Economics

of Biophilia' (2012) and the Landscape Institute's position statements 'Profitable

Places' (2014d) and 'Public Health and Landscape' (2013b), landscape

architecture firms have sufficient data at their disposal to convince clients to

adopt biophilic design measures in the design of their new developments.

7.4 Perceived Cost of Investment & Budget Cuts

From the surveys and workshops, cost, specifically to clients and developers was

identified as a significant obstacle to implementing biophilic design. Those in the

workshop sample group felt that many clients would not risk losing potential

value from developing land to incorporate biophilic design (Clancy, 2014d). This

is despite numerous studies pointing to the economic benefits of biophilic design,

from increasing land value to increasing productivity among staff (Terrapin Bright

Green, 2012). In fact, the return of investment ratio on installing biophilic features

has been shown to be 3:1 (Ryan, 2014). Regardless, no incentives currently

exist to incorporate biophilic design into new developments that would encourage

clients into doing so.

Biophilic design also has a perception of being expensive and costly to

maintain. This can be attributed to many images of top end, high specification

landscapes and features such as green roofs and living walls being used in

articles and publications on biophilic design. While these examples may be

expensive, biophilic design does not have to be (Souter-Brown, 2014). Related

to this, during a personal communication via email with the author, on 10th

November 2014, W. Browning stated that "biophilic design is still seen as a

luxury, or nice but not necessary. We believe that it is fundamental to making

buildings and urban environments more livable".

With the evidence presented in this dissertation and in the 'Economics of

Biophilia' by Terrapin Bright Green (2012), the benefits of biophilic design and

access to green space should be used in empirical evidence based arguments

for the protection and safe guarding of green space funding from budget cuts.


Such an approach could be adopted by both local authorities who have seen

budgets slashed (Cosgrove, 2014e) and by landscape architects in private

practice who wish to avoid cuts to their design budgets so they may implement

adequate connections to nature in their work.

7.5 Utilising Current Housing Growth & the Garden Cities Competition as an Opportunity

The present housing shortage and significant growth in house building in the UK

market offers an excellent opportunity for biophilic design to be integrated into

the built environment. Some groups are even calling on the UK government to

build 240,000 homes a year to meet demand (Brinded, 2014). Other figures

state that the number of households is set to grow by 221,000 every year this

decade (Policy Exchange, 2014).

As new build projects, these new developments will be able to incorporate

a large number of the biophilic design patterns and create spatial configurations

and layouts that allow for access to nature and green space (Dunham-Jones and

Williamson, 2011) (Browning and Cramer, 2008). This opportunity is made all

the more significant by the fact that 80% of the buildings standing today will still

be standing in 2050 (Doyle, 2013). It is crucial that new developments

incorporate connections to nature to mitigate the negative effects of the built

environment on health and well-being, which will impact upon, not only the

present, but future populations (Beatley, 2011b).

The winning entry of the Wolfson Economic Prize 2014 proposed the

development of 40 new garden cities over the next 30 years, while Nick Clegg

has stated that three new garden cities, each consisting of +15,000 homes, will

be built by 2020 (Policy Exchange, 2014). The release of the UK governments

Garden City prospectus (DCLG, 2014b) gives added political weight to this

opportunity as a medium through which to implement biophilic design. While

garden cities put an emphasis on health, well-being and access to green space,

it does not state how to do so at the site design level. Biophilic design could be a

key design tool and ethic to utilise in the creation of these garden cities. By

highlighting the gap between the planning and site design scales of garden cities

and the overlapping aims of the two subjects, biophilic design could become

integrated into the application of garden cities, raising the profile and awareness

of biophilic design in the UK.

It is also worth pointing out that garden cities were a proposed solution to

a series of problems that existed over a hundred years ago (Howard, 1902).

While many of those problems still exist, society and the world have changed.

The problems facing humanity today are different, more varied and complex than

those at the beginning of the 20th century. We now live in a country with: a

multi-cultural society; depression and stress set to become the number one


global disease burden with 15 years and; a changing climate and more extreme

weather events (World Health Organisation, 2010). Simply put, the garden city

movement, as a solution, is outdated, to a degree. Whereas biophilic design has

recently emerged and evolved in response to our current predicaments (Kellert,

2008). This is how biophilic design can make the contemporary garden cities

movement a relevant and effective solution once again.

7.6 Further Ascension of UK Cities to the Biophilic Cities Project

Further UK cities joining Birmingham in ascending to the Biophilic Cities Project

would increase the profile and awareness of biophilic design here in the UK

(Beatley, 2014). It could act as an important stepping stone for city councils and

other local authorities to adopting biophilic design as part of local planning policy

and eventually building enough momentum to become incorporated into national

planning policy, as seen in Birmingham City Councils SPD 'Green Living Spaces

Plan' (2013b). In an interview with the author on 1st April 2014, this opportunity

was echoed by N. Grayson of Birmingham City Council.

7.7 Integration of Biophilic Design into BREEAM

From the literature review, findings of the workshop and the surveys conducted,

it is clear that an obstacle exists in convincing clients/developers of adopting

biophilic design into their new developments (Clancy, 2014c) (Clancy, 2014d). It

is perceived by the landscape architects surveyed, that clients/developers do not

wish to incur further financial costs by implementing biophilic design despite

evidence of the economic benefits of doing so (Terrapin Bright Green, 2012).

One solution to this obstacle is to incentivise developers to incorporate

connections to nature in their developments, much like Singapore has with its

Skyrise Greenery incentive program (Beatley, 2011a). A mechanism for

delivering this incentive exists in the form of BREEAM, whereas credits are given

to developers/developments that achieve certain environmental conditions in the

final construction and maintenance of a development. BREEAM appeals to

developers as it lowers running costs, raises property value and improves a

developer's environmental credentials (Landscape Institute, 2013c). A

precedent for incorporating biophilic design into an environmental rating system

exists, with LEED and the Living City/Building Challenge (Kieran, 2008).

However, through the course of conducting surveys, some landscape

architects voiced concerns over doing so, despite the majority of those surveyed

agreeing with such a measure. Such concerns include the danger of biophilic

design credits just becoming another box ticking exercise for developers, with the

integrity of biophilic design measures affected. Another point raised highlights

the ineffectiveness of BREEAM's role in landscape issues (Dunnett, Townsend

and Gibson 2014); with loopholes currently present to achieve credits without


substance and the recent controversy over using non-native plants (Landscape

Institute, 2014a). The commenter felt that such an occurrence could happen

again with biophilic design (Clancy, 2014b). Such concerns were echoed by G.

Souter-Brown during an interview via email on 16th November 2014.

Overall, as a solution to incentivising developers, BREEAM is limited in its

scope. Firstly, the client must seek to achieve a BREEAM rating for their

development and in most cases, is under no obligation to do so. Even if the

client does wish to achieve a BREEAM rating, they can still do so without being

obliged to obtain all credits (Landscape Institute, 2014a); hence biophilic design

credits could potentially be ignored. BREEAM is in reality a short term solution to

raising awareness and incentivising developers, the real solution lies in

education and integrating biophilic design into local and national planning policy.

7.8 Production of Biophilic Design Guidance Documents

To address all of the variables and propose adequate methodologies for

implementing biophilic design for each project type and situation is beyond the

scope of this dissertation, and in reality, could generate several volumes of

specific material (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

In conjunction with integrating biophilic design into the syllabus of

landscape architecture education and CPD, the production of guidance

documents will help bridge the knowledge gap among landscape architects in the

UK. Potential opportunities exist for these guidance documents to become the

basis for further CPD events (Clancy, 2014d).

7.9 Integration of Biophilic Design into National and Local Planning Policy

Currently, the NPPF and NPPG make no direct reference to biophilic design

(DCLG, 2014a) (see appendix C). While there are numerous references

outlining the need for green space, there are no references to how this green

space should be designed, what its content should be or how it should be

spatially configured. While current policy may promote green space and access

to nature, it does not specify policy to ensure that these measures enhance

health and well-being (DCLG, 2012).

At the local level, no mention of biophilic design is made in policy across

all the local authorities. The closest exception is Birmingham City Council, who

outlines the need for biophilic design to establish Birmingham as a 'biophilic city'

in its supplementary planning document (SPD), Green Living Spaces Plan

(Birmingham City Council, 2013b). However, this document is only guidance and

not policy. As such it carries no weight in decision-making and provides

inadequate detail in any case.


Integration of biophilic design into national and local planning policy would

make existing policies more robust in terms of promoting health and well-being.

It would also encourage and could in some cases require developers to

incorporate biophilic design patterns, instead of depending on incentives and

rating systems, such as BREEAM, which run the risk of turning biophilic design

into a box ticking exercise (Landscape Institute, 2013c). However, doing so

presents a significant challenge, one that will need the support across the built

environment professions.

7.10 Formulation of a Biophilic Design Case Study Template

It should be noted that developing a case study template, for producing biophilic

design case studies, has been attempted recently. The author of this

dissertation, attempted to do so while working for Terrapin Bright Green in 2013.

While a case study template was developed, that produced results and specific

metrics similar to those stated in theory and research for some biophilic design

patterns, it was difficult to record many other patterns. Terrapin Bright Green

issued the case study template to various built environment and biophilic design

professionals for review. During a personal communication via email with the

author on 29th July 2014, C. Ryan of Terrapin Bright Green revealed that

feedback received stated that the case study template "lacked the technical

guidance - particularly measurements - that would make them such valuable

tools". As such, the case study template was not published.

From the research conducted at Terrapin Bright Green and during the

course of this dissertation, it is the author's conclusion that the inconsistency of

results produced by this case study template is due to variability in the built

environment, as noted in the section 5. It may be the case that specific case

study templates will have to be developed for each type of environmental setting,

typology and climate.

7.11 Formation of a National Multi-Disciplinary Body for Biophilic Design in the UK

To raise awareness of biophilic design on a significant scale, a national body,

guiding biophilic design, across all professions in the UK is needed. Such an

institution could act as the epicentre of a marketing and PR campaign to raise

the profile of biophilic design in the UK. A national body could act as a sole

source of information for built environment professionals, developers, policy

makers and communities on the benefits and role of biophilic design in the built

environment. By appealing to all the built environment professions and not just

landscape architecture, the body could build greater critical mass, adding

significant weight behind any calls for integrating biophilic design into local and

national policy.


This potential national body could theoretically organise the recommended

CPD events in this dissertation and go some way to bridging the knowledge gap

on biophilic design, not only for the profession of landscape architecture, but all

the built environment professions. This could in turn have a convergent effect,

leading to greater implementation of biophilic design in the built environment of

the UK.

For any developments, such as the inclusion of biophilic design as a credit

rating in BREEAM or integrating biophilic design into local and national planning

policy, a national body, with a significant membership is needed. This is to help

ensure that any measure of integration undertaken, whether into a rating system

or policy, is appropriate, adequate and suitable for sustainable and resilient

applications of biophilic design to the built environment of the UK.

In a personal communication via email with W. Browning on the 10th

November 2014, it was revealed that Terrapin Bright Green, along with several

other institutions, aim to launch the Institute of Biophilic Design in early to mid

2015. Such an international body could co-ordinate with the national body for

biophilic design proposed in this dissertation. With the constraints and

opportunities identified previously in mind, such a professional body should aim

to achieve the following objectives:

To act as an educational and advisement resource on biophilic design for

built environment professionals and students in the UK, through the use of

online resources, guidance documents, CPD events and the production of

original research and case studies

To promote the health, social, environmental and economic benefits of

biophilic design to developers, local authorities, retailers, medical

management agencies and communities through PR awareness

campaigns, workshops, consultation and research

To campaign for the integration and recognition of biophilic design by the

Department for Communities and Local Government in local and national

planning policy

To monitor and assess the quality of designed schemes in the built

environment that claim to be biophilic, to ensure the integrity and

reputation of biophilic design remains at a standard of quality (to be

defined)


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Appendix

Appendix A: Glossary

Biophilia is humanity's innate desire and tendency to seek out

connections with nature. Innate meaning hereditary and hence, part of

human evolution (Wilson, 1984).

The Biophilia Hypothesis is an evolutionary theory, stating that the

majority of humanity's evolution was spent in natural environments (Tveit

et al, 2013). This hypothesis was proposed by E.O Wilson and was

developed alongside Stephen Kellert in 'The Biophilia Hypothesis' (1993).

The hypothesis argues that humanity has spent 95-99% of its history in

natural environments.

Biophilic Design aims to restore natural stimuli in the built environment to

maintain, restore, and enhance our physiological, cognitive and

psychological connections to the natural world. It is a design ethic that

also goes by the term Restorative Environmental Design (RED) (Kellert,

2005).

Biophobia is a term use to describe humanity's innate (hereditary)

tendency to quickly learn and slowly unlearn fearful responses to elements

of nature that have pose a threat to an individual's survival through social

conditioning (learnt) (van der Berg and Konijnendijk, 2013).

BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental

Assessment Methodology) is a rating system established by BRE

(Building Research Establishment), to assess, rate and certify the

sustainability of buildings and designed landscapes (Landscape Institute,

2013).

Cognitive describes responses and their underlying mechanisms that are

influenced by an individual's belief system, thought process, creativity, and

'higher' mental processes (Joye and van der Berg, 2013).

Ephermal is the temporal conditions and constant in flux changes

associated with seasons and weather (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

Fascination is a necessary quality of restorative environments, indicating

the degree of success an environment can draw an individual's attention

without any cognitive effort on the individual's part. In turn, this reduces

demand on the central executive of the brain, allowing restoration to take

place. (Joye and van der Berg, 2013)

Green Infrastructure (GI), as defined by the Landscape Institute (LI)

(Landscape Institute, 2009), is "a network of natural and semi-natural

features, green spaces, rivers and lakes that intersperse and connect

villages, towns and cities".

Green Space/Open Space are loose terms used to refer to landscape

and public space. According to the LI (2013), the "term is not only applied


to open spaces such as formal parks, but also to other predominantly

green areas such as playgrounds and incidental open space".

Health "describes a state of complete physical, mental and social

wellbeing and not merely the absence of illness and infirmity" (WHO,

1948).

Healthy Community, as defined by the NPPF (DCLG, 2012), "is a good

place to grow up and grow old in. It is one which supports healthy

behaviours and supports reductions in health inequalities. It should

enhance the physical and mental health of the community".

Instorative is a term used to describe enhanced cognitive psycho-

physiological functioning, triggered by particular environments with

specific environmental spatial configurations (Hartig et al, 1996).

Landscape, as defined by the European Landscape Convention (ELC)

(Council of Europe, 2000), "is an area, as perceived by people, whose

character is the result of action and interaction of cultural and natural

factors". This definition is broad and inclusive of spaces from various

scales, forms and locations.

Landscape preference is the measurable degree to which a landscape is

liked (Tveit et al, 2013)

LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) is a rating

system, similar to BREEAM that recognises best practices in the design,

construction and operation of buildings. It is operated by the United

States Green Building Council (USGBC) (Kieran, 2008).

Mental Fatigue, also known as directed attentional fatigue, is a

neurological symptom that appears when fatigue occurs in an individual's

central executive brain system (Joye and van der Berg, 2013).

Patterns "describe a problem which occurs over and over again in our

environment, and then describes the core of the solution to that problem,

in such a way that you can use this solution a million times over, without

ever doing it the same way twice" (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1998)

Perceptual Fluency, is the degree of how easily a certain environmental

stimulus is perceptually processed by the brain (Joye and van der Berg,

2013).

Physiological refers to the normal, healthy operation of your body, its

organs and processes. It is related to blood pressure, heart rate and

hormone production (Kopec, 2006).

Place Attachment is used to describe the affective bond an individual or

group of people have developed with a place over time (Bonne et al,

2013).

Psychological describes events, experiences or stimuli affecting, or

arising in the mind. Related to the mental and emotional state of a

person, their mood and self-esteem (Hartig et al, 1996).


Public Health is defined as "the science and art of promoting and

protecting the physical and mental health and wellbeing of populations in

order to prevent illness, injury and disability" (Landscape Institute, 2013).

Restoration is the cognitive and physiological and psychological process

of recovery from stress and mental fatigue (Joye and van der Berg, 2013)

Restorative Environment is an environment where recovery from stress,

mental fatigue and other adverse cognitive psycho-physiological

conditions, is not only possible, but promoted (Joye and van der Berg,

2013)

Sensory/stimulus overload is the condition of an individual being

overwhelmed by continuous environmental stimuli (Bonnes et al, 2013).

Stress is defined as a response to imbalances in environmental demands

and capacity of response from an individual. Responses may affect

physiology, complex task performance and/or motivation (Bilotta and

Evans, 2013).

Appendix B: 14 Biophilic Design Patterns

All of the following patterns below (Table 1) are taken from the '14 Patterns of

Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment, by

Terrapin Bright Green (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

1. Visual Connection to Nature

Objective The objective of this pattern is to provide an environment that

allows the user to shift focus to mitigate optical stresses and

restore the faculty for higher cognitive function (Berman et al,

2012) (Beute and de Kort, 2013).

Category Nature in the Space

Cause Viewing scenes of nature stimulates a larger portion of the visual

cortex than non-nature scenes and results in triggering more of

the pleasure receptors in the brain (Biederman and Vessel,

2006).

Effect Reduces stress (Brown et al, 2013); improves positive emotional

mood and functioning (Berman et al, 2012); restores depleted

cognitive capacity (Berto, 2005); improves concentration (Faber

Taylor and Huo, 2009); and healing rates for patients following

surgery (Ulrich, 1984).

Methods of

Application

Visual connections to nature can be achieved through the use of

prospective views of nature in savannah/prairie-like environments

with dynamics of non-rhythmic movement and ephemeral visual

stimuli (Browning and Cramer, 2008). Where conditions are


unfavourable to actual nature, visual and representational nature

can be utilised to achieve the same desired response (Kellert,

2008).

2. Non-Visual Connection to Nature

Objective The objective of this pattern is to engage an individual's non-

visual senses, within a designed environment, through

interactions with natural stimuli (Browning, Clancy and Ryan,

2014), that reduces stress (Alvarsson, Wiens and Nilsson, 2010)

and improves perceived mood and well-being (Berman et al,

2012).


Cause A non-visual connection with nature occurs when an individual

can establish a tactile, auditory, olfactory, or taste-based

connection with natural stimuli (Browning, Clancy and Ryan,

2014).

Effect Reductions in systolic blood pressure and stress hormones (Ward

Thompson et al., 2012) following tactile, auditory, olfactory, or

taste-based interaction with non-threatening (biophobic)

natural/representational stimuli (van der Berg and Heijne, 2005).

Other evidence shows perceived improvements in mental well-

being and mood among individuals post-interaction (Barton and

Pretty, 2010).

Methods of

Application

Through the use of this pattern, it is possible to combine several

non-visual senses (sound, smell, tactile) at once. When used in

tandem with visual connections to natural stimuli, a larger portion

of the brain is engaged (Hunter et al., 2010) (Liu, Wu and

Berman, 2012).

3. Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli

Objective The objective of the non-rhythmic sensory stimuli pattern is

engage the auditory, gustatory, olfactory, somatic, and visual

senses with natural stimuli that recur unpredictably and are

ephemeral in nature (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).


Cause The user is experiencing the stimuli passively (Beauchamp et al,

2003), rather than consciously or purposely interacting with the

natural stimuli (Parraga, Troscianko and Tolhurst, 2000). This

involuntary interaction requires no expenditure of cognitive


capacity and allows for depleted mental resources to be restored

(Kaplan, 1995).

Effect Relaxation of eye lens focal patterns (Andrews and Coppola,

1999); drop in heart rate and systolic blood pressure; decreased

sympathetic nervous system activity (Ulrich, 1991); increased

neuron activity (repletion of cognitive capacity): and increased

attention and cognitive functioning (Mitterocker, 2013)).

Methods of

Application

Inclusion of a high diversity of species (Fuller et al, 2007); visual

cues indicating time of day (Beute and de Kort, 2013); natural

elements capable of self and random configuration; and

interaction between biotic and abiotic factors (Kellert 2008)

4. Presence of Water

Objective The objective is to create an environment which allows an

individual to divert focus from sensory stressors, allowing for the

restoration of cognitive capacity for directional attention (Kaplan

and Berman, 2010) and improve perceived mood and well-being.


Cause Visual and landscape preferences for water leads to positive

emotional responses to spaces containing water (Mador, 2008).

Visually, auditorily, and somatically accessible natural scenes

(Karmanov and Hamel, 2008), with an integrated element of

water, leads to the stimulation of a larger portion of the visual

cortex. (White, et al., 2010)

Effect Positive emotional response (Biederman and Vessel 2006);

reduction in stress, heart rate and systolic blood pressure;

increased feelings of tranquillity (Hartig et al, 2003) and

restoration of depleted cognitive capacity, leading to improved

concentration and memory (Alvarsson, Wiens and Nilsson, 2010).

Methods of

Application

Current evidence indicates preferences for views to landscapes

with water features that occupy approx. two thirds of the scene

(Forsyth and Musacchio, 2005). Greater biophilic responses are

also generated by complex fluctuations in water flow, achieved by

babbling brooks and waterfalls, etc (Herzog, 1985).

5. Diffuse and Dynamic Daylighting

Objective This patternaims to create a variety of spaces with varying levels

of light. In turn, this pattern will stimulate the eye, instilling a

sense of soft fascination in the user and triggering a restorative


physiological response.


Cause The human body clock, or circadian rhythms, has evolved to

regulate the body's processes and performance, providing

physiological cues for restoration. The circadian rhythm of the

human body is regulated by the amount, level, type and intensity

of light that an individual is expose to. This can be either natural

or artificial light. Over exposure to artificial light and an upset

circadian rhythm can lead to higher incidences of cancer,

diabetes, insomnia and depression (Loftness and Snyder, 2008).

Effect Much of the research conducted, in regards to this pattern, is

specifically focused on indoor environments, with a noticeable

bias. That is little evidence on the effects of implementing this

pattern in outdoor landscape environments. This is despite the

growing problems with light pollution in high density urban

settings. However, in general, dynamic and diffuse day lighting

can lead to changes in body temperature, heart rate, blood

pressure (Loftness and Snyder, 2008) and melatonin (hormone)

and serotonin (neurotransmitter) levels, two important substances

in the body, with imbalances leading increased risk of cancer,

insomnia and depression (Kopec, 2006).

However, research by Elzeyadi (2012), Haans (2014) and Beute

and de Kort (2013) shows that natural and dynamic day lighting

increases productivity, purchases in retail environments and

better cognition and attention in children.

Methods of

Application

Due to the dominance of artificial light in indoor settings and the

negative effects it has on health, productivity and cognition

(Loftness and Snyder, 2008), this pattern is more specific to the

interior environment and so is the realm of interior

designers/architects and building architects. Due to the nature of

the landscape and public realm, this pattern has little in terms of

applications to offer landscape architecture.

6. Access to Thermal and Airflow Variability

Objective The objective of this pattern is to allow users to experience

sensory interactions in the built environment of airflow and

thermal variability (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).



Cause Responses are due to sensory variability occurring from;

variations in light over the course of a day (Beute and de Kort,

2013); differing decibel levels of ambient sound (Mehta, Zhu and

Cheema, 2012) and; individual control over an individual's

thermal comfort (de Dear, 1998).

Effect Access to thermal variability has also been shown to improve

comfort and mood (Nicol and Humphreys, 2002). Other effects

include improved cognitive function and concentration, through

the movement of non-rhythmic stimuli caused by airflow variability

(Elzeyadi, 2012).

Methods of

Application

To successfully apply this pattern in landscape architectural

projects, it is vital that a degree of control over an individual's

thermal comfort is present. The inclusion of vegetation and water

can affect perceptions of thermal comfort without actually

affecting the thermal properties of a space (Gill et al, 2007).

Creation of micro-climates can be achieved through the use of

tree canopies for shade and lower ambient air temperature

through evapotranspiration from vegetation. Vegetative areas of

0.4 ha (such as parks) can improve thermal comfort for an area.

However, in built up, high density urbanized areas; this area

increases to 1 ha and must contain high levels of water and

vegetative elements, to cause a noticeable improvement in

thermal comfort (Muller, Kuttler and Barlag, 2014).

7. Connection with Natural Systems

Objective This pattern aims to make users aware of seasonality, the

importance of environmental stewardship and natural processes

(Ryan et al, 2014).


Cause Experiencing and understanding the processes of nature and can

create a perceptual shift in what a user is experiencing


Effect Experiencing natural processes can develop a person's

ecological literacy (Pilgrim, Smith and Pretty, 2007) and lead to

changes in behaviour of users (Taylor, Kuo and Sullivan, 2001).

This can have effects on people's consumption habits to fall in

line with more sustainable choices and practices, resulting in less

negative effects on the natural environment (Reid and Hunter,

2013). Connection with natural systems in early childhood has

also been shown to encourage participation in nature


conservation practices later in life (Zaradic, Pergams and

Kareiva, 2009)

Methods of

Application

This pattern is dependent upon a number of factors; including

climate, weather, ecosystem health and change in migratory

patterns (Havey, 2011) (Revkin, 2007). Temporality is a key

component, such as weathering processes, animal predation,

seasonal migration patterns, (Heerwagen and Gregory, 2008)

hydrological cycles (Mador, 2008) and seasonal patterns of

vegetation (Nelson, 2001).

8. Biomorphic Forms and Patterns

Objective The objective of this pattern is to that allow users to make visual

connections to nature through the use of designed elements of

representational nature in the built environment (Browning and

Cramer, 2008).

Category Natural Analogues

Cause Despite the human brain being able to decipher what is actual

and what is representational nature (Hagerhall, Purcell and

Taylor, 2004), evidence indicates that this pattern triggers similar

biophilic responses caused by actual nature due to the mimicking

of fractal patterns and use of semantic associations that appear in

nature (Salingaros, 2012).

Effect Visual connection to this pattern triggers a state of fascination,

allowing for a shift in attentional direction of the eye and brain,

allowing for restoration of cognitive facilities (Kaplan and Kaplan,

1998) and relaxation of eye muscle and saccade activity

(Andrews and Coppola, 1999). This leads to a reduction in

stress, blood pressure (Salingaros, 2012) and to improvements in

mood, concentration and creativity.

Methods of

Application

Biomorphic should be applied to the built environment, where

possible, in three dimensional formats (de Kort et al, 2006) and

possess a semantic association to nature (Kellert, 2008).

This pattern offers a unique opportunity for landscape architects

to incorporate natural elements into projects where climate,

space, costs and structural stability restrict the use of actual

vegetation and other natural elements (Joye, 2007).

9. Material Connection to Nature


Objective The objective of this pattern is to trigger cognitive and psycho-

physiological biophilic responses through the use of appropriate

quantities of natural materials that allow for sensory interaction



Cause This pattern can trigger a physiological response through visual

(Beauchamp et al, 2003) and tactile perception. This occurs

when natural materials are present in certain ratios in comparison

to the surrounding context of the space (Tsunetsugu and

Miyazaki, 2005). Other factors, such as the colour palette of the

natural material, determine the efficacy of the pattern and its

effects (Lichtenfeld et al, 2012).

Effect In relation to ratios of natural material coverage in a space,

research has shown that a ratio of 45% for wood leads to an

increase in perceived comfort and decreases in blood pressure.

On the other hand, the same study found that a high ratio of 90%

coverage by wood material led to decreased brain activity and

could be termed as toxic or significantly restorative, depending on

the intended users of the space (Tsunetsugu et al, 2007). There

is currently a lack of evidence to support whether or not these

figures are specific or differ with the use of other natural

materials.

The colour palette of natural materials can also enhance the

restorative benefits of this pattern. For instance, visual exposure

to the colour green improves creative task performance, the same

level of exposure to the colour red decreases analytical cognitive

performance (Lichtenfeld et al, 2012).

Methods of

Application

This pattern is applied in the built environment through the

inclusion of natural materials that have been minimally processed

and reflect the local eco-geology to create a distinct sense of

place (Ruiz, 2012).

10. Complexity & Order

Objective This pattern aims to incorporate symmetries and fractals found in

nature that adhere to a specific spatial hierarchy, which is

coherent yet sufficiently complex (Kaplan, 1992).


Cause Natural scenes are composed of fractal shapes organised in


coherent spatial hierarchies (Hagerhall, Purcell and Taylor, 2004).

Incorporating similar symmetries arranged with a degree of order

and complexity can illicit responses similar to those viewing

actual scenes of nature (Joye, 2007).

Effect Reductions in blood pressure, heart rate and stress (Salingaros,

2012)

Methods of

Application

As part of an integrative approach, selected materials,

architectural forms and landscape master planning should be

capable of establishing and maintaining complexity and order of

fractal geometries (Kellert, 2008).

11. Prospect

Objective Prospect is a spatial condition characterized by the presence of

an unimpeded view over a distance for surveillance and planning.

The aim of this pattern is to create this spatial condition that

allows for visually surveying the surrounding environment

(Appleton, 1975).

Category Nature of the Space

Cause The manner in which it engenders a response varies amongst

genders and cultures due to the patterns' cultural and

evolutionary origins (Kopec, 2006).

Effect Effects include reduced stress, reduced boredom, improved

mood, recovery from fatigue and decreased anxiety (Petherick,

2000).

Methods of

Application

Patterns of prospect are most effective when the surrounding

landscape context is representative of the spatial characteristics

of a savannah like environment. Viewable distances that are

greater than 30meters are preferred over distances less than 20m

(Heerwagen and Orians, 1993).

While not every site will be able to accommodate such distances

within its own boundary, efforts should be made to link

prospective views to surrounding spaces.

12. Refuge

Objective This pattern seeks to create spaces within the built environment

that provides protection and enables restoration to take place.

The pattern seeks to limit visual access into the space while

maximizing prospective views from within the space towards the


surrounding context (Hildebrand, 1991).


Cause This pattern has evolved in response to visual and spatial

landscape preferences (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993). The

manner in which it engenders a response varies amongst

genders and cultures due to the patterns' cultural and

evolutionary origins (Kopec, 2006).

Effect Effects include reduced stress, improved mood, recovery from

fatigue and decreased anxiety.

Methods of

Application

Protection overhead is the principal spatial condition, followed by

protection to one’s back, typically on three sides, and strategic

placement or orientation of the space (Hildebrand, 2008).

13. Mystery

Objective To create an environment that encourages exploration. The

success of the pattern is dependent upon the surrounding

context, depth of visual access and views and properties of the

partially obscured focal point creating the mystery condition

(Kaplan, 1992).


Cause To understand and to explore space are perhaps two of

humanity's most basic needs (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). This

enticement to explore needs to be triggered passively, from a

person's current position of observation (Herzog and Bryce,

2007).

Effect Similar to an anticipation response, like when listening to music

(Blood and Zatorre, 20001), Mystery engenders a strong pleasure

response within the brain; it is thought the two operate under a

similar or shared mechanism (Salimpoor et al, 2011).

Methods of

Application

Views that utilise a mystery pattern should be configured spatially

as to not trigger a fear response.

Successful implementations of the mystery pattern need greater

visual access, with a medium (≥6.5m) to high (≥30m) depth of

field/visual access (Herzog and Bryce, 2004).

14. Peril


Objective The objective of the Peril pattern is to trigger interest and curiosity

that in turn engage memory and enhance problem solving skills

(van der Berg and Heijne, 2005).


Cause As a spatial condition, this pattern is characterized by the visual

presence of an inert, identifiable threat with an integrated element

of safety (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014).

Effect While this pattern causes some level of stress in individuals (van

der Berg, Joye and de Vries, 2013), it also triggers strong

dopamine responses (Zald et al. 2008). The degree of response

is dependent upon the user’s age and gender (Wang and Tsien,

2011) (Kopec, 2006).

Methods of

Application

Patterns of peril range in degrees of complexity. Examples

include; views to predatory animals, prospective views/walkways

over sheer cliffs, infinity pools and the option of walking through

water features (Hildebrand, 1991).

Table 1: 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design by Terrapin Bright Green (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014)

Appendix C: Applicable References to Biophilic Design in the NPPF (DCLG, 2012)

Achieving Sustainable Development, Paragraph 7

Address the three dimensions of sustainable development and how the planning

system performs its required role to meet these dimensions

Core Planning Principles, Paragraph 17

Lays out twelve core land-use planning principles for delivering plan making and

decision taking, to aid sustainable development. However, only ten out of the

twelve principles are relevant to the biophilic aspect of site design.

Chapter 4. Promoting Sustainable Transport, Paragraph 31

This is relevant as it addresses the possibility of access inequalities to nature

and greenspace, ensuring that new developments are accessible, physically,

socially and geographically by all members of society. This is vital as access to

greenspace has been shown to reduce health inequalities among populations in

socioeconomically deprived areas (Maas et al, 2009).

Chapter 6. Delivering a Wide Choice of High Quality Homes,

Paragraph 52

This paragraph of the NPPF discusses the possibility of new urban extensions

and settlements following the principles of Garden Cities, in relation to the

prospectus on Garden Cities recently released by the Department of

Communities and Local Government, which places significant emphasis on

access to nature (DCLG, 2014b).


Chapter 7. Requiring Good Design, Paragraphs 56, 57, 58, 60, 61 and

68

Discusses the importance of good design in the built environment and its role in

place making. This is relevant to biophilic design, as place making or 'sense of

place', is a key attribute to successfully designing biophilic environments

(Sowman, 2013). This entire chapter is perhaps the most relevant for addressing

the biophilic design aspect of any development.

Paragraph 57 again addresses the importance of inclusive design that is

accessible to all by planning for future development and other development

schemes in the wider area.

Paragraph 58 addresses local and neighbourhood development plans to:

establish a strong sense of place; incorporate green spaces with development;

respond to and enhance local character; reflect local identity; create safe

environments that reduce crime and fear; and are visually attractive. These are

all biophilic qualities that have been identified by Kellert (2005), van der Berg and

Heijne (2005), Petherick (2000) and Kuo and Sullivan (2001).

Paragraphs 60 and 61 set out the need for planning and development to

reinforce, respond and enhance local built, natural and historic character, while

not imposing contrasting styles within the local environment. High quality and

inclusive design is given priority over aesthetics. Biophilic design patterns

achieve this by creating a locally appropriate response (Ryan et al, 2014).

Paragraph 68 deals with achieving a degree of special protection for

amenity spaces, through an Area of Special Control Order. This element of the

NPPF is only applicable when trying to conserve an environment from

development due to its already existing biophilic properties, or to preserve an

external view from their site, that delivers a biophilic design pattern of prospect or

a visual connection to nature.

Chapter 8. Promoting Healthy Communities, Paragraphs 69, 70 and

73-78

This chapter, along with chapter 7, is essential to address for all local authorities,

designers and planners, but it is also of particular interest for implementing

biophilic design as well. This is because of the focus placed on green spaces,

access to nature, sense of place and tranquillity within the chapter and their role

in creating restorative environments (Alvarrsson, Wiens and Nilsson, 2010) (Joye

and van der Berg, 2013).

Paragraphs 69 and 70 deal with the provision of safe and accessible

environments, which encourage active participation and exploration of high

quality public space. These paragraphs also detail the importance of protecting

and enhancing existing services and public space.

Paragraphs 73 through 78 deals with access to nature and clearly states

the importance of green space to the health and well-being of communities.

These paragraphs also outline the need to avoid building on existing greenspace

(or the provision of replacement green space) and to protect and enhance

existing local rights of way and National Trails. These are vital elements to


incorporate into biophilic design measures, as they provide access to nature

through a range of natural environments across a significant geographic region

(Beatley, 2008). Again, protection of existing green spaces that are significant to

a local community is also discussed, placing emphasis on heritage, recreational

value, tranquillity and biodiversity.

Chapter 11. Conserving and Enhancing the Natural Environment,

Paragraphs 109, 115, 123 and 125

While this chapter primarily deals with ecological aspects of the natural

environment, there is mention and relevancy to landscape visual preferences,

access to nature and delivery of good design.

Paragraph 109 deals with the quality of ecological conditions, but does

mention the need to recognise the wider benefits of ecosystem services. This is

important as 'restoration', that occurs due to a biophilic response, can be classed

as an ecosystem service humans avail of from nature (Ryan et al, 2014).

Paragraph 115 deals solely with preserving the visual beauty of

landscapes within National Parks, the Broads and Areas of Outstanding Natural

Beauty (AONBs). While these designations already have the highest status of

landscape protection, biophilic design, with its emphasis on incorporating users'

landscape visual preferences into designs (Balling and Falk, 1982) (Tveit, Sang

and Hagerhall, 2013), can give added weight or even enhance such designations

with new developments.

Paragraph 123 addresses the mitigation of negative effects arising from

new developments. Noise mitigation is focused on here, with biophilic design

patterns such as "Non-Visual Connection to Nature" employ features such as

waterfalls, white noise generators and vegetative barriers to drown out

unsavoury sounds (Browning, Clancy and Ryan 2014) and aid restoration

(Mehta, Zhu and Cheema, 2012) (Ratcliffe, Gatersleben and Sowden, 2013).

Tranquillity is also identified here again in the NPPF, where areas which have

tranquil properties should be protected from development due to their amenity

value (Jones, 2012).

Paragraph 125 again deals with mitigation, but this time as regards light

pollution and its effects on wildlife and dark landscapes, valued for their star

gazing properties. This is important to biophilic designers as light pollution

affects circadian rhythms of humans, having severe health repercussions (such

as increased blood pressure, loss of sleep, fall in dopamine production,

depression and increased risk of cancer) (Chepesiuk, 2009). Biophilic design

rectifies this through varying levels of light throughout the day, in line with

circadian rhythms (Beute and de Kort, 2013).

Plan Making: Paragraph 156, 158, 162 and 171

This chapter makes specific references to the use of evidence bases, existing

infrastructure and services and health and well-being. Paragraph 156 addresses

strategic points that local planning authorities should consider in their local plan,

specifically the provision of health services, resiliency to climate change and

enhancement of the natural environment.


Paragraph 158 and 162 detail the need for local planning authorities to

uses relevant, accurate and integrated evidence bases when developing the

local plan, to establish a baseline for current needs and inequalities.

Paragraph 171 dictates that local authorities should work with local health

organisations and relevant Health and Well-being Boards to address health

needs and inequalities within the local population (Department of Health, 2012).

This paragraph also addresses the role and need of green space and the need to

identifying barriers or inequalities to achieving a state of well being among the

local population, as previously addressed by the Marmot Review (Marmot et al,

2010).

Appendix D: Key Publications

Design with Nature (McHarg, 1969)

In this publication, Ian McHarg sets out the 'ecological method' for landscape

planning. But also, he puts forward the idea of replicating conditions and spatial

configurations found in nature for visual landscape preferences.

The Experience of Landscape (Appleton, 1975)

Jay Appleton’s seminal work, in which he proposes prospect-refuge theory, a key

component of biophilic design. This book provides the foundation for many of

the biophilic design patterns set out by Terrapin Bright Green.

A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (Alexander et al, 1977)

Today, this book still remains one of the bestselling books on design and the built

environment. This book created a new language based on ‘patterns’, timeless

entities, which have been used by builders and crafts people primarily in the

1800’s. The purpose of these patterns is to create a new language that is

accessible to the general public, as well as architects, in an effort to empower

people to take control of the design of the communities. 253 patterns are

identified in the book, of which, many have been proven to have little or no

impact on people in triggering a restorative response, while other patterns with

similar traits have been merged together.

"Each solution is stated in such a way that it gives the essential field of

relationships needed to solve the problem, but in a very general and abstract

way—so that you can solve the problem for yourself, in your own way, by

adapting it to your preferences, and the local conditions at the place where you

are making it." —Christopher Alexander et al., A Pattern Language (1977)

Biophilia (Wilson, 1984)

Perhaps the most important piece of literature in relation to this dissertation. It

laid the foundations for biophilic design and biophilic urbanism by popularizing

and expanding upon the original concept of biophilia put forward by Erich Fromm

in 1964.


The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective (Kaplan and Kaplan,

1989)

This was the first publication to use research based analysis of the psychological

impact nature has on people. This book was based on twenty years of the

author’s research and sought to investigate intuitive claims of the restorative

properties of natural environments.

Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses (Hildebrand,

1991)

This publication popularized prospect refuge theory among the architecture

profession. The author, Hildebrand, also elaborated on the theory by introducing

several new concepts of complexity, mystery and order, helping form the basis of

these patterns and their utilization by Terrapin Bright Green and further

application in biophilic design.

The Biophilia Hypothesis (Kellert et al, 1993)

A collection of essays authored by biologists, psychologists, philosophers and

anthologists and edited by Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson. This

publication demonstrated the inter-disciplinary nature of biophilia and the

importance of collaboration due to the multi-faceted complexity of the field.

With People in Mind: Design and Management of Everyday Nature (Kaplan and

Kaplan, 1998)

This book again expanded upon the work on patterns laid out by Alexander and

other concepts, such as prospect and refuge. This was the first publication

geared towards the application of patterns to landscape and thus a pivotal

publication recognizing the importance of landscape architecture in creating

restorative environments.

“Decades of research on the design of natural space are organized into a

framework that designers, public officials and citizens can use to design or

evaluate local open space.” – Rachel Kaplan

Building for Life: Designing and Understanding the Human-Nature Connection

(Kellert, 2005)

While specifically focused on interior and building architecture, the book lays out

the foundation for biophilic design (or restorative environmental design) for all the

built environment professions, including landscape architecture. It was the first

major publication to solely address applications of biophilia to the built

environment.


Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life

(Kellert et al, 2008)

Again, this publication was solely focused on interior and building architecture,

with landscape architecture being noticeably absent. However, the publication

did introduce the idea of dimensions, elements and attributes of biophilic design.

Six biophilic elements were listed, with these being further broken down into 70

design attributes. A stepping stone along the developmental path of biophilic

design to the use of 'patterns'. This publication also dealt with the ethics and

challenges facing the transformation of the design process for successfully

implementing biophilic design. The first major publication that was made

applicable to a wide range of built environment professionals and policy makers.

Healing Spaces: The Science of Place and Well-Being (Sternberg, 2010)

The book examined the effects of place on well-being. The concept of place-

making and place attachment are discussed and brought into the discussion of

restorative environments, more so than other publications. It does so by

addressing the scientific cause and effect of restorative cognitive psycho-

physiological responses, giving designers, planners and policy makers a strong

base of empirical evidence for design decisions.

Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban Design and Planning (Beatley,

2011)

This is perhaps the first publication that acknowledged the role landscape

architecture has to play in creating restorative environments. This publication

also addressed the professions of urban design and planning, which to a large

degree have been neglected in the conversation on creating biophilically

designed environments. This publication was a precursor to the 'Biophilic Cities

Project'.

Birthright (Kellert, 2012)

This differed from previous publications as it was not aimed at the built

environment professions. Instead, the publication took a more general overview

and was aimed at raising awareness about the human-nature connection among

the larger population, increasing momentum and support for restorative

environments.

The Economics of Biophilia (Terrapin Bright Green, 2012)

This publication acted as a literature review of all the available evidence, at the

time, of the quantifiable economic benefits of incorporating biophilic design into

the built environment. The publication was aimed at swaying developers,

employers, retailers and policy makers into utilizing biophilic strategies to

increase productivity reduce absenteeism and increase consumer spending.


Green Cities of Europe (Beatley, 2013)

Authored by Timothy Beatley (Biophilic Cities), this book outlines a series of

projects and initiatives underway across European cities aimed at increasing

equitable access to nature for all demographic groups.

What has Nature Ever Done for Us? How Money Really Does Grow on Trees

(Juniper, 2013)

Due to the high profile of the author, Tony Juniper, (as a former director of

Friends of the Earth and the fact that the book went on to become a Sunday

Times bestseller) this publication raised awareness among the general UK

population about the benefits of interaction with natural stimuli, its benefits on

health and well-being and the possible economic gains and savings for the NHS

by increasing funding for parks and improving access to nature. The simplified

explanation of the human nature connection in this book effectively

communicated the need for access to nature to a wider audience.

Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning: Integrating Human and Natural

Systems (Austin, 2014)

This publication deals, for the first time, in sufficient scope and detail, the

connections between biophilic design and green infrastructure from the viewpoint

of a landscape architect. Much literature that has addressed the connection

between GI and health previously, only focused on physical activities and not the

cognitive psycho-physiological and social benefits

Landscape and Urban Design for Health and Well-Being: Using Healing, Sensory

and Therapeutic Gardens (Souter-Brown, 2014)

This is the first publication to tackle the role of biophilic design in landscape

architecture. While no direct, consistent references are made to biophilic design,

the publication does examine how the human-nature connection can be utilised

in the built environment through the professions of landscape architecture and

urban design. It is the first publication to deal with specific detail design issue

relating to biophilic design at the site scale, from a landscape architecture

perspective.

14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built

Environment (Browning, Clancy and Ryan, 2014)

This publication examined the use of patterns for applying biophilic design to the

built environment. In doing so, the publication generated 14 patterns of biophilic

design that can be applied to varying situations, to provide unique solutions that

respond to the local context. The publication was produced with a wide breadth

of scope, to maximize exposure of the subject to all the built environment


professionals. The publication laid the groundwork for this dissertation to be

produced.

Appendix E: Timeline Development of Biophilic Design and Contextual Factors

1828

The term 'landscape architecture' is coined by Gilbert Laing Meason.

1863

Frederick Law Olmstead is the first person to use 'landscape architecture'

as a professional title.

1898

Garden City Movement initiated by Sir Ebenezer Howard

1900

20% of the world's population lives in urban areas

1929

The Landscape Institute is founded as the Institute of Landscape

Architects.

1940

The Design Council is founded as 'The Council of Industrial Design'.

1946

New Towns Act 1946 is introduced, strongly influenced by the garden

cities movement of the early 1900s.

1950

Urban growth peaks with a population expansion of 3% per year.

79% of the UK population live in urban areas.

13% of the population of China lives in urban areas.

1960

78.4% of the UK population live in urban areas.

Environmental psychology emerges as a discipline over the next decade

building on the previous twenty years of 'architectural psychology'.

1964

Erich Fromm coins the term 'Biophilia' and further defined it in 1973 as

"the passionate love of life and of all that is alive."

1969

Ian McHarg publishes Design with Nature.

1970


Distances children can travel unaccompanied by parents, i.e. explore

natural environments, is 90% greater than a generation later.

1975

Jay Appleton publishes 'The Experience of Landscape'.

1977


Christopher Alexander publishes 'A Pattern Language'.

1980


1984

Roger S. Ulrich publishes the landmark study, 'View through a window

may influence recovery from surgery'.

Edward O. Wilson publishes 'Biophilia', popularizing and expanding upon

the concept originally put forward by Erich Fromm, defining biophilia as

"the urge to affiliate with other forms of life".

1989

62% of children walk to school.

1990

Less than 40% of the global population lives in urban areas


1991

Grant Hildebrand publishes 'The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in

Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses'.

1993

'The Biophilia Hypothesis' is published, a collection of essays authored by

biologists, psychologists, philosophers and anthologists and edited by

Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson.

1995

The urban population of developing countries grows by 165,000 people a

day for the next ten years.

1999

The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) is

founded.

2000

The European Landscape Convention (Florence Convention) is signed.


2004

The European Landscape Convention becomes effective.

2005

40% of the population of China lives in urban areas.

Stephen Kellert publishes 'Building for Life: Designing and Understanding

the Human-Nature Connection' and coins the term 'restorative

environmental design' and presents a consistent definition for 'biophilic

design'.

2006

52% of UK children walk to school.

2008


Economic crash and global recession leads to vast implications for the

natural and built environment and a significant fall in the level of house

building and development in the UK.

The Commission for Architecture and Built Environment (CABE) estimates

that the Highways budget (2008 -2014) for building new roads consisted

of £10.2 billion. Spent elsewhere, this money could provide 1,000 new

parks across the UK or two new parks per local authority.

'Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings

to Life' is published.

Researchers at the University of Bradford (Pheasant et al, 2008) publish

two studies proposing and validating a tool for measuring the tranquillity of

spaces in the built and natural environment.

2009

Global urban population reaches 3.4 billion.

'Green Infrastructure: Connected and Multifunctional Landscapes', a

position statement by the Landscape Institute (LI) is published.

Planning Policy Statement 1 (PPS1) Ecotowns is published by the then

British government.

'Healing Spaces: The Science of Place and Well-Being' by Esther M.

Sternberg is published.

2010

More than half the global population live in urban areas, with more than

half of urbanites living in cities with populations between 100,000 and

500,000.

10% of urban dwellers live in megacities, with populations over 10 million.


Publication of 'The Marmot Review: Fair Society, Healthy Lives' by the

Strategic Review of Health Inequalities in England post-2010.

Natural England publishes 'Nature Nearby: Accessible Natural

Greenspace', clarifying the accessible natural greenspace standard

(ANGST) originally developed in the 1990's.

2011

The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)

publishes 'The Natural Choice: Securing the Value of Nature'.

'Well-Being 2011' international conference is hosted by Birmingham City

University and the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA).

'Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban Design and Planning' is

published by Timothy Beatley.

'Local Green Infrastructure: Helping Communities make the most of their

Landscape' is published by the Landscape Institute.

CABE is merged into The Design Council.

2012


In the UK, 10% of children aged between 5 and 16 have a clinically

diagnosed mental health disorder; 1 in 12 adolescents are self-harming

and; 35,000 children are prescribed anti-depressants.

The Health and Social Care Act 2012 is introduced by the British

government.

The Environmental Research and Consultancy Department (ERCD) of the

Department for Transport publish ERCD Report 1207 - Tranquillity: An

overview.

'Birthright' by Stephen R. Kellert is published.

'Green Cities of Europe' is published by Timothy Beatley.

'The Economics of Biophilia: Why Designing with Nature in Mind makes

Financial Sense' is published by Terrapin Bright Green LLC.

National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) is published by the current

British government.

2013

Individuals in developed western countries spend up to 90% of their time

indoors.

Level of psychological disorders in the population of western Europe hits

10%.

80% of the buildings standing today in the USA, UK and western Europe

will be standing in 2050.

Directors of Public Health are appointed to upper tier and unitary local

authorities.

Birmingham City Council approves the 'Green Spaces Living Plan' as

informal, non-statutory guidance. Birmingham became the first city in the

UK to conduct a comprehensive ecosystem services assessment, utilizing

the methodology put forward by the National Ecosystem Assessment.

'What has Nature Ever Done for Us? How Money Really Does Grow on

Trees' by Tony Juniper is published and becomes a Sunday Times

bestseller.

'Landscape, Well-Being and Environment', a collections of studies and

research presented at 'Well-Being 2011', is published.

The Biophilic Cities Project is officially launched by Timothy Beatley and

the University of Virginia.

'Green Infrastructure: An Integrated Approach to Land Use', a position

statement published by the Landscape Institute.

The Landscape Institute (LI) releases a position statement, entitled 'Public

Health and Landscape: Creating Healthy Places'.

2014

'Green Infrastructure for Landscape Planning: Integrating Human and

Natural Systems' is published by Gary Austin.


160,000 affordable homes delivered over the previous three years in the

UK and housing starts are nearly 90% higher than during the economic

crash of 2008-2010.

'Locally-Led Garden Cities' prospectus is published by the Department for

Communities and Local Government (DCLG).

Winner of Wolfson Prize for new Garden Cities proposes to build 3.5

million homes, creating 40 new Garden Cities.

The Farrell Review, commissioned by the Department for Culture, Media

and Sport is published.

The Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG)

launches an online web resource entitled 'National Planning Policy

Guidance' (NPPG).

Birmingham City becomes the first UK city to join the Biophilic Cities

Project

Trees, People and the Built Environment II, hosted at the University of

Birmingham by the Institute of Chartered Foresters.

'Biophilic Design Patterns: Emerging Nature-Based Parameters for Health

and Well-Being in the Built Environment' is published by Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (MIT) in the International Journal for Architectural

Research (IJAR).

'14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the

Built Environment' is published by Terrapin Bright Green LLC.

The number of people residing in urban areas increases by 60 million

each year.

Future Scenarios and Predictions (WHO, 2010) (Doyle, 2013) (Bird,

2013) (Brown, 2013)

2020

Depression becomes the number two global disease burden.

Level of psychological disorders in the population of western Europe rises

to 15%


2025

Urban population of high-income countries hits 1 billion. Two thirds of

population growth in these countries is due to legal and illegal

immigration.

2030

60% of the global population lives in urban areas

92.2% of the UK population live in urban areas

Depression becomes the number one global disease burden.

2050

80% of the buildings standing in China and India did not exist in 2013.

70% of the global population lives in urban areas.

The global urban population hits 6.4 billion.