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Q.1 Write a note on the functions of management.

Answer:

Management could be termed as a social process involving responsibility for economical and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given purposes. It is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are different from operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these activities are common to each and every manger irrespective of his level or status.

Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”. According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL

• Planning,

• Organizing,

• Staffing,

• Directing

• Controlling.

For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others.

i. Planning :

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance – what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

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ii. Organizing:

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

• Identification of activities.• Classification of grouping of activities.• Assignment of duties.• Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.• Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

iii. Staffing:

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”.

Staffing involves:

• Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place).

• Recruitment, selection & placement.• Training & development.• Remuneration.• Performance appraisal.• Promotions & transfer.

iv. Directing:

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel

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aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals.

Direction has following elements:

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

v. Controlling:

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:

a. Establishment of standard performance.b. Measurement of actual performance.c. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.d. Take Corrective action.

Q.2. Discuss any two learning theories in detail.

Answer:

1. Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov (1927). This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism. This is

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called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR).

Classical conditioning was first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov used a bell before giving food to his dog. Rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat (a response to food - unconditioned response), after a few repetitions, the dog started to salivate in response to the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US – meat). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a Conditioned Response.

Types of Classical Conditioning:

1. Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

2. Delay conditioning: In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US.

3. Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the US is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the conditioning interval.

4. Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time.

5. Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditional stimulus immediately follows an unconditional stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditional stimulus precedes the unconditional stimulus, the conditional response tends to be inhibitory. This is because the conditional stimulus serves as a signal that the unconditional stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional stimulus.

6. Temporal conditioning: The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval between US presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the CS in this example.

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7. Unpaired conditioning: The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

8. CS-alone extinction: The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the CR has been acquired through "forward conditioning" training. Eventually, the CR frequency is reduced to pre-training levels. Essentially, the stimulus is presented until habituation occurs.

2. Social Learning

The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Social learning has four processes:

1. Attention processes - People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. In order to learn, it is required to pay attention. Anything that distracts attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning.

2. Retention processes - A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after that it is no longer readily available. The ability to store information is also important part of the learning process.

3. Motor reproduction processes - After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. The ability to pull up information and act on it is vital to observational learning.

4. Reinforcement processes - Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. For example, to see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time would encourage one to show up a few minutes early each day.

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Principles of social learning are as follows:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding, modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

Q.3. Explain the classification of personality types given by Sheldon.

Answer:

Personality type theory aims to classify people into distinct CATEGORIES. i.e. this type or that. Personality types are synonymous with “personality styles”.

William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified personality according to body type. He called this a person’s somatotype. He was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing variety of human bodies and temperaments. Sheldon claimed that three are three such somatotypes: endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy.

Sheldon’s Somatotype Character Shape

Endomorph [viscerotonic]relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful

plump, buxom, developed visceral structure

Mesomorph [somatotonic] active, assertive, vigorous, combative

muscular

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic] quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive

lean, delicate, poor muscles

1. Endomorphy - It is focused on the digestive system, particularly the stomach (endoderm); has the tendency toward plumpness, corresponds to Viscerotonia temperament tolerant, love of comfort and luxury, extravert.

2. Mesophorphy - It is focused on musculature and the circulatory system (mesoderm), has the tendency towards muscularity, and corresponds to the Somatotonia temperament courageous, energetic, active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive, risk taker.

3. Ectomorphy - It is focused on the nervous system and the brain (ectoderm) – the tendency towards slightness, corresponds to Cerebrotonia temperament artistic, sensitive, apprehensive, introvert. To carry on its work, each organization needs competent staff with necessary qualifications, skills, knowledge, work experience and aptitude for work.

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On this basis, Sheldon created “Atlas of Men”, in which all possible body types are graded in a scale from 1 (low) to 7 (high), based on the degree to which they matched these types; with 4 as average. Each type is represented by a series of photos, and is given a comical or descriptive name, like "saber tooth tiger" for extreme mesomorph, "Baluchitherium" for mesomorph and endomorph, "Male Mosquito" for the extreme ectomorph, and so on. On this scale, the extreme or pure mesomorph has a score of 1-7-1, the pure endomorph 7-1-1, and the pure ectomorph 1-1-7. Most people of course are a combination of types.

Body Type Associated personality traits

Somatotype Body Type Associated Personality Traits

Endomorphic

Soft body Underdeveloped muscles Round shaped Over-developed digestive

system

love of food tolerant evenness of emotions love of comfort sociable good humoured relaxed need for affection

Mesomorphic

hard, muscular body overly mature appearance rectangular shaped thick skin upright posture

adventurous desire for power and

dominance courageous indifference to what others

think or want assertive, bold zest for physical activity competitive love of risk and chance

Ectomorphic

thin flat chest delicate build young appearance tall lightly muscled stoop-shouldered large brain

self-conscious preference for privacy introverted inhibited socially anxious artistic mentally intense emotionally restrained

Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they were generally mesomorphs (Ornstein, 1993). But body types have been criticized for very weak empirical methodology and are not generally used in psychology. The use of omatotyping is used more often in alternative therapies and Eastern psychology and spirituality.

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Q.4. What are the factors influencing perception?

Answer:

Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. These factors can reside:

1. In the perceiver.2. In the object or target being perceived or3. In the context of the situation in which the perception is made.

Factors influencing perception

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1. Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:

a) Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews.

b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavorably.

c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates.

d) Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others.

e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class.

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f) Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.

g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal

Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.

People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people.

Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.

These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental situation.

2. Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.The perceiver will notice the target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colours our entire impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries.

Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input. Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in an attempt to form an impression of the target .As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects or events that are unrelated.

For example, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two employees of a department suddenly resign, we tend to assume their departures were related when in

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fact, they might be totally unrelated. People, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability we will tend to perceive them as a group.

3. Characteristics of the Situation

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. E.g. meeting a manager in his or her office affects your impression in a certain way that may contrast with the impression you would have formed, had you met the manager in a restaurant. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In these situations, we assume that ±ie individual's behavior can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition. This is the discounting principle in social perception. For example, you may encounter an automobile salesperson who has a warm and personable manner, asks you about your work and hobbies, and seems genuinely interested in your taste in cars. Can you assume that this behaviour reflects the salesperson's personality? You probably cannot, because of the influence of the situation. This person is trying to sell you a car, and in this particular situation, he probably treats all customers in this manner.

Q.5. Mr. Solanki is the VP- HR of a leading financial services company. He is having a meeting with Ms. Ramani, leading HR consultant. Mr. Solanki is concerned about creating an environment that helps in increasing the job satisfaction amongst employees. Assume that you are Ms. Ramani, the HR consultant; what suggestions you will give to Mr. Solanki, for creating an environment that increases job satisfaction?

Answer:

Job satisfaction is the sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well. For an organization, satisfied work force ensures commitment to high quality performance and increased productivity. Job satisfaction helps organizations to reduce complaints and grievances, absenteeism, turnover, and termination. Job satisfaction is also linked to a healthier work force and has been found to be a good indicator of longevity. And although only little correlation has been found between job satisfaction and productivity, it has also been found that satisfying or delighting employees is a prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus protecting the "bottom line.

As Mr. Ramani, the HR consultant, I suggest Mr. Solanki, that the following measures should be implemented for creating an environment that increases job satisfaction:

1. Mentally Challenging Work: Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and feedback on how well they

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are doing. Under conditions of moderate challenge, most employees will experience pleasure and satisfaction.

2. Personality-Job Fit: People with personality types congruent with their chosen vocations should find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the demands of their jobs; and because of this success, they have a greater probability of achieving high satisfaction from their work. It is important, therefore to fit personality factors with job profiles.

3. Equitable Rewards: Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that they perceive as being just, unambiguous, and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level, and industry pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result. Similarly, employees seek fair promotion policies and practices. Promotions provide opportunities for personal growth, more responsibilities and increased social status. Individuals who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner are likely to experience job satisfaction.

4. Supportive working conditions: Employees prefer physical conditions that are comfortable and facilitate doing a good job. Temperature, light, noise and other environmental factors should not be extreme and provide personal comfort. Further, employees prefer working relatively close to home, in clean and relatively modern facilities and with adequate tools and equipment.

5. Supportive Colleagues: Employees have need for social interaction. Therefore, having friendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisor’s leads to increased job satisfaction. Most employees want their immediate supervisor to be understanding and friendly, those who offer praise for good performance, listen to employees’ opinions and show a personal interest in them.

6. Whistle blowing: Whistle-blowers are employees who inform authorities of wrongdoings of their companies or co-workers. Whistle blowing is important because committed organizational members sometimes engage in unethical behavior in an intense desire to succeed. Organizations can manage whistle blowing by communicating the conditions that are appropriate for the disclosure of wrongdoing. Clearly delineating wrongful behavior and the appropriate ways to respond are important organizational actions.

7. Social Responsibility: Corporate social responsibility is the obligation of an organization to behave in ethical ways in the social environment in which it operates. Socially responsible actions are expected of organizations. Current concerns include protecting the environment, promoting worker safety, supporting social issues, investing in the community, etc. Managers must encourage both individual ethical behavior and organizational social responsibility.

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Q.6. Given below is the HR policy glimpse of the “VARK-LEARNING”, a learning and training solutions company: 1. It offers cash rewards for staff members2. It promotes the culture of employee referral and encourages people to refer people they know may be their friends, ex. Colleagues batch mates, relatives. 3. What all needs do it takes care off according to Maslow’s need hierarchy 4. It recognizes good performances and gives fancy titles and jackets to the people who perform well and also felicitates them in the Annual Day of the company.What all aspects does it takes care of according to the Maslow’s Need Hierarchy?.

Answer:

According to Maslow’s Need Hierarchy theory, human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot. The needs are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex. The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied. The further they progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show.

The five needs given by Maslow are as follows:

1. Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.

2. Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm.

3. Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.

4. Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors, such as, self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors, such as, status, recognition, and attention.

5. Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.

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The HR policy of “VARK Learning” company takes care of the following needs:

1. The first point takes care of the esteem needs. Offering cash rewards to employees satisfies their self-respect. They get external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention from others. They get to enjoy general esteem from others.

2. The second point takes care of the social and self-actualization needs. When the employee refers to others, his need of affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship are satisfied. In this way, his social needs are satisfied. When the employee is referring to others, his self-actualization needs are also satisfied.

3. The third point takes care of the safety and social needs. The employee’s emotional needs are taken care of when they are praised for their good performance. Their self-respect is also satisfied. They get status, recognition, and attention. Their esteem needs are also satisfied.

This policy creates an employer-employee friendly relationship and makes the bond stronger between them. And the work performance of the employees also increases.

Employee survey techniques have developed significantly over the past few years, with web based technologies it is easier and cheaper than ever to collect and manage data. In the past, any HR driven initiative was seen as tactical and of little real benefit to the organization as a whole. Now many enlightened organizations see HR and employee surveys as a powerful business improvement tool.

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Q.1. Write a note on classical era for evolution of Organization behaviour.

Answer:

The Classical Era:

We see this trend to continue in what is called as the classical era which covers the period between 1900 to mid-1930s. The first general theories of management began to evolve and the main contributors during this era were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Mary parker Follet and Chester Barnard.

Frederick Taylor’s main emphasis was on finding one best way of doing each job. He stressed on selecting the right people for the job, train them to do it precisely in one best way. He favored wage plans to motivate the workers. His scientific principles of management stressed the following principles:

1. Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager; managers should do all the thinking relating to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation.

2. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; assign the worker’s task accordingly, specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done.

3. Select the best person to perform the job thus designed.

4. Train the worker to do the work efficiently.

5. Monitor worker performances to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and that appropriate results are achieved.

Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze human behavior at work. He insisted the use of time-and-motion study as a means of standardizing work activities. His scientific approach called for detailed observation and measurement of even the most routine work, to find the optimum mode of performance. The results were dramatic, with productivity increasing significantly. With passing time, new organizational functions like personnel and quality control were created. Of course, in breaking down each task to its smallest unit to find what Taylor called ‘‘the one best way’’ to do each

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job, the effect was to remove human variability. Hence he laid the ground for the mass production techniques that dominated management thinking in the first half of the twentieth century.

Henri Fayol, a mining engineer and manager by profession, defined the nature and working patterns of the twentieth-century organization in his book, General and Industrial Management, published in 1916. In it, he laid down what he called 14 principles of management. This theory is also called the Administrative Theory. The principles of the theory are:

1. Division of work: tasks should be divided up with employees specializing in a limited set of tasks so that expertise is developed and productivity increased.

2. Authority and responsibility: authority is the right to give orders and entails enforcing them with rewards and penalties; authority should be matched with corresponding responsibility.

3. Discipline: this is essential for the smooth running of business and is dependent on good leadership, clear and fair arguments, and the judicious application of penalties.

4. Unity of command: for any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one superior only; otherwise authority, discipline, order, and stability are threatened.

5. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single objective should be co-coordinated by a single plan under one head.

6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: individual or group goals must not be allowed to override those of the business.

7. Remuneration of personnel: this may be achieved by various methods but it should be fair, encourage effort, and not lead to overpayment.

8. Centralization: the extent to which orders should be issued only from the top of the organization is a problem which should take into account its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the personnel.

9. Scalar chain (line of authority): communications should normally flow up and down the line of authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization, but sideways communication between those of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as superiors are kept informed.

10. Order: both materials and personnel must always be in their proper place; people must be suited to their posts so there must be careful organization of work and selection of personnel.

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11. Equity: personnel must be treated with kindness and justice.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel: rapid turnover of personnel should be avoided because of the time required for the development of expertise.

13. Initiative: all employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative within limits imposed by the requirements of authority and discipline.

14. Esprit de corps: efforts must be made to promote harmony within the organization and prevent dissension and divisiveness.

The management functions, that Fayol stated, consisted of planning, organizing, commanding, co-coordinating and controlling. Many practicing managers, even today, list these functions as the core of their activities.

Fayol was also one of the first people to characterize a commercial organization’s activities into its basic components. He suggested that organizations could be sub-divided into six main areas of activity:

1. Technical 2. Commercial 3. Financial 4. Security 5. Accounting 6. Management.

In defining the core principles governing how organizations worked and the contribution of management to that process, Fayol laid down a blueprint that has shaped organization thinking for almost a century.

Max Weber developed a theory based on authority relations and was the pioneer in looking at management and OB from a structural viewpoint. His theory is also known as bureaucratic theory in management. He described ideal types of organization and called it a bureaucracy. This was a system marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations and impersonal relationships. He wanted this ideal types construct to be taken as a basis for creating organizations in real world. The detailed features of Weber’s ideal bureaucratic structure are as follows:

1. Jurisdictional areas are clearly specified, activities are distributed as official duties (unlike traditional form where duties delegated by leader and changed at any time).

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2. Organization follows hierarchical principle - subordinates follow orders or superiors, but have right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse structure in traditional authority).

3. Intention, abstract rules govern decisions and actions. Rules are stable, exhaustive, and can be learned. Decisions are recorded in permanent files (in traditional forms few explicit rules or written records).

4. Means of production or administration belong to office. Personal property separated from office property.

5. Officials are selected on basis of technical qualifications, appointed not elected, and compensated by salary.

6. Employment by the organization is a career. The official is a full-time employee and looks forward to a life-long career. After a trial period they get tenure of position and are protected from arbitrary dismissal.

Q.2. Write a note on different types of groups. Explain.

Answer:

Groups can be of two types:

Formal Informal

Groups can be either formal or informal.

1. Formal Groups: A designated work group defined by the organization's structure. A formal group is set up by the organization to carry out work in support of the organization's goals. In formal groups, the behaviour that one should engage in are stipulated by - and directed toward - organizational goals. Examples include a book-keeping department, an executive committee, and a product development team. Formal groups may be command groups or task groups.

i) Command Group: A command group consists of a manager and the employees who report to him or her. Thus, it is defined in terms of the organization's hierarchy. Membership in the group arises from each employee's position on the organizational chart.

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ii) Task Group: A task group is made up of employees who work together to complete a particular task or project. A task group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships. An employee's membership in the group arises from the responsibilities delegated to the employee -that is, the employee's responsibility to carry out particular activities. Task group may be temporary with an established life span, or they may be open ended.

iii) Committee: A group of people officially delegated to perform a function, such as investigating, considering, reporting, or acting on a matter. Committee, one or more persons appointed or elected to consider report on, or take action on a particular matter. It investigates analyses and debates the problem and makes recommendation. Committee usually has their own committee member comprising of advisory authority, secretary and others. Recommendation is sent to the authority that is responsible for implementing them.

Characteristics of Formal groups

Created to carry out some specific task or to meet a required goal Explicitly stated defined structure, procedural rules and membership Relatively permanent or temporary (e.g. steering group or problem solving group) Defined roles and designated work assignments Well Defined norms Specified goals and deadlines

2. Informal Groups: An organization's informal groups are the groups that evolve to meet social or affiliation needs by bringing people together based on shared interests or friendship. Thus, informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. Many factors explain why people are attracted to one another. One explanation is simply proximity; when people work near one another every day, they are likely to form friendships. That likelihood is even greater when people also share similar attitudes, personalities, or economic status.

i) Friendship Groups: Groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics. We call these formations 'friendship groups'. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the work situation, can be based on similar age, same political view, attended the same college, etc.

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ii) Interest Groups: People who may or may not be aligned into common command or task groups may affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an interest group.

iii) Reference Groups: Sometimes, people use a group as a basis for comparison in making decisions or forming opinions. When a group is used in this way, it is a reference group. Employees have reference groups inside or outside the organization where they work. For most people, the family is the most important reference groups. Other important reference groups typically include co-workers, friends, and members of the person's religious organization. The employee need not admire a group for it to serve as a reference group. Some reference groups serve as a negative reference; the employee tries to be unlike members of these groups.

iv) Membership Groups: When a person does belong to a group (formal and informal groups to which employees actually belong) the group is called a membership group (or affiliation group) for that person. Members of a group have some collection of benefits and responsibilities that go beyond the group serving as a reference point. In a membership group, each member would be expected to contribute to the group's well-being and would enjoy the benefits arising from the group members' friendship.

v) Cliques: A relatively permanent informal groups that involves friendship. Most of the relationships came down to two cliques, each with a hanger-on, and some isolates. The groups included several different professions. They developed ideas about each other. Clique membership acted as a form of social control, forcing people to conform to group desires. The groups established norms regarding output, treatment of supervisor, reciprocity and other interpersonal relations. The cliques served as a system for sense making about organizational events. They developed their own set of beliefs, explaining things to each other.

Q.3. Explain the approaches of conflict management?

Answer:

There are two types of conflict management approaches:

Direct Indirect

Direct conflict management approaches

There are five approaches to direct conflict management. They are based on the relative emphasis on cooperativeness and assertiveness in the relationship between the conflicting parties. They are as follows:

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Avoidance – it is an extreme form of inattention; everyone simply pretends that the conflict does not really exist and hopes that it will go away.Accommodation involves playing down differences among the conflicting parties and highlighting similarities and areas of agreement. This peaceful coexistence ignores the real essence of a given conflict and often creates frustration and resentment.

Compromise – it occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other. As a result of no one getting its full desires, the antecedent conditions for future conflicts are established.

Competition – here a victory is achieved through force, superior skill, or domination by one party. It may also occur as a result of authoritative command, whereby a formal authority simply dictates a solution and specifies what is gained and what is lost by whom. This is a case of win-lose situation and as a result, future conflicts over the same issues are likely to occur.

Collaboration – it involves recognition by all conflicting parties that something is wrong and needs attention. It stresses gathering and evaluating information in solving disputes and making choices.

The figure below shows the five conflict management styles using these two dimensions.

Conflict Management Styles

The table below shows the appropriate conflict-handling situation

Conflict-handlingStyle

Appropriate Solution

Competing1. When quick, decisive action is vital (e.g., emergencies).2. On important issues where unpopular actions need implementing

(e.g., cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules, discipline).3. On issues vital to company welfare when you know you are right.4. Against people who take advantage of non-competitive behaviour.

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Collaborating1. To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too

important to be compromised.2. When your objective is to learn.3. To merge insights from people with different perspectives.4. To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus.5. To work through feelings those have interfered with a relationship.

Compromising

1. When goals are important, but not worth the effort or potential disruption of more assertive modes.

2. When opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals.

3. To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues.4. To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure.5. As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful.

Avoiding1. When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing.2. When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns.3. When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution,4. To let people cool down and regain perspective.5. When others can resolve the conflict more effectively.6. When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues.

Accommodating1. When you find you are wrong - to allow a better position to be

heard, to learn, and to show your reasonableness.2. When issues are more important to others than to you - to satisfy

others and maintain cooperation.3. To build social credits for later issues.4. To minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing.5. When harmony and stability are especially important.6. To allow employees to develop by learning from

Indirect conflict management approaches

Indirect conflict management approaches include reduced interdependence, appeals to common goals, hierarchical referral, and alterations in the use of mythology and scripts (Schermerhorn et al 2002).

Reduced Interdependence When work-flow conflicts exist, managers can adjust the level of interdependency among units or individuals (Walton & Dutton, 1969). To reduce the conflict, contact between conflicting parties may be reduced. The conflicting units can then be separated from one another, and each can be provided separate access to resources. Buffering is another technique to build an inventory, or buffer, between the two groups so that any output slowdown or excess is absorbed by the inventory and does not directly pressure the target group.

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Appeals to Common Goals An appeal to common goals can focus on the mutual interdependence of the conflicting parties to achieve the common goal of an organization. Hierarchical Referral – Here conflicts are reported to the senior levels to reconcile and solve.

Q.4. The environmental stressors have a great impact on work performance and adjustment of the individual in an organization. Discuss the different categories of environmental stressors

Answer:

Environmental and internal conditions that lie beyond an individual's control are called environmental stressors. Such stressors can have a considerable impact on work performance and adjustment. We can organize environmental stressors into the following categories:

1. Task Demands: Task demands are factors related to a person's job. They include the design of the individual's job, working conditions, and the physical work layout. Changes and lack of control are two of the most stressful demands people face at work. Change leads to uncertainty, a lack of predictability in a person's daily tasks and activities and may be caused by job insecurity related to difficult economic times. Technology and technological innovation also create change and uncertainty for many employees, requiring adjustments in training, education and skill development.

Lack of control is a second major source of stress, especially in work environments that are difficult and psychologically demanding. The lack of control may be caused by inability to influence the timing of tasks and activities, to select tools or methods for accomplishing the work, to make decisions that influence work outcomes, or to exercise direct action to affect the work outcomes.

2. Role Demands: The social-psychological demands of the work environment may be every bit as stressful as task demands at work. Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the particular role he or she plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role conflict results from inconsistent or incompatible expectations communicated to a person. The conflict may be an inter-role, intra-role or person-role conflict.

a. Inter-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to two separate roles, such as employee and parent. For example, the employee with a major sales presentation on Monday and a sick child at home is likely to experience inter-role conflict,

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b. Intra-role Conflict: is caused by conflicting expectations related to a single role, such as employee. For example, the manager who presses employees for both very fast work and high-quality work may be viewed at some point as creating a conflict for employees.

c. Person-role Conflict: Ethics violations are likely to cause person-role conflicts. Employees expected to behave in ways that violate personal values, beliefs or principles experience conflict.

The second major cause of role stress is role ambiguity. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is not sure what he or she is to do. Role ambiguity is the confusion a person experiences related to the expectations of others. Role ambiguity may be caused by not understanding what is expected, not knowing how to do it, or not knowing the result of failure to do it.

3. Inter-personal Demands: are pressures created by other employees. Lack of social support from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause considerable stress, especially among employees with a high social need. Abrasive personalities, sexual harassment and the leadership style in the organization are interpersonal demands for people at work.

a. The Abrasive Person: May be an able and talented employee, but one who creates emotional waves that others at work must accommodate.

b. Sexual Harassment: The vast majority of sexual harassment is directed at women in the workplace, creating a stressful working environment for the person being harassed, as well as for others.

c. Leadership Styles: Whether authoritarian or participative, create stress for different personality types. Employees who feel secure with firm, directive leadership may be anxious with an open, participative style. Those comfortable with participative leadership may feel restrained by a directive style.

4. Physical Demands: Non-work demands create stress for people, which carry over into the

work environment or vice versa. Workers subject to family demands related to marriage, child rearing and parental care may create role conflicts or overloads that are difficult to manage. In addition to family demands, people have personal demands related to non-work organizational commitments such as religious and public service organizations. These demands become more or less stressful, depending on their compatibility with the person's work and family life and their capacity to provide alternative satisfactions for the person.

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Q.5. Given below are certain instances observed by the summer trainee – Ritu, while making an observational study at Global Green consultants, an organization dealing with recycling of plastic products waste etc. She makes the following observation about two key people in the organization.1. Mr. Patnayak – He is a very friendly person and encourages his team members by giving those recommendations and appreciations. This helps HR to decide about giving a bonus or promotion to employees.2. Mr. Dutta - He is an aggressive person. He frequently loses his temper. Ritu observes that he frequently punishes the non-performers and also give them warnings regarding suspension etc.Now explain what base of power does Mr. Patnayak and Mr. Dutta belongs to. Explain the type of power they use often?

Answer:

Mr. Dutta uses Formal Coercive and Legitimate Power which are explained below.

1. Formal Power:

It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager may threaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a subordinate who does not act as desired. Such coercive power is the extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive power also varies across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized into four types which are as follows:

2. Coercive Power:

The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on who power is being unleashed.

3. Legitimate Power:

The third base of “position” power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent to which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values or beliefs that the “boss” has a “right of command” to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal

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authority to approve or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates. Thus this type of power has the following elements:

It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy.

Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers. Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It

encompasses the acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.

Mr. Patnayak uses Reward and information Power which are explained below.

1. Reward Power:

The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of the manager.

2. Information Power:

This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have needed information, others become dependent on them. (For example, managers have access to data that subordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be accessed by managers.

Q.6. “Fashion4Now” is a famous and old magazine. The top management decides to start the e- edition of the magazine.They also decide the redefine the policies and culture of window to truth’To start implementing, this change, they frequently call meetings of employees. They have also formed groups at different levels to clarify doubts and explain the perspective of change.Analyze the situation in the context of organizational change and elaborate why the top management is following the discussed practices and what approach is most evident in the context?

Answer:

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Typically, the concept of organizational change is in regard to organization-wide change, as opposed to smaller changes such as adding a new person, modifying a program, etc. Examples of organization-wide change might include a change in mission, restructuring operations (e.g., restructuring to self-managed teams, layoffs, etc.), new technologies, mergers, major collaborations, "rightsizing", new programs such as Total Quality Management, re-engineering, etc.

The levels of organizational change

Perhaps the most difficult decision to make is at what "level" to start. There are four levels of organizational change:

First, let's describe these levels, and then under what circumstances a business should use them.

Level 1- shaping and anticipating the future

At this level, organizations start out with few assumptions about the business itself, what it is "good" at, and what the future will be like.

Management generates alternate "scenarios" of the future, defines opportunities based on these possible futures, assesses its strengths and weaknesses in these scenarios changes its mission, measurement system etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 2 - defining what business (as) to be in and their "Core Competencies

Many attempts at strategic planning start at this level, either assuming that 1) the future will be like the past or at least predictable; 2) the future is embodied in the CEO's "vision for the future"; or 3) management doesn't know where else to start; 4) management is too afraid to start at level 1 because of the changes needed to really meet future requirements; or 5) the only mandate they have is to refine what mission already exists.

After a mission has been defined and a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis is completed, an organization can then define its measures, goals, strategies, etc. More information on this is in the next article, "Moving from the Future to your Strategy."

Level 3 - Reengineering (Structurally Changing) Your Processes

Either as an aftermath or consequence of level one or two work or as an independent action, level three works focuses on fundamentally changing how work is accomplished. Rather than focus on modest improvements, reengineering focuses on making major structural changes to

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everyday with the goal of substantially improving productivity, efficiency, quality or customer satisfaction. To read more about level 3 organizational changes, please see "A Tale of Three Villages."

Level 4 - Incrementally Changing your Processes

Level 4 organizational changes are focusing in making many small changes to existing work processes. Oftentimes organizations put in considerable effort into getting every employee focused on making these small changes, often with considerable effect. Unfortunately, making improvements on how a buggy whip for horse-drawn carriages is made will rarely come up with the idea that buggy whips are no longer necessary because cars have been invented. To read more about level 4 organizational changes and how it compares to level 3, please see "A Tale of Three Villages."

Some General Guidelines to Organization-Wide Change

i. Consider using a consultant. Ensure the consultant is highly experienced in organization-wide change. Ask to see references and check the references.

ii. Widely communicate the potential need for change. Communicate what you're doing about it. Communicate what was done and how it worked out.

iii. Get as much feedback as practical from employees, including what they think are the problems and what should be done to resolve them. If possible, work with a team of employees to manage the change.

iv. Don't get wrapped up in doing change for the sake of change. Know why you're making the change. What goal(s) do you hope to accomplish?

v. Plan the change. How do you plan to reach the goals, what will you need to reach the goals, how long might it take and how will you know when you've reached your goals or not? Focus on the coordination of the departments/programs in your organization, not on each part by itself. Have someone in charge of the plan.

vi. End up having every employee ultimately reporting to one person, if possible, and they should know who that person is. Job descriptions are often complained about, but they are useful in specifying who reports to whom.

vii. Delegate decisions to employees as much as possible. This includes granting them the authority and responsibility to get the job done. As much as possible, let them decide how to do the project.

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viii. The process won't be an "aha!" It will take longer than you think.

ix. Keep perspective. Keep focused on meeting the needs of your customer or clients.

x. Take care of yourself first. Organization-wide change can be highly stressful.

xi. Don't seek to control change, but rather to expect it, understand it and manage it.

xii. Include closure in the plan. Acknowledge and celebrate your accomplishments.

xiii. Read some resources about organizational change, including new forms and structures.