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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

Two major functions of language:............................................................................................................................................................................................ 2THE PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3THE ACT OF COMMUNICATION............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4ROMAN JACOBSON............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5FUNCTIONS:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5DOMINATING FUNCTIONS IN:............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6STUDY OF LANGUAGE......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Speech acts............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8MORPHOLOGY.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9WORD FORMATION.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 11

WORD FORMATION PROCESSES:............................................................................................................................................................................................11Lexical Semantics.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15

GRADDOL:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22The legacy of history............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22English in the 20th century....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22Who speaks English?.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 22Language hierarchies............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23

LYON............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23Some Modern Schools and Movements..................................................................................................................................................................................23

SYNCHRONIC ATTITUDE..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23HISTORY OF ENGLISH........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 25

Overview of Historical Development:......................................................................................................................................................................................25PRAGMATICS................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26

Scope of pragmatics:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26Definitions of pragmatics........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26Subcategorization:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 26

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ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE

It is not known how the language was created, but there are some theories:

a. DIVINE SOURCE – in most religions there is a divine source of the language.i. God created Adam and Adam gave names to everything

ii. Following the Hindu tradition, language came from the goodness Sarasvati, who was the wife of Brahma, creator of the universe.

There have been a few experiments to find out the divine language (made for example by Egyptian pharaoh named Psammetichus or by James IV). All of the experiments were unsuccessful, children who grew up without hearing the human language didn’t speak at all.

b. THE NATURAL SOUNDS SOURCE – i. also called BOW-WOW THEORY (sound for dog’s bark)

It says that words were created by imitating natural sounds. The truth is there are some onomatopoeic (echoing natural sounds) words in language, but it is not very probable that whole system of language would be based on these words.

ii. NATURAL CRIES OF EMOTIONS (such as anger, pain, fear)iii. “YO-HEAVE-HO” THEORY – the source of the language are the sounds of the person making some physical

effort. They created some sounds to coordinate their activity.c. THE ORAL-GESTURE SOURCE – first there were certain gestures through which people communicated, later they also involved

mouth (lips and tongue) into these gestures and finally they added a sound.d. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION – there are certain physical features that allow to human beings to speak and that are not seen

among other species (the position of teeth, lips, the size of the mouth, tongue, larynx or the voice-box, pharynx, lateralized human brain, that is it has specialized functions in each of the two hemispheres).

e.

TWO MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE:

a. INTERACTIONAL – it has to do with how humans interact with each other, socially or emotionally; how they indicate friendliness, cooperation, or hostility, or annoyance, pain, or pleasure

b. TRANSCACTIONAL – humans use their linguistic abilities to communicate knowledge, skills and information

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THE PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE

All beings are capable to communicate. But there are some properties that make human language different from those animals’ ways of communication. Physiological adaptation has been already mentioned.

When talking about communication we mean INTENTIONAL COMMUNICATION. There are always COMMUNICATIVE SIGNALS that are intentional and those INFORMATIVE ones that are UNINTENTIONAL (gestures, our behaviour, appearance).

Properties that are from the human point of view considered to be unique:

a. DISPLACEMENT – we are able to talk about situations that are not present in the current time or at the current place. It means we can refer to future or past or to other places. There are animals that are also able to communicate features not present at the moment (such as a bee) but their degree of displacement is very low. Human degree of displacement allows talking even about things that that are not real (possible future worlds, angels, demons, mythical creatures).

b. ARBITRARINESS – the property of linguistic sign is their arbitrary relationship with the objects they are used to indicate (the word dog has nothing in common with the shape or any quality of the living creature it signifies). The exception are onomatopoeic words.

c. PRODUCTIVITY (creativity or open-endedness) – ability to create new expressions or sentences due to current needs. Humans’ possibility of creating new expressions is unlimited, while animals have certain fixed amount of expressions.

d. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION – humans are born with the ability to learn language, but they are not able to create utterances without being learned this ability.

e. DISCRETENESS – each sound in the language is treated as discrete (=izolovany, oddeleny). For example in words pack and back even these two sounds can change the meaning of the word.

f. DUALITY (or double articulation) – language is organized at two levels simultaneously. At first level people are capable of creating single sounds (such as n, b, i) and at the second level these sounds are combined in various ways (bin, nib) and thus has distinct meanings.

These six are the core features of human language. Of course, there are some other ones, such as VOCAL-AUDITORY CHANNEL (that consists of vocal organs and ears), RECIPROCITY (speaker/sender of a linguistic signal can be also listener/receiver), SPECIALIZATION (linguistic signs serve exclusively for the act of communication), NON-DIRECTIONALITY and RAPID FADE. These are however not specific only for the human language and that’s why they are not core.

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THE ACT OF COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATIVE FRAME:

a. CHANNEL – medium through which we speakb. SITUATION – contextC. CONTACTd. FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATIONE. MESSAGEF. CODE

ENCODING AND DECODING

o SPEAKER → encodes certain CONTENT → is decoded by ADDRESSEEo written form – a SPLITTING COMMUNICATION

LIMITING FACTORS IN COMMUNICATION

The ADDRESSEE rarely gets the same MESSAGE that was packed in ENCODING.

knowledge of the CODE – something that we take for granted among the native speakers but it is not among non-native ones

level of speaker's/hearer's knowledge CHANNEL

o VOCAL-AUDITORY CHANNEL - transmission is slow but it is immediate, we can have feedbacko WRITTEN CHANNEL – quick to glide through, but we have no chance to ask, to have feedbacko SOCIAL CONVENTIONS (e.g. of the form of the language) – problem when we do not follow them, the hearer can be

opened only to certain ways of interpretations due to the cultural taboos NOISE - „šum” - physical noise, speech impediments (zábrany, vady), tiredness of the participants, lack of interest, of

knowledge

SCHEME OF COMMUNICATION

VILÉM MATHESIUS – the process captured on the scheme takes place every time utterance is produced. It is not easy to distinguish between the first and the second stage.

Two elements of communication not shown in the diagram:

o THE CONTEXT – both linguistic and non-linguistic, which includes the situationo THE TYPE OF CONTACT – i.e. whether the partners are at the same place etc.

LASSWELL FORMULA: Who – Says what – In which channel – To whom – With what effect

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS:

MATHESIUS distinguishes two functions of communication:

o EXPRESSION – spontaneous manifestation of speaker’s/hearer’s emotionso COMMUNICATION – has a social character

KARL BÜHLER distinguishes between three functions that coexist in an utterance, one of them being dominant and other two concomitant – so called “ORGANON INSTRUMENTAL MODEL” (SPRACHTEORIE )

o REFERENTIAL FUNCTION (Reference) – purely communicative, informing of the factual, objective contento EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION (Expression) – relationship between the content and the speaker (Ouch!)o CONATIVE FUNCTION (appeal) – the relationship between the content and the listener (Wait a minute!)

ROMAN JACOBSON

He developed BÜHLER’S theory, he adds 3 more functions of the language and made “JACOBSON’S COMMUNICATION MODEL”:

FUNCTIONS: REFERENTIAL FUNCTION (fce sdelna) – it is the leading task of majority of messages, though accessory participation of the

other functions in such messages must be taken into account

EMOTIVE FUNCTION – focuses on the addressers purpose

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CONTEXT(referential function – contains contextual information)

MESSAGE(poetic function – the words, not the meaning)

ADDRESSOR ADDRESSEE--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(Emotive function – self expression) (Conative function – vocative or imperative addressing of receiver)

CONTACT(Phatic function = channel – checking channel working)

CODE(Metalinguistic function – checking code working)

The machine stopped working – AGAIN!I`m surprised that she`s married.

Expressive & referential function.

Poznámky Lingvistika 2012o INTERJECTIONS (citoslovce) are equivalents of the sentence, not components of them. They differ

on the phonic lexical and grammatical levels (on the phonic level they differ for example by lengthening the vowel or consonant (big – REFERENTIAL x biiig – EMOTIVE; love it x lllllove it)

CONATIVE FUNCTION – focuses on the reader/hearer/recipiento can be: VOCATIVE (we are attracting someone’s attention),

IMPERATIVE (meant as command – do it, I wonder if you could) PHATIC FUNCTION – this function is carried by ritualized formulas (hello), utterances (how are you?) or topics (weather,

sports) that keep the conversation going. The purpose is establishing the contact, interrupting it and making sure it works (Can you hear me?).

METALINGUAL/METALINGUISTIC FUNCTION – through this function we can learn the context, we check the language or we can learn the language (What’s the meaning of ‘scrooge’?)

POETIC FUNCTION – the focus on the message itself, combination of form and function. It makes the phrases catching and interesting, that’s why this function appears in political advertising (I like Ike; Blair – Prime Monster?; United Nations – UNlawful, UNethical, UNstoppable), news discourses (headlines – Becs Sex Text), or advertising (go well, go shell).

DOMINATING FUNCTIONS IN:

o Epic poetry (in the 3rd person) – REFERENTIAL FUNCTIONo Lyric poetry – EMOTIVE, EXPRESSIVEo Poetry in 2nd person – POETIC, PHATIC; for example prayer

M. A. K. HALLIDAY distinguishes functions of language for adults and for children:

3 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE:

o IDEATIONAL (FIELD) language’s content (what am I talking about)o INTERPERSONAL (TENOR) language as interaction (focuses on the people involved)o TEXTUAL (MODE) ability of language to create text

(Elements of register analysis)

*7 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE FOR CHILDREN:

o INSTRUMENTAL - used for satisfying material needs: I wanto REGULATORY - used for controlling the behaviour of others: do as I tell youo INTERACTIONAL - used for getting along with other people: me and youo PERSONAL - used for identifying and expressing the self: here I comeo HEURISTIC - used for exploring the world around and inside one: tell me whyo IMAGINATIVE - used for creating a world of one’s own: let’s pretendo INFORMATIVE - used for communicating new information: you should know that.

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STUDY OF LANGUAGE

LINGUISTICS – it is the scientific study of the human language

o it can be broken into 3 categories: study of language form, meaning and language in context

FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS:

o what is universal to language

o how language can vary

o how human beings come to know languages

STRUCTURE-FOCUSED LINGUISTICS: PHONETICS – the study of physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception PHONOLOGY – the study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker’s mind that distinguish meaning MORPHOLOGY – the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified

SYNTAX – the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences SEMANTICS – the study of the meaning of words (LEXICAL SEMANTICS) and fixed word combinations (PHRASEOLOGY), and how

these combine to form the meaning of the sentences PRAGMATICS – the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-

linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning DISCOURSE ANALYSIS – the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)

DIVISION BASED ON NON-LINGUISTIC FACTORS STUDIED

APPLIED LINGUISTICS – the study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and

education HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS (or DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS) – the study of language change over time PSYCHOLINGUISTICS SOCIOLINGUISTICS – the study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors

…

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

It is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society (cultural norms, expectations, context…) on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society.(x Sociology of language – the language’s effect on the society).

It overlaps with PRAGMATICS

It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables (e.g. ethnicity, religion,

status, gender, level of education, age…)

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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (DISCOURSE STUDIES) It is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, sign language use or any significant

semiotic event. The object of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event…) are variously defined in terms

of coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech acts or turn-at-talk. It prefers to analyze ‘naturally occurring’ language use, and not invented examples

SPOKEN VS. WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Spoken (or signed) language is more fundamental than written language:

Speech is universal to all human beings, while some cultures are illiterate

Speech evolved before human beings invented writing People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing

SPEECH ACTS

JOHN AUSTIN:

LOCUTIONARY ACTS – the performance of the utterance, and hence of the speech act ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS – the semantic illocutionary force of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning PERLOCUTIONARY ACT – its actual effect, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, whether intended or not

For example, my saying to you "Don't go into the water" (a LOCUTIONARY ACT with distinct PHONETIC, SYNTACTIC and SEMANTIC FEATURES)

counts as WARNING you not to go into the water (an ILLOCUTIONARY ACT), and if you heed my warning I have thereby succeeded in persuading you not to go into the water (a PERLOCUTIONARY ACT).

ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE

The idea of ILLOCUTIONARY ACT emphasizes “by saying something, we do something” (“go!” or “I now pronounce you husband and wife.”).

PERFORMATIVE UTTERANCE is the one where the action sentence describes (nominating, sentencing, promising) is performed by the utterance of the sentence itself. PERFORMATIVE UTTERANCE can be either EXPLICIT or IMPLICIT.

EXPLICIT EXAMPLE: “I nominate John to be President.”

“I sentence you to ten years imprisonment.”

“I promise you to pay back.”

IMPLICIT EXAMPLE: “Don’t do that!”

ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE – the property of an utterance to be made with the intention to perform a certain ILLOCUTIONARY ACT

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MORPHOLOGY

It can be briefly described as study of form of things. It explores the smallest unit of the grammatical analysis structure - MORPHEME.

It is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's MORPHEMES and other LINGUISTIC UNITS, such as WORDS, AFFIXES, PARTS OF SPEECH, INTONATION/STRESS, or IMPLIED CONTEXT.

MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY represents a method for classifying languages according to the ways by which MORPHEMES are used in a language.

STATUS OF WORD:

It is difficult to determine boundaries of the word, to say what the word is:

o Word as a SEMANTIC ENTITY – it is a LINGUISTIC UNIT of a single meaning, it conveys one complete thought – however, very often WORD BOUNDARIES do not coincide with MEANING BOUNDARIES (criminal lawyer is not “a lawyer who is a criminal”, yet “the one who deals with criminal law”). Simply, there are phrasal words and idioms that are made of several words but have only one meaning.

o Word as PHONOLOGICAL UNIT – there are some features that characterize the word on the PHONIC LEVEL, such as STRESS. Anyway, we can’t say that every word has its STRESS (I, her, to, it) or that it has only one (‘Anglo-’Saxon). However, there is one phonic phenomenon in English that helps us distinguish between words and it is called JUNCTURE1.

o Word as SYNTACTIC UNIT – words are supposed to have fixed internal structure, anything can’t be inserted into the word, however, the criterion of non-insertion applies only to FULL WORDS. Another theory says it is a MINIMUM FREE FORM, however, we can take even –ing as MINIMUM FREE FORM.

o In linguistic, ‘WORD’ is used in two different senses, the example of boy and boys is usedo We can refer to two different words which isn’t very practical, because the number of words in so-called

inflectional languages would increase enormouslyo Or we can understand it as one word that has two forms. We can establish LEXEME boy, this lexeme has two forms

– boy and boys.o However, after all, word is not a clearly definable linguistic unit. The new unit was created to overcome the difficulties.

MORPHEME: it is the smallest unit of grammatical analysis.

There are different classes of MORPHEMES and by their combining we get sentences, paragraphs and texts. All larger units can be shown as PATTERNS OF MORPHEMES, both in AGGLUTINATIVE (Esperanto) and INFLECTIONAL LANGUAGES (Czech).

MORPHEME IDENTIFICATION – it is a MINIMAL UNIT of grammar which carries the meaning; it is not divisible any further without losing its phonetic and meaningful entity.

We distinguish between:

o MORPHEME – abstract unit to which a certain meaning is attached (superlative comparison) (oppositeness, negative); However, not only morpheme can have this abstract meaning, it can also have the meaning of the morph.

o MORPH – Actual realization of morpheme (the most) (un-)o ALLOMORPH – if there are several possibilities in which morphemes can be expressed (the most/ -est) (Un-, il-, im) For

example, in English, a past tense morpheme is -ed. It occurs in several ALLOMORPHS depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop:

o as /əd/ or /ɪd/ in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/, such as 'hunted' /hʌntəd/ or 'banded' /bændəd/

o as /t/ in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than /t/, such as 'fished' /fɪʃt/o as /d/ in verbs whose stem ends voiced phonemes other than /d/, such as 'buzzed' /bʌzd/

1 It’s either a pause in speech or a feature of pronunciation that introduces, accompanies, or replaces a pauseor the set of phonological features signalling a division between words, such as those that distinguish a name from an aim

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CONDITIONING:

1. PHONOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED ALLOMORPHSa. PLURAL FORM IN ENGLISH: -s pronounced in 3 ways: |iz|, |s| and |is|; or past tense b. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS: ANALYTICAL (the most, more) x SYNTACTICAL (-er, -est) – they have the same

function of allomorphs but one of them is suffix, the other is a single word2. MORPHOLOGICALLY CONDITIONED ALLOMORPHS

a. IRREGULAR MORPHS: something constitutes something else – ox/oxen, mouse/mice, men/manb. SUPPLETIVE MORPHS – go/went/gone, wife/wives (f supplied s)c. STYLISTIC CONDITIONING – the presence or depend of particular form depends on the style we use ( FORMAL x

INFORMAL)d. ZERO MORPHS/ALLOMORPHS – in words such as sheep, hit. If given into the plural or past form, the form doesn’t

change, but in fact, ZERO MORPH is added: sheep → singular x sheep + ø → plural; hit → present x hit + ø → paste. SUBSTRACTIVE MORPHS/MINUS FEATURE – loss of a PHONEME, especially in the French words (basse → bas)

GRAMMATICAL X LEXICAL MORPHEMES

GRAMATICAL – they are used only with lexical morphemes (-ing, -ed)

LEXICAL – they are independent, carry the meaning on their own (boy)

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WORD FORMATION

WORD FORMATION studies the patterns and formation of new words.

Position of WF: within MORPHOLOGY (DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY), or within LEXICOLOGY + LEXICAL SEMANTICS

WORD FORMATION X SYNTAX

WORD FORMATION provides names for objects x SYNTAX combines them in longer utterances.

(WORD FORMATION provides minor units as building blocks for major units).

WORD FORMATION – generation of new words are limited by the needs of population x SYNTAX are not.

SCOPE OF WFWORD FORMATION is a branch of science of language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new LEXICAL UNITS (words).

WORD FORMATION can only treat of COMPOSITES – that are analyzable into DETERMINANS + DETERMINATUM; e.g. reference library

DETERMINANS specifies typical features of the object by which it differs from other objects of the class (reference).

DETERMINATUM identifies the object to be named with other similar objects (library).

In English the order is always following: DETERMINANS + DETERMINATUM.

DETERMIATUM represents the whole SYNTAGMA2, it can stand for it in all positions (he is a businessman → he is a man, but not he is a business)

LIMITS OF WFo WORDS are formed as GRAMMATICAL SYNTAGMAS, which means they are combinations of full LINGUISTIC SIGNS → WORD

FORMATIONo COMPLEX WORDS not made up of full LINGUISTIC SIGNS (by blending, clipping), they are analyzable only synchronically, words

made up of two or MORE MORPHEMES x MONOMORPHEMIC WORD - A word that contains just one MORPHEME. (dog)o MONEMES which are non-analyzable (receive, conceive, Thursday, cranberry) – so called “CRANBERRY WORDS”

CRANBERRY MORPHS – the words consists of two parts, one of them is the actual morpheme of English, the second does not carry any meaning. MORPHEME is defined as bilateral unit. (Cranberry – cran is not MORPHEME, it does not occur in any other words in English, it just distinguishes from other types of berries).

WORD FORMATION PROCESSES:

COMPOUNDING

o productive WORD FORMATION processo RECURSIVENESS – English has the capacity to generate an indefinitely extendable series (typewriter, repair shop →

typewriter repair shop → typewriter repair shop supplies) o English has lack of INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES → form of compounds, collocations and syntactic groups tends to be alike

COMPOUNDS Collocations Syntactic GROUPS

(assault claim sexual assault adverse claim)

(orthography, uninflected word base, stress) (frequently used combination) (law terminology)

o Can be written as a single unit, two separate units or connected by a hyphen, spelling oscillates (flowerpot, flower pot, flower-pot)

2 SYNTAGMA is an elementary CONSTITUENT SEGMENT within a text. Such a segment can be a PHONEME, a WORD, a GRAMMATICAL PHRASE, a SENTENCE, or an event within a larger narrative structure, depending on the level of analysis. SYNTAGMATIC ANALYSIS involves the STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS (rules of combination) among SYNTAGMAS.

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012HANS MARCHAND (1960) – COMPOUNDS must be morphologically isolated. (They have one stress or one main stress in words with combinations of more stresses. However, the number of words with two main stresses gradually increases.)

STATUS OF COMPOUNDS:o PHONOLOGICAL COMPOUNDS: the White house x a white houseo ORTHOGRAPHICAL COMPOUNDS – solid/hyphenated/open – breakfast/six-year-old/movie staro MULTIPLE/DOUBLE COMPOUNDS: car factory, strike committee, policy decisiono SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PARAPHRASE: teapot → pot for tea; steamboat → boat driven by using with a stem engine; rowboat→

operated by row; riverboat → operated on riverO FAMILIES OF COMPOUNDSo CREATIVE PARADIGMS (bomb-happy, trigger-happy, court-happy)

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS:a. PRIMARY – they don’t contain any verbal element (table-tennis, flowerpot, school garden);

They are unpredictable MONEMES, verbless combination of nouns may have number of meaningsx SYNTHETIC – second constituent is verbal, derived by means of the SUFFIX (ice-skating, blue-eyed, snow-covered);

They are fully predictable and regularb. NEOCLASSICAL (so called PREFIX-LIKE ELEMENTS) – contains element from Greek or Latin (electro~, kilo~, hydro~, bio~, mini~,

tele~, phile~, phobe~), which have to be combined with themselves and with affixes (metrology, homophile, holograph)- x CLASSICAL (still follow original [Greek of Latin] grammar [agriculture (not agerculture)]

c. ENDOCENTRIC – there is a DETERMINER which refers to certain quality (blackbird, table-tennis, reference library)Majority of English compounds, characteristic by structure DETERMINANS + DETERMINATUM

x EXOCENTRIC – red-skin (it’s not a kind of skin), pickpocket (not a kind of pocket) (ZERO DETERMINATUM)- BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS – special subgroup of EXOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS – denoting one which is characterized by what is expressed in the compound (paleface, egghead, highbrow, longleaf…)

d. WITH CONNECTING ELEMENT – rent-a-car, craftsman, speedometer, Anglo-Saxonsx WITHOUT CONNECTING ELEMENT – prevails in English (nightmare, Seman, blackboard)

e. SYNTACTIC – constituents grammatically related in the same way as words in syntactic groups (blackbird → a black bird)- linear: black→bird, pick→pocket, White→house

x ASYNTACTIC – constituents ordered differently from the corresponding syntactic phrases (frostbitten → bitten by frost)- hand←held, frost←bitten

f. GERMANIC-TYPE – dominates in English, order DETERMINANS + DETERMINATUM (bedroom, spaceship, driving Shift)x FRENCH-TYPE – rare in English, DETERMINATUM + DETERMINANS (pickpocket)

g. COORDINATIVE - Czechoslovakia, roller-coaster – both elements are semantically equal, the sum of meanings is createdx SUBORDINATIVE – made up of DETERMINING and DETERMINED CONSTITUENTS (dance-floor, pop-corn)

CONVERSION

= ZERO DERIVATION, WORD FORMATION PROCESS

o Typically English phenomenon – loss of inflectional MORPHEMES in the historical development of English and demonstrating the strong influence of the law of economy of expression

o Words can be converted without adding any morpheme (man – noun → man – verb)o This theory presupposes DETERMINANS-DETERMINATUM structureo ZERO SUFFIX is equal to OVERT SUFFIX (-er, -ize), it’s just different type of suffixo Context is important for determining the meaning of the word, without context they do not belong to any word class (in

dictionary – round is marked as sb., adj., v., adv., prep.; others: down, like)

BACK-FORMATION

o Formation of a new word by deletion of a suffix-like element from complex form by analogy (lazy → laze by analogy with pairs like crazy →craze)

o BACK-FORMED words are mostly verbspage 12 of 26

Poznámky Lingvistika 2012BLENDING

BLENDS = TELESCOPED WORDS = PORTMANTEAU

o Generated by merging parts of two words into a single wordo Initial PHONEMES of one word + final phonemes of another (smog = smoke + fog; brunch = breakfast + lunch, channel =

tunnel + canal, electrocute = execute + electricity)*There are combinations in which both words overlap (slangualge = language + slang)*Others where only one word remains inact (Nixonomic = Nixon + economic) Process of FORM REDUCTION is unpredictable It gives an evidence of tendency of English towards economy of expression

SHORTENING OF COMPLEX WORDS

Does not generate new words, it is only reduction of their full version

CLIPPING: existing word is shortened while still remaining its original meaning and remaining a member of the same word-class

(bicycle → bike, advertisement → ad, detective → tec, influenza → flu, hamburger → burger, Elizabeth → Liz)

ACRONYMS: initial letters are taken to stand for the whole compound

LETTER ACRONYMS (NATO, CEO) SYLLABLE ACRONYMS (AsDa, Benelux (Belgique, Nederland and Luxembourg.), WTF...) HYBRIDS (BYOB = bring your own bottle, TGIF = thanks God it’s Friday, Wilfing = what was I looking for)

REDUPLICATION

based on the combination of two phonetically identical or similar MORPHEMES it can be hardly considered COMPOUNDS (no combination of meaningful morphemes) (Tap-tap = knocking on the door, puff-puff = train)

ABLAUT COMBINATIONS – twin form consisting of one basic MORPHEME and one PSEUDOMORPHEME (chit-chat = gossip, zig-zag = series of sharp turns, tip-top = first class)

RHYME COMBINATIONS – MORPHEME and PSEUDOMORPHEME joined to rhyme – jocular, emotionally coloured (hurry-scurry, walkie-talkie, hocus-pocus, willy-nilly = volky nevolky)

LEXICALIZATION

= idiomatization of meaning

Language is not a fixed system; it changes in order to comply with the changing demands of a speech community.

THREE STAGES:Nonce formation – words created for immediate meaning

Institutionalization – complex word accepted by a speech community

Lexicalization proper- SPIN

→ to spin (to give s twist)→ spinster – unmarried women→ to spin – to talk, to narrate stories to each other→ to spin – modify the truth – to spin doctor → a spin doctor – doctor modifying the truth→ spin war, spin machine, master-spinner, spinmeister

NEOLOGISM (=NEOLEXIA)It is a newly coined term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language.

Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event.page 13 of 26

Poznámky Lingvistika 2012- COMPOUNDING – couch potato- DERIVATION – yuppie, yuppiedom- SHIFT OF MEANING – spin- EXTENSION OF GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION - to host- ABBREVIATION- BACK FORMATION- BLENDING- BORROWING – LOAN WORDS (robot, dollar from tollar) vs. CALQUES (literal translation of the word – übermensch →

superman)- ROOT CREATION, COINAGE – completely new words, especially in advertising to create trademark (google, hobbit,

Kodak)- EPONYMS – based on proper name which starts to be used as a common name – hoover, boycott

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LEXICAL SEMANTICS

LEXICOLOGY – the part of LINGUISTICS which studies words, their nature and meaning, word’s elements, relations between words (SEMANTIC RELATIONS), word groups and the whole lexicon. Simply: Study of words, vocabulary as a whole, word formation, pragmatic aspects.

LEXICOGRAPHY – applied discipline, European discipline

PRACTICAL LEXICOGRAPHY – the art of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries THEORETICAL LEXICOGRAPHY – scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic

relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, it takes lexicon as a complex structure

ISSUES: size and structure of the vocabulary

link with EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY

CENTER vs. PERIPHERY VOCABULARY – some phenomena are more important (CENTER, CORE) than others (PERIPHERY, passive

vocabulary) SYNCHRONY vs. DIACHRONY – what is the current situation x the historical development contact areas with MORPHOLOGY and WORD FORMATION

LEXICON of a language is its vocabulary. It is not just a list, but a complex structure – the words are interrelated.

EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY

World around us, imaginary reality (angels, hells, quality Czech education, good Czech universities...)

It is AMORPHOUS (it has no clear boundaries). Words make some connection between people’s minds and EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY, people create DISCRETE UNITS (organization of the reality by the human mind)

*Languages can differ in how they cut up the reality (stream vs. river, hill vs. mountain, plant vs. weed) – classifications are subjective, human based.

PROPERTIES:1. Concepts can change – as children can develop their vocabulary, people’s understanding of EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY

changes2. No direct relationship between the form (sound) and content (meaning)3. Categorization of the world – the same EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY can be perceived differently by different nations. Language

forces us to see the world in a certain way: Same EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY, different categorization – tchýně x mother-in-law Identical categorization, different EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY – bread (the concept is different in English, where the

bread is already cut and brick-shaped, and Czech) Perceiving the EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY by different newspapers – The Independent – Was it a suicide? x The Sun – It

was a suicide

BASIC CONCEPTS:

WORD – is a sequence of sound and writing which communicate the meaning / the smallest unit that has meaning / stable unit which can be rearranged / primary unit of the lexical level of the language.

PHONOLOGICAL WORD (sequence of sounds) x ORTHOGRAPHICAL WORD (visual concept, word ends with space around it).

In SYNTACTICAL LANGUAGES words tend to have more definite meaning (Czech - láska, milovat) than in ANALYTICAL LANGUAGES (English - love).

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012LEXEME / LEXICAL UNIT – the abstract unit behind the word; it can be a phrase (phrased, institutionalized construction – to know the road).

GRAMMATICAL WORDS – refer to words whose sole function is to signal grammatical relationships (in English of, to and the)

LEXICAL WORDS – refers to words which have lexical meaning, they have semantic content

MEANING : notional core + periphery (denotation + connotations)

Lexical meaning is a communicative value.

a book: DENOTATION = NOTIONAL CORE – book as a OBJECT

CONNOTATION = PERIPHERAL/additional meaning of the lexeme – other senses of the word book

CENTRAL (FOCAL) vs. METAPHORICAL MEANINGS (Central vs. metaphorical meaning/extension):

- CENTRAL MEANING is the one that comes first to our minds.- On the level of idiomacy/metaphor meaning differs completely and is unpredictable.

*eye: CENTRAL – organ

METAPHORICAL – eye of the needle, eye in the potato, mountain lake, bull’s eye

It’s very rare for words to have single meaning.

Wiki: Meaning is what is intended to be expressed by the writer or speaker of a message or communication, and what is conveyed to the reader or listener.

METAPHOR VS. MONOSEMY

MONOSEMY – word has only one meaning, usual in science (centipede – stonožka)

METAPHOR:

- INSTITUTIONALIZED / CONVENTIONAL – we use them without thinking of them (love as madness – love is madness, she drives me insane; saying is moving – she went on to say; communication as enabling vision – reveal, disclose, point to)

- UNINSTITUIONALIZED – they are originalImmigrants: INSTITUTIONALIZED – illegal, threat

UNINSTITUTIONALIZED – we have to fight these rats

CORE WORDS & FUNCTIONAL LOAD & COGNATE WORDS

CORE WORDS– central to the language, the most frequent, they have high FUNCTIONAL LOAD.

They have SYNONYMS, that are less frequent (core – fat, periphery – obese, overweight, plump, stout)

They have ANTONYMS that are clear.

COGNATE WORDS have common etymological origin, they come from the same source. They are FALSE FRIENDS – they look similar, but their meaning differs (evidence – in Czech registry, in English prove). Also their CORENESS differs within languages (sradicare – Italian x eradicate – English → they look similar but in Italian it is central, in English it is not).

English: LONG WORDS – borrowed words, acquired by education, they come often from Latin, more syllables, periphery

SHORT WORDS – traditional, of domestic/germanic origin (or they are taken to be that), usually monosyllabic, central

COMPONENTS OF MEANING

a. DENOTATION (signification)- MEANING X SENSE – plurality of meaning, one word can have more senses (eye)

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012Wiki: WORD SENSE – is one of the meanings of the wordWiki: WORD MEANING – what is intended to be expressed by the writer/speakerand what is conveyed to READER/LISTENER

- SIGNIFICATION x DESIGNATION – two expressions can have one DESIGNATION (DESIGNATUM) – it means one EXTRALINGUISTIC REALITY -, and two SIGNIFICATIONS (SIGNATUM) – linguistic meaning or content.

DESIGNATUM – NapoleonSIGNATUM – The winner at Austerlitz / the looser at Waterloo

B. CONNOTATION – additional to DENOTATION, it is typical within community (black cat = bad luck; dialects); it forms a stylistic layer

c. ASSOCIATION – additional to DENOTATION, it is personal, it depends on one’s experiences (black cat – personal experience – brings luck/memories of being scratched)*CONNOTATION and ASSOCIATION form that part of the word that is understood by us as a members of some community.

d. RELATIONAL FIGURES (CONVERSENESS) – one word presupposes another word (pupil → teacher, husband x wife)e. INFERENTIAL MEANING (kiss → mouth is involved)

GEOFFREY LEECH: 7 TYPES OF MEANING

1) CONCEPTUAL MEANING/SENSE – DENOTATION, SIGNIFICATION, logical, cognitive content2) ASSOCIATIVE MEANING

a) CONNOTATIVE – real-world experienceb) STYLISTIC – social circumstancesc) AFFECTIVE – feelings and attitudes of the speakerd) REFLECTED – other sense of the same expressione) COLLOCATIVE – handsome collocates with male

3) THEMATIC MEANING – the way the message is organized – order and emphasis

WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO KNOW THE WORD? DENOTATION CONNOTATION – additional properties, reflected meanings INNER STRUCTURE - morphology COLLOCABILITY – idioms, collocations, syntactic patterns PARADIGMATIC RELATIONS – how is it related to other words in lexicon (antonyms, synonyms) PARATACTIC CLASSIFICATION (taxonomy) – does it belong to core or periphery DISTRIBUTION AND FREQUENCY

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS

SEMEME – content of LEXEME / semantic language unit of meaning, correlative to MORPHEME / the meaning of the MORPHEME

SEME/semantic element

PARADIGMATIC VS. SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS

FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE – the meaning arises from the differences between SIGNIFIERS; these differences are of two kinds: SYNTAGMATIC (concerning positioning) and PARADIGMATIC (concerning substitution).

SYNTAGM = linear sequence of oral and written language

PARADIGM = class of elements with similarities

Every item of language has a PARADIGMATIC RELATIONSHIP with every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and A SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONSHIP with items which occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat).

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The cat sat on the mat

Paradigmatic His dog slept under that table

Our parrot perched in its cage

Syntagmatic


PARADIGMATIC CONTRASTS at the level of sounds allow one to identify the PHONEMES (minimal distinctive sound units) of a language: for example, bat, fat, mat contrast with one another on the basis of a single sound, as do bat, bet, bit, and bat, bap, ban. Stylistically, rhyme is due to the paradigmatic substitution of sounds at the beginning of syllables or words, as in: ‘Tyger! Tyger! burning bright / In the forests of the night.’

On the LEXICAL LEVEL, PARADIGMATIC CONTRASTS indicate which words are likely to belong to the same word class (part of speech): cat, dog, parrot in the diagram are all nouns, sat, slept, perched are all verbs.

SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS between words enable one to build up a picture of co-occurrence restrictions within SYNTAX, for example, the verbs hit, kick have to be followed by a noun (Paul hit the wall, not *Paul hit), but sleep, doze do not normally do so (peter slept, not *peter slept the bed).

On the SEMANTIC LEVEL, PARADIGMATIC SUBSTITUTIONS allow items from a semantic set to be grouped together, for example Angela came on Tuesday (Wednesday, Thursday, etc.), while SYNTAGMATIC ASSOCIATIONS indicate compatible combinations: rotten apple, the duck quacked, rather than *curdled apple, *the duck squeaked.

MOTIVATION AND ARBITRARINESS

→ words do not refer to things → semiotic triangle by ORGEN RICHARDS (1923):

LINGUISTIC SIGN

According to FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE, every language is made up of SIGNS which have two sides:

SIGNIFIER (SIGNIFIANT) – the “shape” of the word, its phonic component, i.e. the sequence of letters or phonemes SIGNIFIED (SIGNIFIÉ) – the ideational component, the concept or object that appears in our minds when we hear or read

the SIGNIFIER. SIGNIFIED is a “mental concept” – do not confuse with the REFERENT, “the actual object” in the world.

According to CHARLES S. PEIRCE:

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Concept(Signifié)

symbolizes refers to

Symbol stands for Referent(Signifiant) (indirect relationship) (actual object)

Poznámky Lingvistika 2012- ICON - have a physical resemblance between the SIGNAL and the MEANING. Words can be partly ICONIC too, these

are the ones called ONOMATOPOETIC WORDS (bow-wow, splash, hiccup, whippoorwill bird)[The simplest matter, the one that physically resembles what it “stands for” (a picture of your face is an icon of you; the little square with a picture of a printer on your computer screen is an icon for the print function; iconically pronounced words: His nose grew waaaaaay out to here/Julia grabbed that carrot and went CHOP CHOP CHOP CHOP.)]

- INDEX – have a correlation in space and tome with its meaning. Words are said to be INDEXICAL when they directly point to their meaning (here, there, I, me, you, this). fire => smoke

[Pattern is defined by some sensory feature A (directly visible, audible, smellable) that correlates with and thus implies to B (dark clouds in the west are an index of impending rain; beep from the oven can signal that the cookies are ready to be removed; relation between the smoke behind the hill and the fire).]

- SYMBOL – (content words like nouns, verbs and adjectives) are (sound) patterns that get meaning:o Primarily from its mental association with other symbolso Secondarily from its correlation with environmental patternso unicorn, ghost, devil...

[Words as symbols – SIGNIFIANT and SIGNIFIÉ are not connected at all.]

TRANSPARENCY VS. OPAQUENESS (GETATABLE VS. ACCESSIBLE)

SEMASIOLOGY VS. ONOMASIOLOGY

SEMASIOLOGY (form → meaning) – discipline concerned with the question What does the word X mean? It studies the meaning of the word regardless of their phonetic expression. It asks for the meaning of the word or its different meanings, i.e.:

POLYSEMY – one sign has multiple meaning, depends on the context HOMONYMY – words that has the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings

o REAL HOMONYMS – • bar – 1. (<barrer, Fr. – obstacle) something which prevents enter 2. a unit of pressure (baros, Gr.); bank – 1. place where you put your money 2. place by river

o HOMOGRAPHS (literally “same writing”) – words that share the same spelling, regardless of how they are pronounced (bank – of the river, as an institution)

o HOMOPHONES (literally “same sound”) – words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of how they are spelled (to, too, two)

ONOMASIOLOGY (meaning → form) – branch of linguistics concerned with the question How do you express X? It starts from a concept which is taken to be prior (i.e. an idea, an object, a quality, an activity) and asks for its names.

SYNONYMY – absolute is rare, words are close in meaning (differs in intensity), they differs in the use within phrases ANTONYMY – OPPOSITENESS – CONTRADICTORY/COMPLEMENTARY (single x married), TAXONOMY (classifying the word into

certain semantic category) HYPONYMY – it is a word or phrase whose semantic field is included within that of another word, its hyperonym x HYPERONYMY

The relation between HYPONYMY and HYPERONYMY is the same as that of class and subclass.HYPONYM CLASS FlowerHYPERONYM SUBCLASS Rose

MERONYMY – finger is a MERONYM of hand because it forms it’s part

*SEMASIOLOGICAL QUESTION:What is the meaning of the term chips? (Answer: “long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried” in the UK, “slim slices of potatoes deep fried or baked until crisp” in the USA)

*ONOMASIOLOGICAL QUESTION:What are the names for long, narrow pieces of potato that have been deep-fried? (Answer: French fries in the US, chips In the UK)

CENTRE VS. PERIPHERY

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012LEXICON is taken as a system – the meaning of the word is a function of its relations to other words in a particular field (i.e. a lexical subsystem).

In the CENTRE we can find the most stable words; in the PERIPHERY new, archaic, or idiosyncratic words can be found.

There is LACK OF BALANCE between CENTRE and PERIPHERY (UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM) – words are leaving and getting to the language system.

TWO OPPOSING FORCES:- INTEGRATION/UNIFORMITY- DIVERSIFICATION (shade & shadow)

SEMANTIC FIELD – is a technical term in the discipline of linguistics to describe a set of words grouped by meaning in a certain way.

Kill: SEMANTIC FIELD – it contains various ways of killing, of various number of people or animals in different situations or with different intentions or motivations – massacre, decimate, butcher, shoot, strangle, drown, murder….

EUPHEMISMS: put to sleep, do away with

DYSPHEMISMS: rub out (sejmout), zap (odprásknout), bump off (odkráglovat)

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LANGUAGE VARIATION

FICTION OF HOMOGENEITY

- NORMATIVITY - there are certain rules in English (i.e. non-existence of double negative)x CORRECTNESS – with respect to the Standard we distinguish between CORRECT and INCORRECT, standard forms can be formed in

Manuals/publications presented by universities…- We don’t talk about CORRECT x INCORRECT, but ACCEPTABLE x APPROPRIATE

- Variation: SYNCHRONIC (in certain period of time) x DIACHRONIC (within centuries)- VARIETY – set of linguistic means which is contrasted with another set of the language (British vs. American English)

- COMMON CORE – something what all varieties have in common, it overlaps (children, offspring, kids)- native speakers – stylistic multilingualism (Lyons)

VARIETIES

→ USER-RELATED VARIETIES (“DIALECTS”/(“PATOIS”) are associated with particular people or locations (Canadian, black English). It can

have various sub varieties. USER-RELATED varieties are relatively stable (if we change the locality, our geographical variety stays with us).

- GEOGRAPHICAL varieties are compared to Standard sometimes LESS PRESTIGIOUS but from the linguistic point of view they are equal

- TEMPORAL – people in Anglo-Saxons period and people in England of 19th century spoke differently- SOCIAL – black English, …

- NON-STANDARD vs. STANDARD – STANDARD is used in a situations of power and prestige, it is related with certain education- IDIOLECTAL – typical for each person, everyone has their IDIOLECT

- AGE – “teen” SLANG x LANGUAGE used by people in their 60s or 70s surely differs; these varieties helps to show how the language

changes- SEX/GENDER – typically male or female vocabulary that is in a

certain way connected with social position. For example, question tags are more often used by women.

*GENDER LINGUISTICS – much of our identity is fluent according to what we interpret, how we show who we are

BRAJ KACHRU’S CIRCLES OF ENGLISH →

1. INNER – “norm-providing” – consists of native speakers of

Standard English2. OUTER – “norm-developing” – in English colonies where English

is used together with other official local language3. EXPANDING – “norm dependent”- English is used as foreign language, i.e. for company communication

→ USE-RELATED VARIETIES – (“usage varieties”) – different “styles” (Czech)/”REGISTERS” (English) used in different situations

Depend on situationpage 21 of 26

Poznámky Lingvistika 2012 Less stable than dialects

FIELD/DOMAIN – subject matter of the situation, what are you talking about (science, advertisement, law)

TENOR (obsah)– relation between speaker and hearer (participants) determines the level of formality (friend to friend/boss to employee)

MODE – textual organization/formal shape of the message (choice between written or spoken medium, thematic organization) + functional style (scientific, artistic)

FIELD (domain) (advertising, science...) IDEATIONALTENOR INTERPERSONALMODE TEXTUAL

STANDARD ENGLISH – refers to whatever form of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country

Within STANDARD ENGLISH, there exists a range of registers (newspapers x academic paper) There is also distinction between spoken and written standards (spoken are quicker to accept new grammatical forms

and vocabulary)

GRADDOL:

THE LEGACY OF HISTORY

Thanks British colonies, English became the “language on which the sun never sets”.

In 17th and 18th century when the need of national languages appeared, English became national language of many countries.

During 18th and 19th centuries there were attempts to create national languages form of English. There are increasing numbers of national standards, each is supported by their governments, i.e. by publishing dictionaries, grammar and style sheets. Nevertheless, no central authority has ever existed, either nationally or globally, which can regulate the language.

English = an evolving language with ability of HIBRIDITY and PERMEABILITY. (propustnost)

ENGLISH IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Thanks the loss of Germany and victory of UK, US, etc., English became popular.

Nowadays, it has second place in among the native-spoken languages (after Chinese). It is the working language no one. It is used in scientific publications, international banking, economic affairs and trade…

WHO SPEAKS ENGLISH?

1st colonial process created different national varieties of English – US, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zeland 2nd colonial process made English elite language (India, West and East Africa) → creation of new hybrid varieties of English

– CREOLS CREOL – from a linguistic point of view it is distinct language, from sociolinguistic, it is part of English-speaking

community 3 types of English-speakers – L1, L2, EFL speakers (KACHRU’S MODEL):

o L1 – there are over 377 million of native speakers (including CREOLE)o L2 - one-third of world population gives to English special status, it is used for internal (intranational)

communication; English in these countries is influenced by local languages and it uses the model of correctness coming from UK, rarely US

O EFL – there is no local model of English in EFL AREAS, but the accent and patterns error can reflect characteristic of the native language of EFL SPEAKER

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012 Nowadays many countries are gradually shifting from the status of EFL COUNTRY into L2 COUNTRY

LANGUAGE HIERARCHIES

- English is used in L2 or EFL COUNTRIES as administrative language or in education, for the communication within families and other unofficial talks, local languages are used. People in these countries rarely need to know English, thus it may be even their 4th or 5th language. But even native speakers use more regional variations used In different situations.

- English and CODE SWITCHING – many nations use CODE-SWITCHING as a communicative resource, they can switch between languages even within one sentence. It has a meaning that only a member of the speech community can fully understand (i.e. English and Swahili). In the hierarchy of languages, English is becoming more important and penetrates even into lower layers (higher layers = administrative function).

- Non-native speakers interactions – English acts as lingua franca between non-native speakers, it allows usage of various strategies connected with usage of non-native language

LYON

SOME MODERN SCHOOLS AND MOVEMENTS

The schools of 20th century and their works influenced each other in all ways.

HISTORICISM

If LINGUISTIC is a science, it has to be concerned with history; this is DIACHRONIC ATTITUDE

To fully know the language, we have to know its historical development of particular forms and meanings Historicism doesn’t mean evolutionism which says that there is directionality in the development of languages

OTTO JASPERSEN, NEOGRAMMARIANS

STRUCTURALISM

Opposes to historicism – it is structural (non-historical and functional)– it demonstrates how all the forms and meanings are interrelated at a particular point in time in a particular language-system

It tells us how all the components fit together

SYNCHRONIC ATTITUDE

SAUSSURE – says that SYNCHRONIC and DIACHRONIC MODES of explanations are COMPLEMENTARY

o Language (LANGUE) (language system) is a form, not a substance; it is a structure, two-level system of syntagmatic

and paradigmatic (substitutional) relations. The only object of linguistics is the language-system [LA LANGUE].

x PAROLE (language-behavior) – concrete language manifestations shaped with particular communicative intentions in mind

o Saussure’s principle of the ARBITRARINESS of the LINGUISTIC SIGN: that what is signified (le signifié) is arbitrarily

(svévolně) associated with that which SIGNIFIES (le signifiant)o SIGN is not a meaningful form; meaning cannot exist independently of the forms which they are associated; and

vice versa

o LE SIGNIFIÉ of a word (the sense; the aspect of meaning which is wholly internal to the language system) – is a

product of the semantics relations which hold between that word and others in the same language-system.LE SIGNIFIANT of a word – its phonological shape, it results from the network of contrasts and equivalences that a

particular language-system imposes upon the continuum of sound

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Poznámky Lingvistika 2012FUNCTIONALISM

The phonological, grammatical and semantic structure of languages is determined by the functions that they have to perform in the societies in which they operate

It is understood as a particular movement within STRUCTURALISM, not its contrasting theory It tends to emphasize the INSTRUMENTAL CHARACTER of language Its representatives are members of PRAGUE SCHOOL

PRAGUE SCHOOL

Movement that has its origins in the PRAGUE LINGUISTIC CIRCLE, however, its members are not only Czech, it is European

movement Members: ROMAN JAKOBSON, NIKOLAJ TRUBETZKOY (distinguishes between DISTINCTIVE, DEMARCATIVE and EXPRESSIVE FUNCTIONS

of PHONETIC FEATURES):o DEMARCATIVE FUNCTION – in many languages SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES (such as STRESS, TONE, LENGTH) have a

DEMARCATIVE rather than DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION. They can serve as boundary-signals.

o EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION – stress in French

INTELLECTUALISM – language is the externalization or expression of thought FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE – the structure of utterances is determined by the use to which they are put and the

communicative context in which they occur IMPLICATIONAL UNIVERSALS – the presence of one apparently arbitrary property in a language tends to imply the presence

or absence of another apparently arbitrary property

GENERATIVISM

- Developed by NOAM CHOMSKY and his followers – system of TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMAR

- It is created by body of assumptions and doctrines- Inspired by BEHAVIORISM

- Says that language is free from stimulus control, which means it is creative – utterances used in the context are

unpredictable as for their form. However, this creativity is rule-governed by grammaticality (well-formedness). - MENTALISM – LINGUISTICS has an important role in the investigation of the nature of the mind; the most controversial

aspect of GENERATIVISM

- CHOMSKY defines formal properties in language – LINGUISTIC UNIVERSALS

- CHOMSKY draws between COMPETENCE and PERFORMANCE (COMPETENCE-PERFORMANCE DISTINCTION) – a very heart of the GENERATIVISM (it is similar to SAUSSURE’S distinction between langue and parole)

o COMPETENCE – a speaker’s linguistic competence is his knowledge of the language-system. It is a set of rules

constructed in speaker’s mind.o PERFORMANCE – it is LANGUAGE-BEHAVIOUR – it is determined not only by speaker’s linguistic COMPETENCE, but also by

variety of non-linguistic factors (social conventions, beliefs about the world, emotional attitudes towards what

one is saying, psychological and physiological mechanisms involved in the production of utterances)o CHOMSKY’S THEORY – sentence is central part of a speaker’s LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

x SAUSSURE’S THEORY – sentence is part of PAROLE (LANGUAGE-BEHAVIOUR/PERFORMANCE)

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HISTORY OF ENGLISH

OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:

1. PRE-ENGLISH PERIOD (- c. AD 450)Romans brought Latin to the area of Britain. Latin was used as an administration language. It mixed with original Celtic language (which had two branches corresponding to modern Gaelic and Welsh). Many communities became bilingual Celtic-Latin.

2. EARLY OLD ENGLISH (c.450 – c.850)Latin remained important on the field of church, but after Anglo-Saxons invasion, brought Germanic dialects gave shape to creation of English. OLD ENGLISH (with some words from Latin) was created. First texts in OLD ENGLISH appeared.

3. LATER OLD ENGLISH (c.850 – 1100)Influence of Vikings (coming from Scandinavia) on the North. Texts translated from Latin to English on the South.

4. MIDDLE ENGLISH (c.1100 – c.1450) Normand Conquest → English influenced by French → LOSS OF INFLECTION, word order used to mark grammatical functions of nouns Writers: GEOFFREY CHAUCER – his English is similar to modern

5. EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (c. 1450 – c. 1750) The influence of Church and thus Latin declines, English is used even in science. English was brought into Britain colonies. There was need to give it typographic identity as the printing was becoming popular. Teaching English as foreign language (Holland, France)

6. MODERN ENGLISH (1750 – 1950) English became national language → attempts to ‘standardize and fix’ the language French declined, English spread around the world into colonies – English-medium education

7. LATE MODERN ENGLISH (1950 - …) Use of auxiliary I became obligatory in English in questions and negations involving main verbs Widespread literacy, increasing acces to education → strengthened position of Standard English

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PRAGMATICS

The beginning of pragmatics date to 1977 and is connected with C. W. MORRIS and his triad of SYNTAX, SEMANTICS and PRAGMATICS.

It covers huge amount of topics, that’s why it was called the WASTE-BASKET OF LINGUISTICS.

SCOPE OF PRAGMATICS:

- MORRIS’ triad of SYNTAX, SEMANTICS and PRAGMATICS: SYNTAX – the relation of signs to other signs SEMANTICS – the relationship of signs to the objects to which the SIGNS are applicable PRAGMATICS – the RELATIONSHIP of signs to their INTERPRETERS (=classical definition of Pragmatics)

- PRAGMATICS has been also influenced by SPEECH ACT THEORY (by J. AUSTIN) known under the terms CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE or CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE

- Other trends having left influence on the scope of pragmatics: Ethnography of communication Sociolinguistics Interactional sociolinguistics CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS – studies the mechanisms of face-to-face interaction, how people act not to lose their

FACE; this includes politeness and its language manifestations→ CROSS-CULTURAL PRAGMATICS – grasps similarities and differences across cultures and becomes relevant guide in pragmatic expectations across cultures

DEFINITIONS OF PRAGMATICS

- “the study of understanding intentional human action” (GREEN), “the discipline studying linguistic interaction between ‘I’ and ‘you’” → “language in use”

- When talking we react to the previous context (CO-TEXT), CONTEXT (verbal, situational and pragmatic) has imprints on our way to adequate and relevant communicative behaviour, referred to as ‘FELICITY CONDITIONS’ (‘SINCERITY CONDITIONS’ or ‘HAPPY CONDITIONS OF COMMUNICATION’)

- YULE: PRAGMATICS is the study of SPEAKER MEANING PRAGMATICS is the study of CONTEXTUAL MEANING PRAGMATICS is the study of how more gets communicated than what is said

SUBCATEGORIZATION:

- LINGUISTIC PRAGMATICS (PRAGMALINGUISTICS) – focuses on our experiences with LANGUAGE CODE (i.e. use of the past tense to signal politeness)

- NON-LINGUISTIC PRAGMATIC (‘general knowledge of the world’, ‘knowledge of the universe’) – concerns our lifetime experience with various aspects of the surrounding world

- LEVINSON’S SUBCATEGORIZATION: UNIVERSAL PRAGMATICS – the general theory of what aspects of context get encoded and how LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC PRAGMATICS – of individual languages

- CONTRASTIVE PRAGMATICS – study of culture-specific ways of using language- CROSS-CULTURAL PRAGMATICS- INTER-LANGUAGE PRAGMATICS – focus on the communicative behaviour of non-native users of their second language

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