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Dialects and Registers - Chapter 2

DIALECTS AND REGISTERS - CHAPTER 2.......................................................................................................... 2

LANGUAGE AND DIALECTS........................................................................................................................................2REGIONAL DIALECTS................................................................................................................................................3SOCIAL DIALECTS....................................................................................................................................................3SOCIAL DIALECTOLOGY - STYLES AND REGISTERS..........................................................................................................4

CHAPTER 3 – PIDGINS, CREOLES..................................................................................................................... 4

LINGUA FRANCA.....................................................................................................................................................4PIDGINS AND CREOLES: DEFINITIONS...........................................................................................................................4GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND LINGUISTIC CHARACTERISTICS.....................................................................................4THEORIES OF ORIGIN...............................................................................................................................................5FROM PIDGIN TO CREOLE AND BEYOND.......................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER 4 – CHOOSING A CODE.................................................................................................................... 7

DIGLOSSIA.............................................................................................................................................................7BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM.......................................................................................................................8CODE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING, AND CODE-MIXING.....................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 5 –SPEECH COMMUNITIES..............................................................................................................9

DEFINITIONS..........................................................................................................................................................9INTERSECTING COMMUNITIES..................................................................................................................................10NETWORKS AND REPERTOIRES.................................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER 6 – REGIONAL AND SOCIAL VARIATION.........................................................................................10

LINGUISTIC VARIABLE.............................................................................................................................................12READING LINGUISTIC VARIATION TO SOCIAL VARIATION.................................................................................................12THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA..................................................................................................................13

CHAPTER 7 – VARIATION STUDIES: SOME FINDINGS AND ISSUES..................................................................14

AN EARLY STUDY: FISCHER......................................................................................................................................14NEW YORK CITY: LABOV........................................................................................................................................14NORWICH AND READING: TRUDGILL AND CHESHIRE....................................................................................................15A VARIETY OF STUDIES...........................................................................................................................................15BELFAST..............................................................................................................................................................16THE LINGUISTIC VARIABLE: SOME CONTROVERSIES.......................................................................................................16

CHAPTER 9 – LANGUAGE AND CULTURE....................................................................................................... 17

THE WHORFIAN HYPOTHESIS..................................................................................................................................17KINSHIP SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................................................18TAXONOMIES.......................................................................................................................................................18COLOUR TERMINOLOGY.........................................................................................................................................18PROTOTYPE THEORY..............................................................................................................................................19TABOO AND EUPHEMISM.......................................................................................................................................19

CHAPTER 10 – ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOMETHODOLOGY.........................................................................19

VARIETIES OF TALK................................................................................................................................................19THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION..................................................................................................................20ETHNOMETHODOLOGY...........................................................................................................................................20

CHAPTER 11 – SOLIDARITY AND POLITENESS................................................................................................21

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TU AND VOUS......................................................................................................................................................21ADDRESS TERMS..................................................................................................................................................22POLITENESS.........................................................................................................................................................23

CHAPTER 12 – ACTING AND CONVERSING....................................................................................................23

SPEECH ACTS: AUSTIN AND SEARLE..........................................................................................................................23

Dialects and Registers - Chapter 2VVARIETYARIETY - set of linguistic items with similar distribution/anybody of human speech patterns which is sufficiently homogenous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which has sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or processes with broad enough semantic scope to fiction in all formal contexts of communication

SSTUPIDTUPID DEFINITIONDEFINITION OFOF VARIETYVARIETY - what and how much linguistic difference matters

LANGUAGE AND DIALECTS

LLANGUAGEANGUAGE – can be used to refer ether to single linguistic norm or to a group of related norms X dialect – refer to one of the norms

DDISTINCTIONISTINCTION UNUN DIALECTDIALECT X X UNUN PATOISPATOIS (has/has not literary tradition)

HHINDIINDI-U-URDURDU SITUATIONSITUATION – almost identical at level of grammar but recognised as two separate languages

YYUGOSLAVIAUGOSLAVIA – Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian (but shouldn’t it be Serbian and Croatian??)

AALSACELSACE – German at home, but official leader is French

SSITUATIONITUATION ALONGALONG BORDERBORDER BETWEENBETWEEN N NETHERLANDSETHERLANDS ANDAND G GERMANYERMANY – one language?

DDANISHANISH, N, NORWEGIANORWEGIAN ANDAND S SWEDISHWEDISH – very similar, understand each other

LLANGUAGEANGUAGE – citary system of linguistic communication which subsumes number of mutually intelligible varieties

LLANGUAGEANGUAGE FAMILIESFAMILIES – another problem-maker

Discussing different kinds of languages (maybe they shouldn’t be under one label) – standardization, vitality, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture, de facto norms) – dialect is then some sub-variety of one or more of these entities

SSTANDARDIZATIONTANDARDIZATION – language codified in some way

Norm must be selected and accepted (function!)

DDEFINITIONEFINITION OFOF S STANDARDTANDARD E ENGLISHNGLISH – p.31

Standard variety of E based on dialect of E that developer after Norman Conquest

Richelieu’s establishment of the Académie Francaise in 1635

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NNORWEGIANORWEGIAN has two standards – NNYNORSKYNORSK , BBOKMALOKMAL

SSTANDARDIZATIONTANDARDIZATION – attempt to eliminate diversity and variety

We should accept that language changes and don’t try to stick to old standards

VVITALITYITALITY – existence of living community of speakers

But also dead languages can influence people apod. a lot

HHISTORICITYISTORICITY – group of people finds sense of identity through using particular language

AAUTONOMYUTONOMY – subjective, language must be felt by its speakers to be different from other languages

RREDUCTIONEDUCTION – particular variety may be regarded as sub-variety rather than independent entity

MMIXTUREIXTURE – feelings speakers have about “purity” of variety they speak

DDEE FACTOFACTO NORMSNORMS – only the good speakers represent norms of proper usage

MMODERNODERN E E – new standard based on dialect of areas surrounding London

DDIALECTIALECT is subordinate variety of language

VVERNACULARERNACULAR – the speech of particular country or region/form of speech transmitted from parent to child as primary medium of communication

KKOINÉOINÉ – form of speech shared by people of different vernaculars (not necessarily standard!)

REGIONAL DIALECTS

AAGAINGAIN DIALECTDIALECT--PATOISPATOIS DISTINCTIONDISTINCTION (has/hasn’t literary tradition; patois used mainly in France)

PPATOISATOIS – rural forms of speech, refers only to speech of lower strata of society; dialect – wider geographical distribution

DDIALECTIALECT CONTINUUMCONTINUUM – continuum of dialects sequentially arranged over space

DDIALECTIALECT GEOGRAPHYGEOGRAPHY – describes attempts made to map distributions of various linguistic features so as to show their geographical pronouncement

IISOGLOSSESSOGLOSSES – boundaries around such features

SSEVERALEVERAL ISOGLOSSESISOGLOSSES COINCIDECOINCIDE – dialect boundary

DDIALECTIALECT X X ACCENTACCENT (Standard E spoken in variety of Access, often with clear regional and social …)

RPRP – E accent, „non-localized accent“, = the Queen’s E, Oxford E, BBC E

Most generalized accent in NA is „network E“

SOCIAL DIALECTS

Describe differences in speech associated with various social groups or classes (problem of defying social group or social class)

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HHYPERCORRECTIONYPERCORRECTION – Jews, Italians in USA

SOCIAL DIALECTOLOGY - STYLES AND REGISTERS

SSTYLETYLE – level of formality

RREGISTEREGISTER – set of vocabulary items associate with discrete occupational or social group

DDIALECTIALECT , STYLESTYLE and REGISTERREGISTER are largely independent

SSUBTLEUBTLE BIASBIAS ININ JUDGINGJUDGING DIALECTSDIALECTS – preference for rural, over urban ones

Sometimes notions of „better“ and „worse“ solidify into those of „correctness“ and „incorrectness“

CCLASSIFYINGLASSIFYING – we rely on relatively few cues, presence or absence of certain linguistic features

Our receptive linguistic ability is much greater than our productive ling. ability

Chapter 3 – pidgins, creolesTill 1930 ignored, not studied (they „lack“ articles, copula, grammatical inflections…) – marginal

Not just a „bad“ variety of language

LINGUA FRANCA

Common system of communication for people who speak different languages – „language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them“

Spoken in variety of ways – mother/second language, pidginized versions of E…

English, Swahili, Greek Koiné, Vulgar Latin, Chinook (coastal NA 19th cent.), Plains Sign Language

PIDGINS AND CREOLES: DEFINITIONS

PPIDGINIDGIN – no native speaker, used in group where everybody speaks some other language, developed for concrete purpose – trade…, three languages required for its formation, one of them dominant, but they must communicate everyone with everyone

CCREOLEREOLE – „pidgin that has become first language of new generation of speakers“

PPIDGINIZATIONIDGINIZATION – reduction in morphology and syntax, tolerance of considerable phonological variation, reduction in number of functions, extensive borrowing of words from local mother-tongues

CCREOLIZATIONREOLIZATION – expansion of morphology and syntax, regularization of phonology, deliberate increase in number of functions, development of rational and stable system for increasing vocabulary

DDEECCAMPAMP – descriptions of „clear-cut“ examples – pidgin Juba Arabic, Creole Haiti

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND LINGUISTIC CHARACTERISTICS

EEQUATORIALQUATORIAL BELTBELT

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+-127 pidgins and creoles, 35 E-based, 15 French-based, 14 Portuguese-based, 7 Spanish, 5 Dutch, 3 Italian, 6 German

Interesting Caribbean

Southern US (Black E)

Suriname

Language distribution reflects its social and political history

SSOUNDSOUNDS OFOF PIDGINPIDGIN OROR CREOLECREOLE are likely to be fewer and less complicated in their possible arrangements than those of corresponding standard language

MMORPHOPHONEMICORPHOPHONEMIC VARIATIONVARIATION (e.g. different sounds of plural ending in cats, dogs and boxes) – not in pidgins, but development of such variation may be one characteristic of Creolization

Almost a complete lack of inflection in nouns, pronouns, verbs and adjectives – P65

Sentences are likely to be uncomplicated in clausal structure; development of embedded clauses is one characteristic of process of Creolization

UUSESE OFOF PARTICLESPARTICLES is quite frequent; creoles associated with quite different standard languages apparently use identical syntactic device (short particle for expressing e.g. “continuous aspect“

sometimes it’s necessary to use REDUPLICATIVEREDUPLICATIVE PATTERNPATTERN to avoid possible confusion or to express certain concepts, repetition or intensification (sip/sip sip – ship/sheep in Tok Pisin)

THEORIES OF ORIGIN

people among whom they are found lack ability to learn standard languages with which pidgins are associated

no evidence for any „„FOREIGNERFOREIGNER--TALKTALK“ “ OROR „ „BABYBABY--TALKTALK“ “ THEORYTHEORY (Europeans deliberately simplifying their languages in order to communicate with others)

all pidgins apparently share some of the same features, no matter which languages they are based on

SUBSUB--STRATUMSTRATUM THEORYTHEORY - P and C retain certain characteristics of ancestral African languages – similarities owed to this common African element; Bickerton is against (it is impossible to trace certain basic similarities back to African source, many slave groups in Americas – why one particularly should be more influential than others?, one Creole in Hawaii lacks any connection at all with Afr source)

THEORYTHEORY OFOF POLYGENESISPOLYGENESIS – variety of origins, similarities arise from shared circumstances of their origins (purpose-trade); using of comparative method, proto pidgins („original pidgins from which those that we observe concurrently may be said to be delivered)

MONOGENESISMONOGENESIS THEORYTHEORY – common origin for pidgins and creoles: nautical jargon – a common lingua franca at ships

THEORYTHEORY OFOF RELEXIFICATIONRELEXIFICATION – all present European-lang-based P a C derive from single source, lingua franca called Sabir used in Mediterranean in Middle Ages; Portuguese relexified this language – own

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vocab in the same grammatical structure, then French, E and Spanish; Todd provides even family-tree type model for P and C, which shows them originating in Sabir; there are some problems…

BIOBIO PROGRAMPROGRAM HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS==THEORYTHEORY OFOF UNIVERSALUNIVERSAL LANGUAGELANGUAGE LEARNINGLEARNING – Bickerton (he denies the theory of relexification – too many improbabilities); universal principles of first lang. Acquisition are involved – children born into multilingual environment in which most important language is pidgin are compelled to develop the language because each child has bio program to develop a full lang; e.g. E suppresses child’s innate grammar; pidginization is second-language learning, creolization first-lang

attention when speaking about universals in connection with lang- are they really universals?

FROM PIDGIN TO CREOLE AND BEYOND

PPIDGINIDGIN is involved in earliest stage of each Creole

PPIDGINIZATIONIDGINIZATION seems to happen repeatedly

Not every PIDGINPIDGIN eventually becomes a CCREOLEREOLE – in fact, very few do

CCREOLIZATIONREOLIZATION occurs only when pidgin for some reason becomes the variety of language that children must use in situation in which use of „full“ language is effectively denied them

TTOKOK P PISINISIN – pidgin developer so far as both its forms and functions are concerned; Aitchison – changes:

1. Creoles spoken faster than pidgins, not spoken word by word, processes of assimilation and reduction can be seen in work

2. Expansion of vocabulary resources3. Development of tense system in verbs4. Greater sentence complexity is apparent – relative clauses

We can call some language Creole only because we know its origin (pidgin is identifiable by both linguistic and social criteria, Creole only by historical criteria)

Linguistic change is far faster for pidgin than for most lang

HHUDSONUDSON : only one exception to claim that creoles are language just like all other lang: there may be a rather special relationship between Creole and variety which is present-day representative of dominant language on which its parent pidgin was based, if the two coexist in the same country, as they often do – gives rise to POSTPOST-C-CREOLEREOLE CONTINUUMCONTINUUM (there is decreoalization – the standard language exerts considerable influence on the Creole – people start to „improve“ their Creole by using standard lang, whole range of varieties, which form a continuum, is created, with standard on the top and original Creole at the bottom; ACROLECTACROLECT – educated, BASILECTBASILECT – variety least comprehensible to speaker of standard, MESOLECTSMESOLECTS – intermediate varieties; example – Guyanese varieties of SE)/DIGLOSSICDIGLOSSIC – total society is highly stratified so that there is little or no contact between groups who speak creolized and standard varieties, and/or if these two varieties have separate and distinct functions in lives of people – no continuum; Haiti)

Speakers control a span of the spectrum, not just one discrete level within it

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JJAMAICAAMAICA CONTINUUMCONTINUUM – Jamaicans don’t perceive existence of continuum, just two ends

HHUDSONUDSON – two peculiarities in continuum situation:

1. There are more profound differences between varieties which coexist in community than one might expect in a community fragmented by normal processes of dialect formative

2. Only a single chain of varieties connects Basilect and acrolect, allowing speakers only single linguistic dimension on which to locate themselves with reference to rest of society

Creole can reach stable relationship with language of community (Haitian Creole and French), be extinguished by standard language(Dutch West Indies Dutch, Gullah), become a standard language(Afrikaans, Swahili, Bahasa Indonesia, Maltese), or post-Creole continuum can emerge (Jamaica, Guyana)

Black youth of West Indian origin in England often learn particular variety of West Indian English that differs from that of their parents – they deliberately recreolize E in an attempt to assert their ethnic identity and solidarity because of social situation

Chapter 4 – choosing a codeCCODEODE – any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication (or single person too - šifry)

WWHICHHICH FACTORSFACTORS GOVERNGOVERN CHOICECHOICE OFOF PARTICULARPARTICULAR CODECODE ONON PARTICULARPARTICULAR OCCASIONOCCASION??

Mainly in bilingual/multilingual situations, but also with sub-varieties – dialects, styles, registers

DIGLOSSIA

DDIGLOSSICIGLOSSIC SITUATIONSITUATION – in society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation (H – prestige variety, L)

Arabic (H Classical Arabic, L various regional colloquial varieties), Switzerland (H Standard German, L Swiss German), Haitian (H French and L Creole), Greek (H Katharevousa, L Dhimotiki=Demotic)

Two varieties coexist for long period, not ephemeral

KKEYEY DEFININGDEFINING CHARACTERISTICCHARACTERISTIC – two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions

English (L) and Norman French (H) in 14th cent. in England; Chaucer used L

Natural superiority of H is reinforced by fact that considerable body of literature will be found to exist in that variety and almost none in the other

All children learn L; H is „taught“, L is „learned“

Usually no grammars, dictionaries and standardized texts for L (if so, then written by outsiders, „foreign“ linguists)

L often shows tendency to borrow learned words from H (when using L in more formal ways)

Widespread phenomenon in world, attested in both space and time

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FFERGUSONERGUSON : it is likely to come into being when (1 )there is sizable body of literature in language closely related to natural language of community and when (2) literacy in community is limited to small elite, and suitable period of time, of order of several centuries, passes from establishment of 1 and 2

D D REINFORCESREINFORCES SOCIALSOCIAL DISTINCTIONSDISTINCTIONS – used to assert social position and keep people in their place

LLUXEMBURGUXEMBURG – special, H Standard German, H French, L Luxemburgish

AARABICRABIC – many L varieties, one H

BILINGUALISM AND MULTILINGUALISM

Attempts to distinguish people who are bilingual from those who are bidialectal may fail; bilingual-bidialectal distinction that speakers make reflects social, cultural and political aspirations or realities rather than any linguistic reality

EEXAMPLEXAMPLE – TTUKANOUKANO of northwest Amazon, on border between Columbia and Brazil (marriage outsider their language group)

PPARAGUAYARAGUAY – Guaraní (90%), Spanish (10%) – choice depends on variety of factors: location, formality, sex, status, intimacy, seriousness, type of activity

EEFFECTSFFECTS – language loss, sometimes diffusion

CODE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING, AND CODE-MIXING

CCODESWITCHINGODESWITCHING is conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations

SSINGAPOREINGAPORE – English, Mandarin variety of Chinese, Tamil, Malay

SSTUDYTUDY OFOF GROUPGROUP OFOF I INDONESIANNDONESIAN GRADUATEGRADUATE STUDENTSTUDENT – Indonesian, Javanese, Dutch, English

KKENYAENYA – Swahili, English

CCLEARLYLEARLY BILINGUALBILINGUAL PETTINGPETTING – difficult task to choose – negotiation in conversation is playing out of negotiation for position in the community at large

CCONVENTIONALIZATIONONVENTIONALIZATION – asking the other which language is preferred – doesn’t work very well in practice – social and political relationships are too complicated to be resolved by such a simple linguistic choice

CCHOOSINGHOOSING – what causes speaker to switch from X to Y? – solidarity with listeners, choice of topic, perceived social and cultural distance, motivation; conscious

SSITUATIONALITUATIONAL CODECODE--SWITCHINGSWITCHING – langs used change according to situations in which the conversants find themselves, quite subconscious (not typical for diglossia, but there is at most); METAPHORICALMETAPHORICAL CODECODE-- SWITCHINGSWITCHING – change of topic requires change in language(usually informal we-type and formal they-type); CODECODE--MIXINGMIXING – conversants use both langs together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in course of single utterance

CCODEODE--SWITCHINGSWITCHING – aids meaning to speech through evocation of different emotional tones, values and contexts which are associated with the language systems in their repertoires

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CCONVERSATIONALONVERSATIONAL CODECODE--MIXINGMIXING – deliberate mixing of two language without associated topic change (e.g. Spanish and English in Puerto Rican community in NY); often unfairly derogatory termed (Franglais, Fragnol, and Spanglish, Tex-Mex

MMETAPHORICALETAPHORICAL CODECODE -switching is deeply ingrained

EEXAMPLESXAMPLES – Hemnesberget (Norwegia), Gail Valley (Austria, Nera borders of Yugoslavia and Italy)

CCODEODE--SWITCHINGSWITCHING and CODECODE--MIXINGMIXING themselves are not uniform phenomena, norms vary from group to group, even within what might be regarded as single community

Fundamental difficulty in understanding the phenomenon of code-switching is accounting for particular choice or switch on particular occasion

Your choice of code also reflects how you want to appeal to others

Language and dialects tap sOCIALOCIAL STEREOTYPESSTEREOTYPES

MMATCHEDATCHED--GUISEGUISE TECHNIQUTECHNIQU e (listeners are affected by code choices when they judge what speakers say to them; someone bilingual listens to discourse in e.g. French/English and judge, who is more… reliable, likely…)

Code-switching may be a very useful social skill

Chapter 5 –Speech CommunitiesSSPEECHPEECH COMMUNITYCOMMUNITY – (from Sprachgemeinschaft), social group whose speech character. are of interest and can be described in coherent manner, or: they employ the same code

DEFINITIONS

LLYONSYONS : all the people who use a given language(or dialect) - problem when defining lang, and e.g. E is spoken throughout the world without creating SC

Sure is that speakers use linguistic characteristics to achieve group identity with other speakers

SSPEECHPEECH MARKERSMARKERS – social categories of age, sex, ethnicity, social class and situation can be clearly marked on the basis of speech

LLABOVABOV : speech community is defined by participation in a set of shared norms (they feel they are members of the same SC)

SC doesn’t have to be monolingual, but also bi- or multilingual: SC -> linguistic community

SC - internally has certain social cohesiveness, externally members find themselves cut off from other communities (e.g. Gumperz)

BBLOOMFIELDLOOMFIELD : a SC is group of people who interact by means of speech

There must be regular relationship between language use and social structure

Sociologic study of SC deals with linguistics similarities and differences among these speech varieties

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SSPRACHBUNDPRACHBUND =SPEECHSPEECH AREAAREA – e.g. Czech, Austrian German and Hungarian – share rules about proper forms of greetings, but no common lang

HHYMESYMES : SC cannot be defined solely through use of linguistics criteria, norms, feelings also important; there’s difference between participating in SC and being fully fledged member of that community; SC=local unit, characterized for its members by common locality and primary interaction

Problem with defining „group“ – set? Isolable unit of social structure? Is it relative, depending on contrasts? Or you identify rather with X than Y on some occasion -> many communities, belong to few of them?

INTERSECTING COMMUNITIES

Both geographical and social class model would be false when defining SC

EEQUATIONQUATION LANGUAGELANGUAGE =SC characteristic for modern states, because of „nationhood“

CCONCEPTONCEPT OFOF SC SC (maybe useless?) -> How individuals relate to society? – Community=set of individuals united for common end

BBOLLINGEROLLINGER : there is no limit to ways in which human beings league themselves together for self-identification, security … or any of other purposes that are held in common; consequently there is no limit to number and variety of speech communities that are to be found in society

Language bonding (to SC) – positive (I posses some feature) and negative

Each individual is member of many different SCs; these communities may or may not overlap

NETWORKS AND REPERTOIRES

NNETWORKETWORK – how and on what occasions does specific individual A interact with B, and then with C…; how intensive is the relationship…

MMULTIPLEXULTIPLEX NETWORKNETWORK – individual is tied to others in variety of ways X uniplex network – people related to others in only single way

SSPEECHPEECH REPERTOIREREPERTOIRE is the range of linguistic varieties which the speaker has at his disposal and which he may appropriately use as a member of his speech community (Platt and Platt)

Each person has distinctive speech repertoire

VVERBALERBAL REPERTOIREREPERTOIRE – linguistic varieties which are at a particular speaker’s disposal

Social bonding that results from linguistic choices you make may depend on quantity of certain linguistic characteristics as well as their quality

Chapter 6 – regional and social variationRREGIONALEGIONAL DIALECTSDIALECTS – marks off residents of one region from those of other regions

SSOCIALOCIAL DIALECTSDIALECTS – variety associated with specific social class/group, making them off from other classes or groups

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DDIACHRONICIACHRONIC==HISTORICALHISTORICAL LINGUISTICSLINGUISTICS – how langs change over time; this area of study – DIALECTDIALECT GEOGRAPHYGEOGRAPHY ; langs differentiate internally as speakers distance themselves from one another over time and over space

Explaining differences found with models – family tree, phonemic split (/f/ and /v/ in English now distinctive phonemes, earlier not), phonemic coalescence (English ea and ee spellings once designated different pronunciations), comparative method of reconstruction (English knave and German Knabe), internal reconstruction (mouse and mice)

DDIALECTIALECT ATLASESATLASES – maps

LINELINE – – ISOGLOSSISOGLOSS (on one side people say sth one way, on the second other way)

BUNDLEBUNDLE OFOF ISOGLOSSESISOGLOSSES (considerable amount of criss-crossing) – marks DIALECTDIALECT BOUNDARYBOUNDARY (often coincides with some geographical or political factor)

Linguistic features spree from FOCALFOCAL AREAAREA II nto neighbouring locations

RELICRELIC AREAAREA – characteristics of being unaffected by changes spreading from neighbouring areas

RRHENISHHENISH F FANAN – set of isoglosses, modern REFLEXESREFLEXES (=results) of pre-Germanic stop consonants (p,t, k)

TTRANSITIONRANSITION AREAAREA – change is progressing in contrast to ether focal or relic area

The ISOGLOSSESISOGLOSSES for individual phonological features sometimes do not coincide with one another to give us clearly demarcated DIALECTDIALECT AREASAREAS (farm – a/u, 0/r)

LLINGUISTICINGUISTIC VARIABLEVARIABLE – – particular linguistic feature

Dialect studies have focused almost exclusively on rural areas

RREGIONALEGIONAL DIALECTSDIALECTS are really quite easy to sample (this is assumption in dialect geography – old people, ask how they pronounce this and that…) – but, it has limitations: ignores closely populated areas, selection of informants is not very well controlled; the field worker choosing informants is not objective

DDIALECTIALECT -atlas studies attempted to relate variation in language to settlement history and tended to ignore social class factors – mistake!

„the traditional bias toward geographic origin alone is serious weakness“ – cultural background, gender, sex, race, occupation…

IINDIVIDUALNDIVIDUAL ANDAND SOCIALSOCIAL VARIATIONVARIATION::

DDIALECTIALECT MIXTUREMIXTURE – existence in one locality of two or more dialects which allow a speaker to draw now on one dialect and then on the other

FFREEREE VARIATIONVARIATION – random „meaningless“ variation of no significance

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LINGUISTIC VARIABLE

WWILLIAMILLIAM L LABOVABOV – development of array of techniques quite different from those used in dialect geography for investigation of social dialects

LLINGUISTICINGUISTIC VARIABLEVARIABLE – basic conceptual tool; item which has identifiable variants (-ing X in‘)

TTWOWO KINDSKINDS OFOF VARIATIONVARIATION::

Clearly DISTINCTDISTINCT variant is used – absence/presence (r/0) QQUANTIFYINGUANTIFYING – phenomenon is continuous one (nasalization, rounding…)

LV are not confined solely to phonological matters, but also e.g.-s in 3.p.sg. etc.

RRESEARCHERSESEARCHERS ANDAND LV LVSS CHOSENCHOSEN::

Labov, NY City – th, dh, r, ae, a Trudgill, Norwich – h, ng, t; vowels in bad, name, path, tell, here, hair, ride, bird, top, know,

boat, boot, tune Shuy, Wolfram, and Railey, Detroit – one phonological var. and two grammatical var.

LV – item that has alternate realizations, as one speaker realizes it one way and another different way or the same speaker realizes it differently on different occasions – relationship we find between these habits and social class to which each speaker belongs or the circumstances

IINDICATORNDICATOR – LV to which little or no social import is attached

MMARKERARKER – carry social significance, people are aware of them

SSTEREOTYPETEREOTYPE – popular, conscious characterization of the speech of particular group, often stigmatized

Studies of variation focus on describing of markers

READING LINGUISTIC VARIATION TO SOCIAL VARIATION

GGUMPERZUMPERZ – study in Khalapur (India) – small differences in speech can effectively distinguish sub-groups in society from one another in a study of linguistic usage (there’s direct relationship between LV and caste membership)

SSOCIOLINGUISTICSOCIOLINGUISTICS seek measures of social variation to which they can relate the kinds of LV they observe

Next issue is that of collecting data concerning variants in such a way that you can draw certain conclusions about the social distribution of these variants

It is hard to relate people to such factors such as sex and age, but the most troublesome is „social class membership“ (many criteria… and not only socio-economic ones…) =>

MANYMANY SCALESSCALES – e.g. Labov had 10 social classes (0-9) according to criteria of education, occupation and income, Trudgill 5 SC (but it is a cycle – he attempts to relate linguistic behaviour to social class, but he uses linguistic behaviour to assign membership in social class), Shuy 4 SC

BUTBUT :

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such statements say something about linguistic usage of … class without assuring us that there is really such an entity as that class; nor do they guarantee us that we can ever find a typical member

social space is multi-dimensional whereas systems of social classification are one-dimensional; self-identification or role-playing may be far more important than some kind of fixed social class labelling

SOCIOLECTSOCIOLECT – speech characteristics of members of social groups; group norms arrived at through counting and averaging

IDIOLECTIDIOLECT – speech characteristics and linguistic behaviour of individuals; highly representative of linguistic behaviour of all the speakers of that lang

WHENWHEN STUDYINGSTUDYING „ „EXOTICEXOTIC“ “ LANGLANG , linguists find a speaker who is willing to serve as informant, and attempt to describe that speaker’s language using appropriate field methods

MMILROYILROY : better than SC is network of relationships

THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

1. devising some kind of plan for collecting relevant data2. collecting such data from a representative sample of speakers

problem – OBSERVEROBSERVER’’SS PARADOXPARADOX – every time it’s influenced by me, by my perception

DATADATA COLLECTIONCOLLECTION – usually questionnaire:

1. casual situation2. interview situation3. reading aloud of a story4. reading aloud of lists of words and of pairs of words (den – then)

CONTEXTUALCONTEXTUAL STYLESSTYLES – both casual and careful speech together

CCHANNELHANNEL CUESCUES – accompany each style; changes of speech pitch, volume, rate of breathing…

SUBJECTIVESUBJECTIVE REACTIONREACTION TESTTEST – subjects react to taped samples of speech containing x variables the linguist is concerned with

RANDOMRANDOM SAMPLESAMPLE – – best sample of all; everyone in population has equal chance of being selected X

JUDGMENTJUDGMENT SAMPLESAMPLE – investigator chooses subjects according to set of criteria

STRATIFIEDSTRATIFIED SAMPLESAMPLE – one chosen for specific characteristics

CORRELATIONCORRELATION STUDIESSTUDIES – employ LV; attempt to show how variants of LV are related to social variation in much the same way that we can show how children’s age, heights and weights are related to one another

DEPENDENTDEPENDENT VARIABLESVARIABLES, , INDEPENDENTINDEPENDENT VARIABLESVARIABLES – LV is DV, the one we are interested in. We want to see what happens to language when we look at it in relation to some factor we can manipulate, the IV, e.g. social class, age, sex, ethnicity etc.: as one of these changes, what happens to lang?

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Such studies are statistical in nature – must be both valid and reliable

Serious experimental studies require experimental hypotheses to be stated before the data are collected and statistical tests to be chosen to decide whether these hypotheses are confirmed or not

SSTANDARDTANDARD DEVIATIONDEVIATION – actual distribution of various measurements around the means

LLEVELEVEL OFOF SIGNIFICANCESIGNIFICANCE (0,01 level of significance=the same results would occur by chance in fewer than one case in hundred)

We should not expect to find a perfect correlation between LV and some social or psychological variable; statements about LVs are best seen as statements about group norms or averages

Chapter 7 – variation studies: some findings and issues

AN EARLY STUDY: FISCHER

((NGNG) ) VARIABLEVARIABLE – – SINGINGSINGING VSVS. . SINGINSINGIN‘‘

Boys/girls, model boy/typical boy…

Conclusion: „the choice between the –ing and the –in‘ variants appears to be related to sex, class, personality (aggressive/cooperative), and mood (tense/relaxed) of the speaker, to the formality of the conversation and to the specific verb spoken“

NEW YORK CITY: LABOV

((RR))

Hypotheses

Feature of speech of younger people rather than of older people More likely to occur as the formality level in speech increased More likely at the ends of words (floor) than before consonants (fourth)

Three department stores, which are rather clearly demarcated by social class groups (Saks – high, Macy’s – middle, S. Klein – low), „fourth floor“

See all the figures and tables… r is highly valued, in short

CCROSSROSS--OVEROVER in a graph – instance of HYPERCORRECTIONHYPERCORRECTION (lower middle class uses r more than upper middle class when reading word lists and minimal pairs)

HHYPERCORRECTIONYPERCORRECTION may be related to changes that are taking place in lang

Also distribution of (t), (t0) and (0) – shown in the (th) index – the higher the index score, the greater the incidence of nonstandard usage in the particular style of speech

SSHARPHARP STRATIFICATIONSTRATIFICATION – distribution with sharp break in the pattern

NORWICH AND READING: TRUDGILL AND CHESHIRE

TTRUDGILLRUDGILL

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16 different phonological variables – how are these related to social class and level of formality – e.g. (ng), (t) and (h)

When style is kept constant, the lower the SC the greater the incidence of nonstandard variant; when class is kept constant, the less formal the style the greater the incidence of nonstandard variant

CCHESHIREHESHIRE

(s) as extension of third-person sg.verb parking to all other persons (you knows)

CCONSTRAINTSONSTRAINTS ONON USAGEUSAGE::

1. if a verb took finite complement (followed by clause in which the verb is marked for tense), then there was no use of –s ending with persons other than 3.p.sg.

2. vernacular (commonly used) verbs were much more likely to take the –s ending in all forms than other verbs

conclusion: „variation is controlled by both social and linguistic factors. In boys‘ speech, variation is governed by norms that are central to the vernacular culture, and are transmitted through the peer group. Variation in the girls’ speech appears to be a more personal process, and less rigidly controlled by vernacular norms.“

A VARIETY OF STUDIES

No class use same variant of the variable to the exclusion of the other -> speech in any SC is inherently variable

Wolfram: Detroit, how distribution of LVs correlated with such factors as SC, sex, age, and racial origin in this city; 4 phonological Vs, 4 grammatical Vs

GGRADIENTRADIENT STRATIFICATIONSTRATIFICATION – regular step-like progression in means which matches social groupings, typical for phonological Vs X

SSHARPHARP STRATIFICATIONSTRATIFICATION – clear break between a particular pair of social groupings, typical for grammatical Vs

CCONCLUSIONONCLUSION : social status is the single most important V correlating with linguistic differences, with the clearest boundary between the lower middle and upper working classes; in each class, females use more standard-language forms than males; older subjects use fewer stigmatized forms than do younger subjects; reading style show the fewest deviations of all from standard-language forms

MMACAULAYACAULAY: G: GLASGOWLASGOW – 5 Vs; clear correlation between V and SC; concl. – ling. behaviour of individuals forms a continuum in the same way that social organization is continuous, LV is correlated with the „average“ behaviour of individuals in SCs

SSANKOFFANKOFF, C, CEDERGRENEDERGREN : (l) in Montreal French – distribution related to both phonological and grammatical factors

SSANKOFFANKOFF, V, VINCENTINCENT : negative particle ne in Montreal – not used, but has not disappeared entirely, it avers in contexts where speakers are most likely to be aware of speech itself – it persists as syntactic and stylistic resource which speakers can employ as they see fit

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HHUDSONUDSON/J/JAHANGIRIAHANGIRI : /bekon/ in Tehran Persian – no overlap in dependence on sex and education (see 7.8, 7.6)

BELFAST

MMILROYSILROYS : BBALLYMACARRETTALLYMACARRETT , HHAMMERAMMER , CCLONARDLONARD – how a stable set of linguistic norms emerges and maintains itself in a community – VERNACULARVERNACULAR NORMSNORMS – perceived as symbolizing values of solidarity and reciprocity rather than status, and are not publicly codified or recognized

SSOCIALOCIAL NETWORKNETWORK – originate in kinship ties, determine individual’s access to employment and to other resources; dense – many people share the same social contacts, multiplex – people are linked to one another in several ways simultaneously

8 LVs examined, significant correlations between network strength and linguistic usage on 5 of these

CCONCLUSIONONCLUSION – the stronger the social network, the greater the use of certain linguistic features of vernacular

THE LINGUISTIC VARIABLE: SOME CONTROVERSIES

WWOLFRAMOLFRAM, F, FASOLDASOLD – – DELETIONDELETION OFOF FINALFINAL STOPSSTOPS (- (-DD/-/-EDED)) in clusters

It is possible to state that two or more factors (constraints) interact to affect the distribution of V

FFIRSTIRST--ORDERORDER//SECONDSECOND--ORDERORDER CONSTRAINTCONSTRAINT – – the former exercises a greater influence on a person’s linguistic behaviour than does the latter

Constraints may also mix phonological and grammatical features

Different sub-groups in society may order two constraints differently

It may be possible to predict certain kinds of linguistic behaviour if we know the various constraints that operate in connection with a particular V and the relationships between that V and factors such as social class, level of formality, sex, age and race

VVARIABLEARIABLE RULERULE – statistical generalizations based on surveys of language use; form of statement that introduces probabilities; but: we face considerable difficulties in trying to write even a single VR

VVARIABILITYARIABILITY – some kind of rule-governed behaviour

BBAILEYAILEY, B, BICKERTONICKERTON : each individual controls an ISOLECTISOLECT of the lang, an individual array of linguistic uses which others may or may not share; each ISOLECTISOLECT is a LECTLECT – each of language differ from one another along a continuum, which forms POLYLECTALPOLYLECTAL =PANLECTALPANLECTAL GRIDGRID (there’s implicational relationship among the various leech); dynamic view of language structure is valid both synchronically and diachronically (just new variation of old WAVEWAVE THEORYTHEORY of ling change); all V in language results from changes in progress

Chapter 9 – language and cultureThere is some kind of relationship between language and culture – problem is deciding the nature of this relationship and fading suitable ways to demonstrate it

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CCULTUREULTURE – know-how person must have in order to function in particular society

Three claims:

1. Language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world2. Culture of people finds reflection in language they employ3. Neutral – little or no relationship between language and culture

THE WHORFIAN HYPOTHESIS

EEDWARDDWARD S SAPIRAPIR, B, BENJAMINENJAMIN L LEEEE W WHORFHORF

LANGUAGELANGUAGE and CULTCULT are inextricably related so that you could not understand or appreciate the one without knowledge of the other

SSAPIRAPIR : real world is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group; language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretations

WWHORFHORF : relationship between language and culture is deterministic one, formulation of idea is part of particular grammar, agreement is implicate and unstated, but its terms are absolutely obligatory

No individual is free to describe nature with absolute imperialist but is constrained to certain mode of interpretation

FFISHMANISHMAN : speaker of one language have certain words to describe things and speakers of another language lack similar words, then speakers of the first language will find it easier to talk about those things; if one language makes distinctions that another does not make, then those who use the first language will more readily perceive the differences in their environment which such ling distinctions draw attention to

Grammatical categories available in particular language not only help the users of that language to perceive the world in certain way but also at the same time limit such perception (->different world-views)

Studying origins of fires and language of Hopi Indians

Language provides a green or filter to reality; it determines how speakers perceive and organize the world around them; the language you speak helps to form your world-view; it determines experience

Even if there are different words in (two) languages, the speakers could be still aware of those distinctions

Syntactic evidence can also mislead investigators; over-literal translation is very dangerous

Language structure is not related to patterns of social organization

The claim that it would be impossible to describe certain things in particular language because that language lacks the necessary resources is misleading

TTHEHE W WHORFIANHORFIAN HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS is quite unproved; it’s quite possible to talk about anything in any language(even natural langs have metalang, e.g.)

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KINSHIP SYSTEMS

Universal, in all langs; readily ascertainable

Some relatives cannot be referred to directly -> circumlocution (brother’s wife’s father)

In different langs a rather different approach to kinship terminology is often employed

Sometimes „different“ relationships are described by the „same“ term and „similar“ relationships are described by „different“ terms

Example – Njamal – Australian aborigines

There is some typical concept as „father“ and that there are certain „equivalence rules“ (such as that „man’s sister is equivalent to his mother“…) -> one refers to many different kinds of relationship with a single term

As social conditions change, we can expect kinship systems to change to reflect the new conditions

TAXONOMIES

FFOLKOLK TAXONOMYTAXONOMY – way of classifying certain part of reality so that it makes some kind of sense to those who have to deal with it (it shouldn’t be called „scientific classification, maybe )

FFRAKERAKE : describing diseases in Subanun of Mindanao in southern Philippines – hierarchy of terms with a term like „nuka“ (dines in general/eruption) at the top and „telemaw glai“ (shallow distal ulcer) at the bottom; diagnosis is process of fading the appropriate name for a set of symptoms

BBURLINGURLING : pronoun system in Palaung, Burma – see table 9.2

Analyses show how systematic much of behaviour is -> language and culture are related very closely

COLOUR TERMINOLOGY

Berlin, Kay: are colour terms arbiter, or is there general pattern? If there is a pattern, what are its characteristics and why might it exist?

All langs make use of basic colour terms (blue, yellow)

1. Black, white (dark, light)2. Red3. Yellow, green4. Blue, brown

It is probable that communities that show little technological development employ the fewest colour terms

Everyone approaches the spectrum in the same way

It is easier to indicate some part of spectrum one would call „typically yellow“ than to draw a line to separate that part of spectrum they would call „yellow“

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PROTOTYPE THEORY

Concepts are best viewed as prototypes – by reference to typical instances (X alternative to view that concepts are composed from set of features which necessarily and sufficiently define instances of a concept)

PT leads to easier account of how people learn to use lang, from the kinds of instances they come across (prototype-based concept can be learned on the basis of very small number of instances, perhaps a single one)

We judge circumstances as being typically this or typically that, and we place people in the same way

TABOO AND EUPHEMISM

TTABOOABOO – way in which society expresses its disapproval of certain kinds of behaviour believed to be harmful to its members, either for supernatural reasons of because such behaviour is held to voice a moral code

Tabooed subjects vary with norms

HHAASAAS : certain language taboos seem to arise from bilingual situations

EEUPHEMISMSUPHEMISMS – „dressing up“ certain areas in life to make them more presentence

Chapter 10 – ethnography and ethnomethodologySpeech used in different ways among different groups of people – we must try to understand how these groups use their language if we are to achieve a comprehensive understanding of how that language is related to society that uses it

Important function of communication is social maintenance

VARIETIES OF TALK

!K!KUNGUNG (South West Africa) – hunters and gatherers; speech helps to maintain peaceful social relationships by allowing people to keep in touch with one another about how they are thinking and feeling; helps to relieve tensions, prevents pressures from building up and finding their release in aggression

WWESTERNESTERN A APACHEPACHE – opposite –they resort silence when they are confronted with ambiguity and uncertainty in their social relationships (when coming back from boarding school, in initial stages of courting, when being „cussed out“, sympathizing device after someone dies...)

SSILENCEILENCE can communicate respect, comfort, support, disagreement, or uncertainty; in some societies there is no obligation to make small talk when being on visit

TTIMORIMOR – sheer pleasure of talking, silence is sign of confusion or dejection

AANTIGUANTIGUA, W, WESTEST I INDIESNDIES – you simply come to a group and begin to talk, some of them may listen to you, others may not; conversation is multi-faceted in that it freely mixes a variety of activities that in certain other groups would be kept quite apart; they do not consider as interruptions behaviour that we would consider to be either interruptive or even disruptive

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SSUBANUNUBANUN, P, PHILIPPINESHILIPPINES – „ – „DRINKINGDRINKING TALKTALK““ – those who are most accomplished in it become the de facto leaders

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

Ethnography of communicative event – description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative event achieves its objectives

HHYMESYMES – – ACRONYMACRONYM SPEAKING: SPEAKING:

S – SS – SETTINGETTING ANDAND S SCENECENE – time and place and abstract psychological setting P – PP – PARTICIPANTSARTICIPANTS – various combinations of speaker-listener, addressor-addressee, or sender-

receiver E – EE – ENDSNDS – conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of exchange as well as to the

personal goals that participants seek to accomplish A – AA – ACTCT SEQUENCESEQUENCE – actual form and content of what is said K – KK – KEYEY – tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed; also non-verbal I – II – INSTRUMENTALITIESNSTRUMENTALITIES – choice of channel (oral, written, or telegraphic) and actual forms of

speech employed (lang, dialect, code, or register chosen) N – NN – NORMSORMS OFOF INTERACTIONINTERACTION ANDAND INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION – specific behaviours and properties that attach

to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them (loudness, silence, gaze return...)

G – GG – GENREENRE – clearly demarcated types of utterance

Talk is complex activity; it is „skillEE d“

Sherzer – Kuna in Panama, Hill and Hill – Malinche of Central Mexico, Lindenfeld – marketplaces in Paris, Rouen and Grenoble

AANN ALTERNATIVEALTERNATIVE APPROACHAPPROACH – attempt to describe the different functions of language in communication – Jakobson, Halliday, Robinson; see p. 247-248 (list of these functions); understanding how language is used

CCOMMUNICATIVEOMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCECOMPETENCE – ability to select, from the totality of grammatically correct expressions available to him, forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behaviour in specific encounters (Gumperz)

In learning to speak we are also learning to „talk“, in the sense of communicating in those ways deemed appropriate by the group in which we are doing that learning

ETHNOMETHODOLOGY

Branch of sociology which is concerned with talk as a phenomenon in its own right

Aim of E is to STUDYSTUDY THETHE PROCESSESPROCESSES OFOF SENSESENSE MAKINGMAKING (idealizing and formulizing) that members of society use to construct social world and its factual properties (Leiter)

E investigates the production and interpretation of everyday action as skilled accomplishments of social factors, and they are interested in conversation as one particularly pervasive instance of skilled social action (Fairclough)

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MMEMBERSHIPEMBERSHIP CATEGORIZATIONCATEGORIZATION DEVICESDEVICES – we assign certain meaning to words (like baby and mommy)

AASSUMPTIONSSUMPTION – world is ordered in such a way that there are certain categories of relationships that are expressed through lang; to interpret particular sentences you must have some knowledge of the categories that speakers find relevant

PPHENOMENOLOGICALHENOMENOLOGICAL VIEWVIEW OFOF THETHE WORLDWORLD – world is sth that people must constantly keep creating and sustaining for themselves

CCOMMONSENSEOMMONSENSE KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE – understanding, recipes, maxims, definitions that we employ in daily living as we go about doing things; acquired through experience – this knowledge varies from person to person; world exists as a factual object; world is consistent

PPRACTICALRACTICAL REASONINGREASONING – way in which people make use of their commonsense knowledge and how they employ that knowledge in their conduct of everyday life (not the same thing as scientific reasoning!)

SSTUDIESTUDIES BYBY G GARFINKELARFINKEL ... -> matters not mentioned or only partially mentioned are still understood, understanding itself develops as the conversation develops, understanding depends on the willingness of each party to work with the other to develop a common scheme of interpretation for what is being talked about; certain vagueness is normal, ordinary talk does not require precision, many expressions used in conversation are not to be taken literally; much of what we take for granted in our dealings with others depends on our accepting the appearances those others try to project

People use language not only to communicate in a variety of ways, but also to bind themselves to one another in cooperative activities

Chapter 11 – Solidarity and PolitenessCCONTENTONTENT and FORMFORM are quite inseparable

TU AND VOUS

„„SINGULARSINGULAR YOUYOU““ and „„PLURALPLURAL YOUYOU““ ; in English had such a distinction – THOUTHOU//YOUYOU DISTDIST .

T/V dist. began as genuine difference between sg and pl; then, in Latin, vous was used when addressing emperor

MMEDIEVALEDIEVAL TIMESTIMES – upper classes V forms; non-reciprocal T/V usage between lower and upper class

RRECIPROCALECIPROCAL V V USAGEUSAGE – „polite“ usage

MMUTUALUTUAL T T FORFOR SOLIDARITYSOLIDARITY

BBROWNROWN ANDAND G GILMANILMAN : study of how upper-class French, German and Italian youth described their use of T/V – importance of solidarity over power

One party usually initiates the use of T (Germans – Brüderschaft trinken)

There are differences of style (when using T, e.g.), and these are potentially expressive of radicalism and conservatism in ideology

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LLAMBERTAMBERT ANDAND T TUCKERUCKER : comparison of T/V usage in three places of France – not the same everywhere

TTAMILAMIL – the lower the caste, the more T usage („T/V usage is tied primarily to kinds of social relationship...“)

BBATESATES ANDAND B BENIGNIENIGNI : T/V T/V USAGEUSAGE in Italy is continuing to evolve (upper-class youth reverse the usage – they use V for addressing lower-class youth to be solidaristic and vice versa)

T/V T/V USEUSE that remains in English is archaic, found in fixed formulas such as prayers... it is still possible to show power or solidarity through lang, but they must use address terms for that purpose

ADDRESS TERMS

Title (T), first name (FN), last name (LN), nickname...

NNUERUER (Sudan) – personal name („son of...“, „drought“, „rain“...), second personal name of maternal grandparents, clan name, ox name – names derived from a favoured ox, cow names; further complicated with social arrangements

BBROWNROWN ANDAND F FORDORD : study of naming practices in English – quite normal

Address by title is the least intimate

Possible dangers in cross-cultural communication when different relationships are expressed trough what appears to be the same address system

SSOUTHERNOUTHERN STATESSTATES OFOF USA USA – asymmetrical use of names – clear racial distinction

In English, when there is doubt how to address another, we can actually avoid this difficulty by not using any address term at all (0 use)

Simple test for distinguishing familiar, informal address from polite, formal ones is to look at them in conjunction with informal and formal greetings (GGOODBYEOODBYE, , PUSSYKINSPUSSYKINS :)

It is possible to have considerable variety of address terms for one person – the two in such a relationship see each other as fitting many different roles

Grandchildren -> RENAMINGRENAMING (Mom -> Grandma)

It’s impossible to translate Vietnamese kinship system into English - it is insufficient

How you speak to your pet?

Variety of social factors usually governs our choice of terms (particular occasion, social rank, sex, age, family relationship...)

Whole society which is undergoing social change is also likely to show certain indications of such change if the language in use in that society has a complex system of address (tóngzhí=comrade in China)

FFANDAND ANDAND H HENGENG : „The address norms in China are indeed extremely complicated...“ (Revolution...)

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In those societies in which a person’s status derives from his or her achievements, few distinctions in address are made; in societies where status is ascribed, i.e., derived from birth into a particular social group, we are much more likely to find sets of finely graded address terms

POLITENESS

JJAVAAVA – complex system of politeness (high, middle, low speech style, set of honorifics – it is not easy to specify when a particular level is used) – Bahasa Indonesia, official lang, is coming

MMARTINARTIN : Japan – Japanese described as being an extremely „polite“ people; 4 basic factors – out-groupness, social position, age difference, sex difference (in that order)

SSAVOIRAVOIR--VIVREVIVRE ENEN F FRANCERANCE (Vigner, 1978) – F – FRENCHRENCH POLITENESSPOLITENESS FORMULAFORMULA made up of three components:

1. Initial mitigating component, which can be short or long, or its absence2. Central request or order component3. Final component, presence or absence of sth like s’il vous plait

Chapter 12 – acting and conversingCCLASSIFYINGLASSIFYING UTTERANCESUTTERANCES – „„FUNCTIONALFUNCTIONAL“ “ APPROACHAPPROACH – concerned both with what utterances do and how they can be used, and, specifically, with how we use them in conversation

SPEECH ACTS: AUSTIN AND SEARLE

Utterances make propositions – CONSTATIVECONSTATIVE U U s – connected in some way with events or happenings in a possible world, can be T/F

„„ETHICALETHICAL“ “ PROPOSITIONPROPOSITION (Thou shalt not kill) – serve as guides to behaviour in some world or other

„„PHATICPHATIC“ “ TYPETYPE OFOF U U (Nice day!) – affective value, indicators that one person is willing to talk to another

Austin: PERFORMATIVEPERFORMATIVE U U – person is not just saying sth but is actually doing sth („I name this ship „Liberty Bell““), felicity conditions – circumstances performatives must meet to be successful, SPEECHSPEECH ACTACT – spoken part of the total act

1. CCONVENTIONALONVENTIONAL PROCEDUREPROCEDURE must exist for doing whatever is to be done, and that procedure must specify who must say and do what and in what circumstances

2. All participants must properly execute this procedure and carry it through to completion3. Necessary thoughts, feelings, and intentions must be present in all parties

There are also LESSLESS EXPLICITEXPLICIT PERFORMATIVESPERFORMATIVES („I promise“)

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