mechanics - lkd...
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An initiative of:
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BASIC LEVEL
MECHANICS
HYDRAULICS
UNIDO Headquarters Vienna International CentreP.O. Box 300. A-1400 Vienna Austria Tel: +43 (1) 26026-3752Email: [email protected]
www.lkdfacility.orgAn initiative of:
This curriculum has been developed as part of the Learning and Knowledge Development (LKD) Facility, initiated by the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). The LKD Facility is a platform to promote industrial skills development among young people in emerging economies. Working with the private sector through Public Private Development Partnerships, the LKD Facility supports the establishment and upgrading of local industrial training academies to help meet the labour market’s increasing demand for skilled employees, ultimately contributing to inclusive and sustainable industrial development.
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Table of Contents1. Basic principles of hydraulics 1
1.1 Additional component needed to run a Hydraulic System 3
2. Control valve (4/3 valve) 4
2.1 A Pressure Relief Valve 4
2.2 The Pros and Cons of Hydraulics 4
2.3 Two major Types of Hydraulic systems are used today 5
2.4 Variations on Open and Closed Center Systems 6
2.5 Control Valves 8
2.6 Open Center System with Series Connection 9
2.7 Open Center System with Series / Parallel Connection 10
3. Hydraulic pumps 11
3.1 Positive Displacement pump 12
3.1.1 Fixed Displacement 12
3.1.2 Variable Displacement 12
3.2 Types of Hydraulic Pumps 13
3.3 Axial Piston Pump (Variable Displacement) 14
3.4 Gear pumps 14
3.4.1 External Gear Pump 15
3.4.2 Internal Gear Pump 16
3.5 Vane pumps 17
3.5.1 Balanced vane pump 17
3.5.2 Unbalanced vane pump 18
3.6 Piston pumps 20
3.6.1 Axial Piston Pumps 20
3.6.1.1 In-line Axial Piston Pumps 21
3.6.1.2 Axial Piston Pump 22
3.6.1.3 Bend-Axis Axial Piston Pump 24
3.6.2 Radial Piston Pumps 25
3.7 Hydraulic Pump Efficiency 26
3.8 Pump Qualities 26
3.9 Pump Delivery, Pressure and Speed 27
4. Safety 28
5. Hydraulic valves 29
5.1 Introduction 29
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5.2 Pressure Control Valves 30
5.3 Relief Valves 30
5.3.1 Direct Acting Relief Valves 30
5.3.2 Pilot Operated Relief Valves 32
5.4 Pressure Reducing Valves 33
5.5 Pilot Operated Types 34
5.6 Pressure Sequence Valves 35
5.7 Unloading Valves 36
5.8 Unloading Valves for Accumulator Circuits 36
6. Hydraulic cylinders 37
6.1 Introduction 37
6.2 Double Acting Cylinders 40
6.3 Cushions (Hydraulic Buffer) 41
6.4 Maintanance of Cylinders 42
6.5 Bleeding Air from Remote Cylinders 43
6.6 Caution 44
6.7 Basic Hydraulic System 45
7. Hydraulic accumulators 46
7.1 Introduction 46
7.2 Pneumatic Accumulators 48
7.3 Bladder Type Accumulators 48
7.4 Precautions 50
7.4.1 Checking Precharged Accumulator on the Machine 50
7.4.2 Before Removing Accumulator from Machine 51
7.4.3 Repairing Accumulator 51
7.4.4 Precharging Accumulator 52
7.4.5 Installing Accumulator on Machine 52
7.5 New Developments 52
8. Practical Exercise 53
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1. Basic Principles of HydraulicsThe basic principles of hydraulics are:
• Liquidshavenoshapeoftheirown
• Liquidsarepracticallyincompressible
• Liquidstransmitappliedpressureinalldirections
• Liquidsprovidegreatincreasesinworkforce
A) Liquids have no shape of their ownTheyacquiretheshapeofanycontainer.Becauseofthis,oilinahydraulicsystemwillflowinanydirectionandintoapassageofanysizeorshape.
F
FP
A
A
=
= = 120 N /
5 C 2m
C 2m
600 N=
B) Liquid transmit applied pressure in all directionsTheexperimentintheglassjarwillshattertheglassjarandalsoshowedhowliquidstransmitpressureinalldirectionswhentheyareputundercompression.Thisisveryimportantinahydraulicsystem.
Aforceof600NontopofthecorkwilltransmitapressureofP = 600 : 5 = 120 N/cm²
Thispressureiscreatedthroughoutthesystem,andanequalforceof120N/cm2isappliedtoallthewalls(andcork)ofthejar.
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C) Liquids are practically incompressibleForsafetyreasons,weobviouslywouldn’tperformtheexperimentshown.However,ifweweretopushdownonthecorkofthetightlysealedjar,theliquidinthejarwouldnotcompress.Thejarwouldshatterfirst.
Note:Liquidswillcompressslightlyunderpressure,butforourpurposestheyareincompressible.
D) Liquids provide great increases in work force
Let’stakeabottlejackasanexample.
Thepumpplungerhasanareaof7,07cm2andthelargeliftingpistonhasanareaof314cm2.
Weightofthevehicleonthelargepistonis1800kg1800dividedby314is40,5(kilo)
Requiredforceonthesmallplungeris40,5kilogram.Asmallforceonthesmallplungerisabletoliftaheavyload(1800kg)
Letter: Description:A PumpplungerwithhandleB Pomp-plunger(withsmallplungerarea)C Releasevalve(forloweringplungerD)D Largepumpplunger(liftingpiston)E Fillerplug(oil)F HydraulicoilG Checkvalve
Fortransportinghighoilpressures,specialhosesarerequired,reinforcedwithmetallayers.
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Pressurecanbemeasuredbyusingamanometer.
How a hydraulic system works
Abasichydraulicsystemhastwoparts:
• Apumpwhichtransportstheoil
• Thecylinderorhydraulicmotorwhichusesthemovingoiltodowork.
Ineffect,thepumpconvertsamechanicalforcetohydraulicpower,whilethecylinderconvertsthehydraulicpowerbacktomechanicalforcetodowork.
1.1 Additional component needed to run a hydraulic system:
A) Check valves:toholdtheoilinthecylindersbetweenstrokesandtopreventoilfromreturningtothereservoirduringthepressurestroke.Theball-typevalvesopenwhenoilisflowingbutclosewhentheflowstops.
B) A hydraulic tank (reservoir):tostoretheoil.Ifyoukeeponoperatingthepumptoraisetheweight,asupplyofextraoilisneeded.Thereservoirhasanairventwhichallowsoiltobeforcedintothepumpbygravityandatmosphericpressurewhenthepumppistonisretracted.
C) A control valve: directstheoil.Thisallowstheoperatortocontroltheconstantsupplyofoilfromthepumptoandfromthehydrauliccylinder.Whenthecontrolvalveisintheneutralposition,theflowofoilfromthepumpgoesdirectlythroughthevalvetoalinewhichcarriestheoilbacktothereservoir.Atthesametime,thevalvehastrappedoilonbothsidesofthehydrauliccylinder,thuspreventingitsmovementineitherdirection.
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2. Control valve (4/3 way valve)
2.1 A pressure relief valve
Basically protectsthesystemfromhighpressures.Ifthepressurerequiredtolifttheloadistoohigh,thisvalveopensandrelievesthepressurebydumpingtheoilbacktothereservoir.
Thereliefvalveisalsorequiredwhenthepistonreachestheendofthestroke.Atthistimethereisnootherpathfortheoilanditmustbereturnedtothereservoirthroughthereliefvalve.
2.2 The pros and cons of hydraulics
Asyouhaveseeninthesimplehydraulicsystem,wehavejustdeveloped,thepurposeistotransmitpowerfromasource(engineormotor)tothelocationwherethispowerisrequiredforwork.
Tolookattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthehydraulicsystem,let’scompareittotheothercommonmethodsoftransferringthispower.Thesewouldbemechanical(shafts,gears,orcables)orelectrical.
A) Advantages
1. Flexibility: Unlikethemechanicalmethodofpowertransmissionwheretherelativepositionsoftheengineandworksitemustremainrelativelyconstantwiththeflexibilityofhydrauliclines,powercanbemovedtoalmostanylocation.
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2. Multiplication of force: Inthehydraulicsystem,verysmallforcescanbeusedtomoveverylargeloadssimplybychangingcylindersizes.3. Simplicity: Thehydraulicsystemhasfewermovingparts,fewerpointsofwear.Anditlubricatesitself.
4. Compactness: Comparethesizeofasmallhydraulicmotorwithanelectricmotorofequalhorsepower.Thenimaginethesizeofthegearsandshaftswhichwouldberequiredtocreatetheforceswhichcanbeattainedinasmallhydraulicpress.Thehydraulicsystemcanhandlemorehorsepowerforitssizethaneitheroftheother systems.
5. Economy: Thisisthenaturalresultofthesimplicityandcompactnesswhichproviderelativelylowcostforthepowertransmitted.Also,powerandfrictionallossesarecomparativelysmall.
6. Safety: Therearefewermovingpartssuchasgears,chains,beltandelectricalcontactsthaninothersystems.Overloadscanbemoreeasilycontrolledbyusing reliefvalvesthanispossiblewiththeoverloaddevicesontheothersystems.
B) Disadvantages
1. Need for cleanliness: Hydraulicsystemscanbedamagedbyrust,corrosion,dirt,heatandbreakdownoffluids.Cleanlinessandpropermaintenancearemorecritical inthehydraulicsystemthanintheothermethodsoftransmission.
2.3 Two major types of hydraulic systems are used today:
•Open-Center Systems
•Closed-Center Systems
A) Open Center System
Thesimplehydraulicsystemshownonpage4iswhatwecallanOpencenter system.Thissystemrequiresthecontrolvalvespooltobeopeninthecentertoallowpumpflowtopassthroughthevalveandreturntothereservoir.Thepumpwehaveusedsuppliesaconstantflowofoilandtheoilmusthaveapathforreturnwhenitisnotrequiredtooperateafunction.
IntheClosedcentersystem,thepumpiscapableof“takingabreak”whenoilisnotrequiredtooperateafunction.Therefore,thecontrolvalveisclosedinthecenter,whichstops(deadends)theflowofoilfromthepump-the“closedcenter”feature.
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Fixed displacement pumps:arecommonlyusedincombinationwithanOpencentersystem
Variable displacement pumps: arecommonlyusedincombinationwithaClosedcentersystem
B) Closed Center System
Valve Stops Oil, But OilStays at Full System Pressure
Trapped OilHolds Cylinder Piston in place
This Pump Can StopsPumping During Neutral
2.4 Variations on Open- and Closed center systems
Tooperateseveralfunctionsatonce,hydraulicsystemshavethefollowingconnections:
A) Open center systems
• Open-CenterwithSeriesConnection
• Open-CenterwithSeriesParallelConnection
• Open-CenterwithFlowDivider
B) Closed center systems
• Closed-CenterwithFixedDisplacementPumpandAccumulator
• Closed-CenterwithVariableDisplacementPump
A familyofgraphicsymbolshasbeendevelopedtorepresentfluidpowercomponentsandsystemsonschematicdrawings.IntheUnitedStates,theAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)isresponsibleforsymbolinformation.TheInstitutecontrolsthemake-upofsymbolsandmakeschangesoradditionsasrequired.
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TheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)hasthesamecontroloversymbolsusedinternationally.Bothsystemshavealmostthesameformat(especiallysinceANSIchangeditssymbolsin1966toeliminateallwritteninformation).Standardsymbolsallowfluidpowerschematicdiagramstobereadandunderstoodbypersonsinmanydifferentcountries,evenwhentheydon’tspeakthesamelanguage.Eithersymbolset(ANSIorISO)maybe--andis--usedintheUnitedStates.However,manycompaniestodayusetheISOsymbolsastheirstandardforworkwithforeignsuppliersandcustomers.Inordertosimplifydrawingsofhydraulicsystems,wewillcontinuethisbookusingISOsymbols.
Insteadofdrawingcomplicatedcircuitdiagrams,usingpicturesoforiginalmachinecomponents,hydraulicsymbolsareeasytodrawandInternationalyrecognisableasuniformlanguageonhydraulicsystems.
Example:
Number: Description:1 Hydraulicoiltank(reservoir)2 Suctionfilter(strainer)3 Hydraulicoilpump4 Hydrauliccontrolvalve5 Hydrauliccylinder(doubleacting
Theadvantageofusingsymbolsinsteadofpicturesoforiginalcomponents,symbolsaredesignedinsuchawaythatthekindofvalvecanberecognisedeasily.Number4 inthepictureabove,isa4/3wayvalvewithopencentre.Thesymbolhasalltheinformationyouneedtoknowwhatkindofvalveitis.
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2.5 Control valves
Controlvalvescanbeoperatedbyhand,byoil(servo)andelectric(solenoid).
Thespoolvalveitselfconsistsofanumberoflandshavingslots“A”tometertheoil.Thegrooveslabeled“B”areusedasakindofhydraulicbearing/seal.Spoolslotsareavailableinallkindofshapes,dependingonthesensitivityrequiredforeachparticularsystem.
SolenoidoperatedvalvesareavailableinOn/OffshiftingvalvesandProportionaloperatedvalves.
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2.6 Open-Center System with Series Connection
Oilfromthepumpisroutedtothetwocontrolvalvesinseries.Whenthe1stvalveisoperated,nooilwillreachthe2ndvalve.
Inneutral,theoilpassesthroughthevalvesinseriesandreturnstothereservoirasshownbythearrows.Whenacontrolvalveisoperated,incomingoilisdivertedtothecylinderwhichthatvalveserves.
Thissystemissatisfactoryaslongasonlyonevalveisoperatedatatime.Inthiscasethefulloutputofthepumpatfullsystempressureisavailabletothatfunction.However,ifmorethanonevalveisoperated,thetotalofthepressuresrequiredforeachindividualfunctioncannotexceedthesystemreliefsetting.
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2.7 Open-Center System with Series / Parallel Connection
Thissystem,shownbelow,isavariationontheseriesconnectedtype.Oilfromthepumpisroutedthroughthecontrolvalvesinseries-butalsoinparallel.Thevalvesaresometimes“stacked”toallowfortheextrapassages.
Inneutral,theoilpassesthroughthevalvesinseriesasshownbythearrows.Valve2and3areacombinationofseriesandparallelconnection.Whenvalve2isoperated,valve3isalsoreceivingoilandcanbeoperatedatthesametime.
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3. Hydraulic pumpThepumpistheheartofthehydraulicsystem.Itcreatestheflowoffluidwhichsuppliesthewholecircuit.
Thehumanheartisapump.Sowastheoldwaterpumponcefoundonthefarm.
Oncetheterm“hydraulics”meantthestudyoffluidsinmotion.Therefore,anypumpwhichmovedfluidswasconsideredahydraulicpump.
Buttoday,“hydraulics”meansthestudyoffluidpressureandflow-fluidsinmotionplus theabilitytodowork.
When is a pump hydraulicAllpumpscreateflow.Theyoperateonaprinciplecalleddisplacement. Thefluidistakeninanddisplacedtoanotherpoint.
Displacement can be done in two ways:
• Non-PositiveDisplacement
• PositiveDisplacement
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3.1 Positive displacement pump
Butthepositivedisplacementpump,usedinhydraulicstoday,notonlycreatesflow,italsobacksitup. Noticethesealedcasearoundthegear.Thistrapsthefluidandholdsitwhileitmoves.Asthefluidflowsouttheotherside,itissealedagainstback-up.Thissealingisthe“positive”partofdisplacement.Withoutit,thefluidcouldneverovercometheresistanceoftheotherpartsinthesystem.Whenhighpressureisneededinacircuit,apositivedisplacementpumpisamust.Thisistrueforallmodernhydraulicsystemswhichprovidefluidpower.
Inlow-pressuresystems,suchaswatercoolingorcropsprayingtypes,theoldnon-positivedisplacementpumpstillworks.
Inthischapter,wewilldiscussonlythepositive displacement pumpwhichistheheartofmodernoilhydraulicsystems.Thispumpisatruehydraulicpump.
Displacement of hydraulic pump“Displacement”isthevolumeofoilmovedordisplacedduringeachcycleofapump.
In this sense, hydraulic pumps fall into two broad types:
• FixedDisplacementPumps
• VariableDisplacementPumps
3.1.1 Fixed displacement
Pumpsmovethesamevolumeofoilwitheverycycle.Thisvolumeisonlychangedwhenthespeedofthepumpischanged.
Volumecanbeaffectedbythepressureinthesystem,butthisisduetoanincreaseinleakagebacktothepumpinlet.Usuallythisoccurswhenpressurerises.Thisleakagemeansthatfixeddisplacementpumpsareusuallyfoundinlowerpressuresystemsorasaidstoanotherpumpinahigherpressuresystem.
3.1.2 Variable displacement
Variabledisplacementpumpscanvarythevolumeofoiltheymovewitheachcycle-evenatthesamespeed.Thesepumpshaveaninternalmechanismwhichvariestheoutputofoil,usuallytomaintainaconstantpressureinthesystem.
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• When system pressure drops, volume increases• As pressure rises, volume decreases.
Remember:
A hydraulic pump does not create pressure: it creates flow.
Pressure is caused by resistance to flow !
3.2 Types of hydraulic pumps
Nowthatwehaveseenwhathydraulicpumpsareandwhattheycando,let’stakean“inside”look.a)
b)
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3.3 Axial PistonPump (Variable Displacement)
Wewillshowhoweachtypeofpumpoperatesandhowitisused.Ahydraulicsystemmayuseoneofthesepumps,oritmayusetwoormoreincombination.
Allthreedesignsworkontherotaryprinciple:arotatingunitinsidethepumpmovesthefluid.Arotarypumpcanbebuiltverycompact,yetdisplacethenecessaryvolumeoffluid.Thisisthenumberoneneedinamobilesystemwherespaceislimited.
3.4 Gear pumps
Gearpumpsareofthefixeddisplacementtype.TwotypesbeingExternalgeartypeandInternalgeartype.Theyarewidelyusedbecausetheyaresimpleandeconomical.Whilenotcapableofvariabledisplacement,theycanproducethevolumeneededbymostsystemsusingfixeddisplacement.Oftentheyareusedaschargingpumpsforlargersystempumpsofothertypes.Servosystemsalsomakeuseofgearpumps.
Basic types of gear pumps are used:
• ExternalGearPumps
• InternalGearPumps
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3.4.1 External gear pump
Externalgearpumpsusuallyhavetwogearsinmesh,closelyfittedinsideahousingThedriveshaftdrivesonegear,whichinturndrivestheothergear.Shaftbushingsandmachinedsurfacesorwearplatesareusedtosealintheworkinggears.
OperationOperationisquitesimple.Asthegearsrotateandcomeoutofmesh,theytrapinletoilbetweenthegearteethandthehousing.Thetrappedoiliscarriedaroundtotheoutletchamber.Asthegearsmeshagaintheyformasealwhichpreventsoilfrombackinguptotheinlet.Theoilisforcedoutattheoutletportandsentthroughthesystem.
Thisoilispushedoutbythecontinuousflowoftrappedoilcomingintotheoutletchamberwitheachrotationofthegears.Attheinletside,gravityfeedsinmoreoilfromthereservoirtoreplacethatdrawnoutbytheturninggears.
Somegearpumpsuseapressurizedplateworkingagainstthegearstoincreasepumpefficiency.Asmallamountofpressureoilisfedunderthebackingplate,pressingitagainstthegearsandformingatightersealagainstleakage.
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3.4.2 Internal gear pumpTheinternalgearpumpalsousestwogears,butnowaspurgearismountedinsidealargergear.Thespurgearisinmeshwithonesideofthelargergear,andbothgearsaredividedontheothersidebyacrescent-shapedseparator.Thedriveshaftturnsthespurgear,whichdrivesthelargergear.
Operation
Operationisbasicallythesameasfortheexternalgearpump.Themajordifferenceisthatbothgearsturninthesamedirection.
Asthegearscomeoutofmesh,oilistrappedbetweentheirteethandtheseparatorandiscarriedaroundtotheoutletchamber.Asthegearsmeshagain,asealisformed,preventingback-upoftheoil.Acontinuousflowofoiltotheoutletpushesthefluidoutintothecircuit.Gravitykeepsfeedingoilintothepumpinlettofillthepartialvacuumcreatedasoilisdrawninbythegears.
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3.5 Vane pumps
Vanepumpsarefairlyversatilepumpsandcanbedesignedassingle,double,oreventripleunits.
Allvanepumpsmoveoilusingarotatingslottedrotorwithvanesfittedintotheslots.
Two types of vane pumps are most often used:
• BalancedVanePumps• UnbalancedVanePumps
Thebalancedvanepumpisstrictlyafixeddisplacementtype.Theunbalancedvanecanhaveafixedoravariabledisplacement.
3.5.1 Balanced vane pumps
Inthebalancedvanepump,therotorisdrivenbythedriveshaftandturnsinsideanovalrotorring.
Thevanesarefittedintotherotorslotsandarefreetomoveinorout.
The“balanced”partofthispumpisshownbythepositionoftheoilports.Thepumphastwoinletports,locatedoppositeeachother.Andithastwooutletports,alsoonoppositesidesofthepump.Bothsetsareconnectedtoacentralinletandoutlet.
Slot
Inlet Port
Rotor Ring
Rotor
Outlet Port
Outlet Port
Inlet
Vane
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OperationAstherotorturns,thevanesarethrownoutagainsttheinsidesurfaceoftheringbycentrifugalforce.Asthevanesfollowthecontouroftheoval-shapedring,theydividethecrescent-shapedareasbetweentherotorandtheringintotwoseparatechambers.Thesechambersarecontinuallyexpandingandshrinkinginsize-twiceduringeachrevolution.Theinletportsarelocatedwhereeachchamberbeginstoexpand:theoutletportsarelocatedwhereeachchamberbeginstoshrink.
Asthechamberbeginstoexpand,inletoilrushesintofillthepartialvacuum.Thisoiliscarriedaroundbythevanes.Astheoilchamberbeginstoreduce,theconfinedoilisforcedoutattheoutletport.
Inthesecondhalfoftherevolution,thisactionisrepeatedatthesecondsetofinletandoutletports.
3.5.2 Unbalanced vane pumps Theunbalancedvanepumpusesthesamebasicprincipleofaturningrotorwithvanesworkinginsideafixedrotorring.
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However,theoperatingcycleonlyhappensonceeachrevolution.Sothispumphasonlyoneinletandoneoutletport.Also,theslottedrotorisnowsetoffsideinacircularring.
Inoperation,theoilchamberstartstoexpandattheinletport,andfinishesitscontractingattheoutletport.Oilisdrawninbythepartialvacuum,andforcedoutbytheshrinkingofthechamber,thesameasinthebalancedvanepump.
However,thedesignoftheunbalancedvanepumpisdifferentfromthebalancedtype,aswe’llexplainnow.Balancedvanepumpscannotoperateasvariabledisplacementpumps.Unbalancedpumpscanbeusedasavariabledisplacementpump.
Thebalancedvanepumpisreallyarefinementoftheunbalancedmodel.Whywasthisrefinementneeded?
Theunbalancedvanepumpseemedtohavefrequentbearingfailures.Thecausewasfoundtobeforceontheshaftandbearingsofthebackpressurefromoilbeingexpelledattheoutletsideofthepump.Noequalforcewasexertedontheoppositeside,sincetheinletoilwasunderlittleornopressure.
Thebalancedvanepumpwasasolutiontothisproblem.Tobalanceofftheoutletpressuresontheshaft,two(2)outletportswereused,directlyoppositeeachother.hisequalizedtheforces,increasedbearinglife,andmadethepumpworklonger.
Whilethebalancedvanepumpsolvedoneproblem,itposedanotherone:itcouldonlybeusedforfixeddisplacement.Theoutletportpositionscannotbechangedorthebalancewouldbeupset.
Theunbalancedmodelcanbeusedeitherforfixedorvariabledisplacement.Byspecialdesign,thepositionofitsrotorringandoilportscanbechangedinrelationtotheoffsetoftherotor.Thischangesthesizeofthechamberswhichthevanescreate,thustheamountofoileachcarries.Theresult:avariabledisplacementpump.
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3.6 Piston pumpsPistonpumpsareoftenfavoredonmodernhydraulicsystemswhichusehighspeedsandhighpressures.However,pistonpumpsaremorecomplexandmoreexpensivethantheothertwotypes.Pistonpumpscanbedesignedforeitherfixedorvariabledisplacement.
• Axial Piston Pumps
• Radial Piston Pumps
3.6.1 Axial Piston pumps
AXIALpistonmeansthatthepistonsaremountedinlinesparallelwiththepump’s“axis”(alinedownthecenter).
RADIALpistonmeansthatthepistonsaresetperpendiculartothepump’scenterlikethesun’srays.
Bothstylesofpistonpumpsoperateusingpistonswhichpumpoilbymovingbackandforthincylinderbores.(Anothertermforthismovementis“reciprocate.”)
Axialandradialpistonpumpsusereciprocatingpistonsbutdrivethembytherotaryprinciple.Inthiswaytheefficiencyofthereciprocatingmethodiscombinedwiththecompactnessoftherotaryoperatingpump.
Theresultisapumpwhichisefficient,yetcanfitintoamachinehydraulicsystem.
Axialpistonpumpsusuallyfallintotwobroadtypes:inlineandbent-axis.
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3.6.1.1 In-line Axial Piston Pumps
Inthispump,thecylinderblockismountedonadriveshaftandrotateswiththeshaft.Thepistonsworkinboresinthecylinderblockwhichareparalleltotheaxisoftheblock.Theheadsofthepistonsareincontactwithatiltedplatecalledaswashplate.
Theswashplatedoesnotturnbutitcanbetiltedbackandforth.Itmountsonapivotandiscontrolledeithermanuallyorbyanautomatic“servo”device.
Sincetheswashplatecontrolstheoutputofthepistons,thispumphasavariabledisplacement.
Rememberthattheangleoftheswashplatecontrolsthedistancethatthepistonscanmovebackandforthintheirbores.Thegreatertheangle,thefartherthepistonstravelandthemoreoilthatisdisplacedbythepump.
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Whentheswashplateistiltedasshown.Asthecylinderblockrotates,pistonboresalignwiththisportandoilisforcedintotheboresbythesmallchargingpump.Thisoilpushesthepistonsagainsttheswashplate.Thenastheyrevolve,thesepistonsfollowthetiltoftheswashplateandforcetheoiloutoftheirboresintotheoutletport.Iftheangleoftheswashplatewasfixed,thepumpwouldoperateasafixeddisplacementtype,puttingoutthesameamountofoilwitheachrevolution.
SwashPlate BendAxis
Thebendaxisshownaboveisofthefixeddisplacementtype.Itisoftenusedashydraulicmotordrivingthetracksofhydraulicexcavators.
3.6.1.2 Axial piston pump
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Number: Description:1 Portplate(inletandoutletports)2 Heavycoilspring3 Cylinderblock(holdingthepistons/plungers)4 Plungers(orpistons)5 Pistonslippersretractionring6 Swashplate7 Servocontrolledoperationofswashplate8 Bearingsshellsofswashplate(oftenneedlebearing)9 Driveshaftofcylinderblock
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Totilttheswashplate,thecontrolleverisactuated,movingthedisplacementcontrolvalvetotheleft.Thisdirectsoilfromthechargingpumpintotheupperservocylinder,movingthepistonwhichtiltstheswashplate.
Meanwhilethepistoninthelowerservocylinderispushedinbythelowerpartoftheswashplate,forcingitsoilbackthroughthevalvetothepumpcase.
Whentheswashplatereachestheanglesetbythecontrollever,thecontrolvalvereturnstoneutralandtrapstheoilintheservocylinders.Thisholdstheswashplateuntilthecontrolleverismovedagain.
Thepumpkeepsonpumpingasexplainedbefore,drawinginoilatthetopandpushingoutoilatthebottomofeachrevolution.
Iftheswashplateweretiltedtheoppositeway,theinlet-outletcycleofthepumpwouldbereversed.Oilwouldbedrawninatthebottomandpushedoutatthetop.Sotheservodevicenotonlycontrolsthepumpdisplacementbutalsothedirectionofthisoil.
3.6.1.3 Bend-Axis Axial Piston Pump
Asexplainedearlier,thebendaxisisafixeddisplacementtypeofpump.
Hydrostaticdrivenwheelloadersusedtobeequippedwithbentaxishydraulicmotors.Sincemoredifferenceinspeedandtorqueisneeded,thelatesttypeofwheelloadersareequippedwithaaxialpistonpump,variabledisplacement,twodirectionsofflow.ThehydraulicmotorsarenolongeroffixeddisplacementtypebutarevariableandsomeWheelloaderhavetwoofthemfixedontothetransferbox(highandlowspeed).
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Radial piston pumpsRadialpistonpumpsareamongthemostsophisticatedofallpumps.Theyarecapableofhighpressures,highvolumes,highspeeds,andvariabledisplacement.
Thebasicoperationissimple,butbyusingextravalvesandotherdevices,thispumpcanbeadaptedtomanysystemsandneeds.
Thispumpiscloselyfitted,sowearcanbeaproblemunlesscleanoilisused.Andtheoilmustcontainpropertieswhichlubricatethecloselyfittedparts.
Radialpistonpumpsaredesignedtooperateintwoways.
Inthe“rotatingcam”pump,thepistonsarelocatedinafixedpumpbody.Thecentershafthasacamwhichdrivesthepistonsasitrotates.
Inthe“rotatingpiston”pump,thepistonsarelocatedinarotatingcylinder.Asthecylinderrotates,thepistonsarethrownoutagainsttheouterhousing.Sincetherotatingcylinderissetoffsideinthehousing,thepistonsaremovedbackandforthastheyfollowthehousing.
ExcavatorsusedtobeequippedwithRadialpistonpumps.Todaymostheavymachineryandequipmentuseaxialpistonpumps.
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In summary:
1. A hydraulic pump converts mechanical force into hydraulic or fluid power-in other words, induces fluid to work.2. Of the two main types of pumps, positive displacement and non-positive displacement,
the positive displacement type is best suited for power hydraulics due to its ability to produce a steady flow against the high pressures in the system.
3. A hydraulic pump can be designed to produce either a specific volume of fluid at a specific speed, or to produce a variable volume of fluid at a constant speed . . . fixed displacement or variable displacement.
4. The three types of pumps most often used in machine hydraulic Systems are gear, vane, and piston.
5. These three pumps operate on a rotary principle. This allows them to be constructed as small units, yet still have the ability to produce the required volume of fluid.
6. The preceding text covers only basic hydraulic pumps and there are a great number of variations on all of the pumps selected.
3.7 Hydraulic pump efficiency
Thusfar,wehaveonlydescribedthethreemostpopulartypesofpumps.This,ofcourse,isnotthewholestoryonhydraulicpumps.Theirapplicationandefficiencyisjustasimportantastheiroperationandthismayhelplaterindiagnosinghydraulicproblems.
3.8 Pump Qualities
Becauseofthewidevarietyofpumpsandhydraulicsystems,wecouldnotpossiblyprescribeaparticularmodelofpumpforaparticularsystemwithouthavingfullinformationaboutthesystem.However,wecandescribethedesirableandundesirablequalitiesofthethreepumpsandletyoujudgeforyourselfthereasonswhyaparticularpumpisusedinahydraulicsystem.
Oneofthefirstfactorstoconsiderwhenchoosingapumpforamachinesystemisthepump’sphysicalsize.Mostofthesesystemshavelittleornoroomtospareandmayallowjustasmallareaforthepump.
Fortunately,withthewidevarietyofpumpsandpumpsizesavailable,thisisnotabigproblemunlessthesystemrequiresafunctionthatapumpcannotprovideexceptasalargeunit.Inthiscase,spaceforthepump,regardlessofsize,willbemadeavailable,becausetheothermoreimportantrequirementsofthesystemcannotbesacrificed.
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3.9 Pump Delivery, Pressure and Speed
Oneotherrequirementisthevolumeoffluidthatthepumpproduces.
Mostpumpsareratedbyvolume,whichisusuallyexpressedinLitersperminute(orgallonsperminute(gpm).Thisratingiscalledseveralnames-deliveryrate,discharge,capacity,orsize.Regardlessoftherating,itcannotstandalone.Itmustbeaccompaniedbyafigurestatingtheamountofbackpressurethatthepumpcanwithstandandstillproducethegpmrating:foraspressureincreases,internalpumpleakageincreasesandusablevolumedecreases.
Pumpspeedmustalsobeincludedwiththevolumeratingfortworeasons.
First,inafixeddisplacementpump,flowisdirectlyrelatedtothespeedofthepump-thefasterthespeed,themorefluidpumped.
Second,howfastthepumpmustgotoproduceacertainflowindicatesatwhatspeedthedrivingmechanismforthepumpmusttravel(inrevolutionsperminuteorrpm).Addthistothedeliveryrateofapump,andhereisanexampleofhowaratingcouldread:“11.5gpmwith2000psiat2100rpm.”
Occasionally,apumpwillhaveanalternatedeliveryrate,referredtoasanintermittentdeliveryrate.Thisratingindicatesthehighestlevelapumpcanoperate,intermsofdelivery,pumpspeedandpressure,foraperiodoftimeandstillmaintainsatisfactoryservicelife.
Pump efficiencyTheefficiencyofapump(howwellitdoesitsjob)isalsoimportantinselectingapump.
Wemayhaveapumpthatmeetsthedeliveryrequirementsofasystemundertheexistingpressureinthesystematthespeedthatisavailabletodrivethepump-wemayhaveallthisandmorebutwhatifwefindthatthepumprequiresagreatamountofmechanicalpowertoattainthisdeliveryrate?Orwhatifwefindthatthematerialsinthepumpmustbespeciallyandexpensivelyconstructedtowithstandthepressureorfrictioninthesystem?Thisiswhytheknowledgeofpumpefficiencyisimportantbeforeselectingaparticularpump.Wearenotonlylookingfordeliveryrate,butdeliveryrateprovidedbyefficientandeconomicaloperatingmeans.
Pump quality is judged by three ratings:• VolumetricEfficiency• MechanicalEfficiency• Over-AllEfficiency
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Volumetric efficiencyistheratiooftheactualoutputofthepumptotheoreticaloutput(theamountitshouldputoutunderidealconditions).Thedifferenceisusuallyduetointernalleakageinthepump.
Mechanical efficiencyistheratiooftheoverallefficiencyofthepumptovolumetricefficiency.Thisdifferenceisusuallyduetowearandfrictiononthepump’sworkingparts.
Over-all efficiencyistheratioofthehydraulicpoweroutputtothemechanicalpowerinputofthepump.Thisistheproductofbothmechanicalefficiencyandvolumetricefficiency.
4. Safety Bealwaysalertofthehighpressuresinhydraulicsystems.
Pressuresover300bar(kg/cm2)areverynormalintoday’shydraulicsystems.Peekpressurecanevendoublethisamount.
Anaveragepistonpumpcandeliverplus/minus200litersperminute.Incaseofahoseburstorotherwayofleakageinthesystem,alotofoilwillbelost.Alwaystop-upthereservoir,afterlosingoil.
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5. Hydraulic Valves
5.1 Introduction
Valvesarethecontrolsofthehydraulicsystem.Theyregulatethepressure,direction,andvolumeofoilflowinthehydrauliccircuit.
Valves can be divided into three major types:
• PressureControlValves
• DirectionalControlValves
• VolumeControlValves
Pressure control valvesareusedtolimitorreducesystempressure,unloadapump,orsetthepressureatwhichoilentersacircuit.Pressurecontrolvalvesincludereliefvalves,pressurereducingvalves,pressuresequencevalves,andunloadingvalves.
Directional control valvescontrolthedirectionofoilflowwithinahydraulicsystem.Theyincludecheckvalves,spoolvalves,rotaryvalves,pilotcontrolledpoppetvalves,andelectro-hydraulicvalves.
Volume control valvesregulatethevolumeofoilflow,usuallybythrottlingordivertingit.Theyincludecompensatedandnon-compensatedflowcontrolvalvesandflowdividervalves
Somevalvesarevariationsonthethreemaintypes.Forexample,manyvolumecontrolvalvesuseabuilt-inpressurecontrolvalve.
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Valvescanbecontrolledinseveralways:manually,hydraulically,electrically,orpneumatically.Insomemodernsystems,theentiresequenceofoperationforacomplexmachinecanbemadeautomaticLet’sdiscusseachtypeofvalveindetail,startingwithpressurecontrolvalves.
5.2 Pressure control valves
Pressure control valves are used to:
•Limitsystempressure•Reducepressures•Setpressureatwhichoilentersacircuit•Unloadapump
5.3 Relief valves
Eachhydraulicsystemisdesignedtooperateinacertainpressurerange.Higherpressurescandamagethecomponentsordeveloptoogreataforcefortheworktobedone.
Reliefvalvesremedythisdanger.Theyaresafetyvalveswhichreleasetheexcessoilwhenpressuresgettoohigh.
Types of relief valves are used:• Direct actingreliefvalvesaresimpleopen-closedvalves.•Pilot operatedreliefvalveshavea“trigger”whichcontrolsthemainreliefvalve.
5.3.1 Direct Acting Relief Valves
Whenclosed,thespringtensionisstrongerthaninletoilpressure,holdingtheballclosedonitsseat
Thevalveopenswhenpressurerisesattheoilinletandovercomesthespringforce.Oilthenflowsouttothereservoir,preventinganyfurtherriseinpressure. Thevalveclosesagainwhenenoughoilisreleasedtodroppressurebelowthetensionofthespring.Somereliefvalvesareadjustable.Oftenascrewisinstalledbehindthespring.Byturningthescrewinorout,thereliefvalvecanbeadjustedtoopenatacertainpressure.
.
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Poppet”isatermfortheworkingpartofthevalve.Ballpoppetsaremostcommonlyused(thoughtheymay“chatter”duringfrequentoperation).Otherpoppetsusedareshapedlikebuttonsorlikesmallconesordisks.
Cracking pressure and pressure override“Crackingpressure”isthepressureatwhichthereliefvalvefirstbeginstoopen.“Full-flowpressure”isthepressureatwhichthevalvepassesitsfullquantityofoil.
Full-flowpressureisquiteabithigherthancrackingpressure.Thisisbecausethespringtensionbuildsupasthevalveopensfarther.Thisconditioniscalled“pressureoverride”anditisonedisadvantageofthesimplereliefvalve.
Direct acting relief valvesThesevalvesareusedmainlywherevolumeislow,andforlessfrequentoperations.Theyhaveafastresponse,makingthemidealforrelievingshockpressures.Theyareoftenusedassafetyvalvestopreventdamagetocomponents.
Directactingreliefvalvesalsoserveaspilotvalvesforthepilotoperatedreliefvalves.
Directactingreliefvalvesareverysimple.Iftheyfail,noharmisusuallydone.Theresultingpressurelossinthesystemisapparenttotheoperatorandhecanreplacethebrokenspringorwornvalveorseat.
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5.3.2 Pilot operated Relief Valves
Whenareliefvalveisneededforlargevolumeswithlittlepressuredifferential,apilotoperatedreliefvalveisoftenused.
Thepilotvalveisa“trigger”whichcontrolsthemainreliefvalve.Itisusuallyasmall,spring-loadedreliefvalvebuiltintothemainreliefvalve. Themainreliefvalveisclosedwheninletoilpressureisbelowthevalvesetting.Passage(1)inthemainvalve(6)keepsitinhydraulicbalance,whilespring(5)holdsitclosed.Thepilotvalve(3)isalsoclosedatthistime.Inletpressurethroughsensingpassage(2)islessthanthepilotvalvesetting.
Asinletoilpressurerises,pressureinpassage(2)alsorises.Whenitreachesthepilotvalvesetting,thevalve(3)isopened.Thisreleasesoilbehindthemainvalvethroughpassage(2)andoutthedrainport.Theresultingpressuredropbehindthemainreliefvalve(6)causesittoopen.Nowthemainreliefoperationbeginsasexcessoilisdumpedatthedischargeport,preventingafurtherriseininletpressure.Thevalvescloseagainwheninletoilpressuredropsbelowthevalvesettings.
Pilotoperatedreliefvalveshavelesspressureoverridethanthesimpledirectactingtypes.Whilethedirectactingvalvestartstoopenatabouthalfitsfull-flowpressure,thepilotoperatedvalveopensatabout90percentofitsfull-flowpressure.
Becausethesevalvesdon’tstarttoopenuntilalmostfull-flowpressure,theefficiencyofthesystemisprotected,lessoilisreleased.
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5.4 Pressure reducing valves
Apressure-reducingvalveisusedtokeepthepressureinonebranchofacircuitbelowthatinthemaincircuit.Whennotoperating,apressurereducingvalveisopen.Whenitoperates,ittendstocloseasshown.
Operation:Whenpressurestartstoriseinthesecondarycircuit,forceisexertedonthebottomofthevalvespool,partlyclosingit.Springtensionholdsthevalveagainsttheoilpressuresothatonlyenoughoilgetspastthevalvetoservethesecondarycircuitatthedesiredpressure(Thespringtensioncanbeadjustedusingthescrewshownatthetop)
Thepressuresensingforthevalvecomesfromtheoutletside,Orthesecondarycircuit.Thisvalveoperatesthereverseofareliefvalve,whichsensespressurefromtheinletandisclosedwhennotoperating.
Apressurereducingvalvewilllimitmaximumpressuresinthesecondarycircuit,regardlessofpressurechangesinthemaincircuit,aslongasthesystemworkloaddoesnotcreatebackpressureintothereducingvalveport.Backpressurewouldclosethevalvecompletely
Types of Pressure Reducing Valves
Pressure reducing valves can operate in two ways:
• ConstantReducedPressure
• FixedAmountReduction
Constantreducedpressurevalvessupplyafixedpressureregardlessofmaincircuitpressure(solongasitishigher).
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Fixedamountreducingvalvessupplyafixedamountofpressurereduction,whichmeansthatitvarieswiththemaincircuitpressure.
Forexample,thevalvemightbesettogiveareductionof500psi.Ifsystempressurewas2000psi,thevalvewouldreducepressureto1500psi.Ifsystempressuredroppedto1500psi,thevalvewouldreducepressureto1000psi.
FromMainCircuit
To SecondaryCircuit
Restriction
Constant Reduced Pressure Fixed Amount Reduction
Restriction
FromMainCircuit
Theconstantreducedpressurevalveoperatesbybalancingthesecondarypressureagainstanadjustablespringwhichistryingtoopenthevalve.Whensecondarypressuredrops,thespringopensthevalveenoughtoincreasepressureandtokeepaconstantreducedpressureinthesecondarycircuit.
Thefixedamountreductionvalveoperatesbybalancingthemaincircuitpressurecominginagainstboththesecondarypressureattheoutletandthespringpressure.Sincetheexposedareasoftheinletandoutletsidesareequal,thefixedreductionwillbethatofthespringsetting.
5.5 Pilot Operated Types
Aswithreliefvalves,asmallpilotvalvecanbeaddedtocontrolapressure-reducingvalve.Operationisthesameasdescribedaboveexceptthatthepilotvalveactsfirstto“trigger”thereducingvalve.Usingapilotvalvegivesawiderrangeofadjustmentandamoreconsistentreliefoperation.
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5.6 Pressure Sequence Valves
Pressuresequencevalvesareusedtocontrolthesequenceofflowtovariousbranchesofacircuit.Usuallythevalvesallowflowtoasecondfunctiononlyafterafirsthasbeenfullysatisfied
Whenclosed,thevalvedirectsoilfreelytotheprimarycircuit.
Whenopened,thevalvedivertsoiltoasecondarycircuit.
Thevalveopenswhenpressureoiltotheprimaryreachesapresetpoint(adjustableatthevalvespring).Thevalveisthenliftedoffitsseatasshownandoilcanflowthroughthelowerporttothesecondary.
Oneuseofthesequencevalveistoregulatetheoperatingsequenceoftwoseparatecylinders.Thesecondcylinderbeginsitsstrokewhenthefirstcompletesitsstroke.Herethesequencevalvekeepspressureonthefirstcylinderduringtheoperationofthesecond.Sequencevalvessometimeshavecheckvalveswhichallowareversefreeflowfromthesecondarytotheprimary,butsequencingactionisprovidedonlywhentheflowisfromprimarytosecondary.
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5.7 Unloading valves
Theunloadingvalvedirectspumpoutputoilbacktoreservoiratlowpressureaftersystempressurehasbeenreached.Theymaybeinstalledinthepumpoutletlinewithateeconnection.
Insomehydraulicsystemspumpflowmaynotbeneededduringpartofthecycle.Ifpumpoutputhastoflowthroughareliefvalveatsystempressure,muchhydraulicenergyiswastedasheat.Thisiswhereanunloadingvalveworksbest.
Whenclosed,springpressureholdsthevalveonitsseat.Sensingpressureattheotherendofthevalveislessthanspringpressure.Thereservoiroutletisclosedandnounloadingoccurs.Thevalveopenswhenthesensingpressurerisesandovercomesthespringthrust.
Thevalvemovesback,openingtheoutlettothereservoir.Pumpoutputoilisnowdivertedtothereservoiratlowpressure.
5.8 Unloading Valves for Accumulator Circuits
Anunloadingvalveisoftenusedinanaccumulatorcircuittounloadthepumpaftertheaccumulatorischarged.
Thevalveisclosedwhilethepumpchargestheaccumulatorwithoil.Asthepressurerisesitforcesthesmallsensingpistonagainstthelargevalveandcompressesthespring. Whenaccumulatorpressurereachesthatdeterminedbythespringsetting,thevalveopensbypassingoilandrelievingthepump.Atthistimethelowneutralpressureoilisdirectedtothelargeendofthelargepiston.
Whentheaccumulatordischargesandthesystempressuredrops,thespringmovedthe
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valveagainstthereducedsystempressureinthesmallpistonandtheneutralpressureagainstthelargeendofthevalve.
Thismeansthevalvewillcloseataslightlylowerpressurethanitopens.Thisgivesthevalveanoperatingrangeandpreventschattering.
6. Hydraulic cylinders
6.1 Introduction
Thecylinderdoestheworkofthehydraulicsystem.Itconvertsthefluidpowerfromthepumpbacktomechanicalpower.Cylindersarethe“arms”ofthehydrauliccircuit.
ModuleBasicHydraulicsexplainstheusesofhydraulicsandshowshowcylinderscanbeusedtoactuatebothmountedequipmentanddrawnimplements(remoteuses).Ineithercase,thebasicdesignofthecylinderisthesame:onlytheextrafeaturesaredifferent.
Types of cylinders
Two major types of cylinders are covered in this chapter:
• Singleactingcylinders• Doubleactingcylinders
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Singleactingcylinders-giveforceonlyoneway.Pressureoilisadmittedtoonlyoneendofthecylinder,raisingtheload.Anoutsideforcesuchasgravityoraspringmustreturnthecylindertoitsstartingpoint.
Oilinthecylinderisneededforliftingtheforksofaforklift.Loweringtheforksisdonebyitsownweight(gravityforce).Somesinglesactingcylindersareextendedbyusingoil,andretractingisdonebytheuseofacoilspring.
Doubleactingcylinders-giveforceinbothdirections.Pressureoilisadmittedfirstatoneendofthecylinder,thenattheother,givingtwo-waypower.
Inbothtypesofcylinders,amovablepiston(orrod)slidesinacylinderhousingorbarrelinresponsetopressureoiladmittedtothecylinder.Thepistonmayusevariouspackingsorsealstopreventleakage.
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Asealonthepistonpreventsleakageofoilintothedrysideofthecylinder.Awipersealintherodendofthecylindercleanstherodasitmovesinandoutofthehousing.Insomesingle-actingcylinders,thepistonrodhasnopistonontheinnerend.Instead,theendoftherodservesasthepiston.Thisiscalledaram-typecylinder.Therodisslightlysmallerthantheinsideofthecylinder.(Asmallshoulderorringontheendoftherodkeepstherodfrombeingpushedoutofthecylinder.)
The ram-type construction has several advantages over the piston-type:
1)Therodisbiggerandresistsbendingduetosideloads.
2)Thepackingisontheoutsideandiseasiertoreach.
3)Scoringinsidethecylinderborewillnotdamagepackings.
4)Noairventisneededsinceoilfillsthewholeinnerchamberofthecylinderhousing.
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6.2 Double acting cylinders
Double-actingCylindersprovideforceinbothdirections.Pressureoilentersatoneendofthecylindertoextendit,attheothertoretractit.Oilfromtheoppositeendofthecylinderreturnstoreservoireachtime.
Withthedouble-actingcylinder,boththepistonheadandthepistonrodmustbesealedtopreventoilleakage.
Two types of double-acting cylinders:IntheUNBALANCEDordifferentialtype,totalforceontherodsideofthepistonislessthanthatontheblankside.Thisisbecausetherodfillsinanareanotexposedtopressure.Thiscylinderisusuallydesignedforaslower,morepowerfulstrokewhenitextends,andforafaster,lesspowerfulstrokewhenitretracts.
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IntheBALANCEDcylinder,thepistonrodextendsthroughthepistonheadonbothsides.Thisgivesequalworkingareaonbothsidesofthepistonandbalancestheworkingforceofthecylinderwhetheritisextendingorretracting.
Forkliftsandmobileexcavatorsareequippedwithabalancedtypeofdoubleactingcylinder.
6.3 Cushions (hydraulic buffer)
Acushionisbuiltintosomecylinderstoslowthemdownattheendoftheirstrokes.Thiscushionisusedasa“hydraulicbrake”toprotectagainstimpactdamage.Thecylinderworksnormallyduringitsmainstroke(top),butslowsdownasthepistonsealsofftheoiloutlet(bottom).Nowtheoutletoilmustgothroughthesmallorifice,slowingthepiston.
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TESTING AND DIAGNOSING CYLINDER PROBLEMSCylinderscanbetestedonthemachineforleaksandotherfailures.Thefollowingsectionon“MaintenanceofCylinders”coversafewofthecommonproblems.
6.4 Maintanance of Cylinders
HydraulicCylindersarecompactandrelativelysimple.Thekeypointstowatcharethesealsandthepivots.Hereareafewservicetips:
1.EXTERNALLEAKAGE-Ifthecylinderendcapsareleaking,tightenthecaps.Ifthisfailstostoptheleak,replacethegasket.Ifthecylinderleaksaroundthepistonrod,replacethepacking.Besuretheseallipfacestowardthepressureoil.Ifthesealcontinuestoleak,checkitems5through9below.
2. INTERNALLEAKAGE-Leakagepastthepistonsealsinsidethecylindercancausesluggishmovementorsettlingunderload.Pistonleakagecanbecausedbywornpistonsealsorrings,orscoredcylinderwalls.Thelattermaybecausedbydirtandgritintheoil.
IMPORTANT:Whenrepairingacylinder,besuretoreplaceallsealsandpackings beforere-assembly.
3. CREEPINGOFCYLINDER-Ifthecylindercreepswhenstoppedinmidstroke,checkforinternalleakage(item2).Anothercausecouldbeaworncontrol.
4. SLUGGISHOPERATION-Airinthecylinderisthemostcommoncauseofsluggishaction.(Tobleedair,seeendofthischapter).Internalleakageinthecylinderisanothercause(item2).Ifactionissluggishwhenstartingupthesystem,butspeedsupwhenthesystemiswarm,checkforoiloftoo-highviscosity(seemachineoperator’smanual).Ifthecylinderisstillsluggishafterthesechecks,thewholecircuitshouldbetestedforworncomponents.
5. LOOSEMOUNTING-Pivotpointsandmountsmaybeloose.Theboltsorpinsmayneedtobetightenedortheymaybewornout.
Toomuch“slop”or“float”inthecylindermountingsdamagesthepistonrodseals. Checkallcylindersforloosemountingsperiodically.
6. MISALIGNMENT-Pistonrodsmustworkinlineatalltimes.Iftheyare“sideloaded,”thepistonrodswillbegalledandthepackingswillbedamaged,causingleaks.Eventuallythepistonrodsmaybebentortheweldsbroken.
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7. LACKOFLUBRICATION-Lackofpistonrodlubricationmaycausetherodpackingtoseize,resultinginanerraticstroke,especiallyonsingle-actingcylinders.
8. ABRASIVESONPISTONROD-Whenpistonrodsextend,theycanpickupdirtandothermaterial.Thenwhentherodretracts,itcarriesthegritintothecylinder,damagingtherodseal.Thisiswhyrodwipersareoftenusedattherodendofthecylindertocleantherodasitretracts.Rubberbootsarealsousedovertheendofthecylinderinsomecases.Anotherproblemisrustingofpistonrods.Whenstoringcylinders,alwaysretractthepistonrodstoprotectthem.
9. BURRSONPISTONROD-Exposedpistonrodscanbedamagedbyimpactwithhardobjects.Ifthesmoothsurfaceoftherodismarred,therodsealmaybedamaged.Burrsontherodshouldbecleanedupimmediatelyusingcrocuscloth.
10. CHECKINGAIRVENTS-Single-actingcylinders(exceptram-types)musthaveanairventinthedrysideofthecylinder.Topreventdirtentry,variousfilterdevicesareused.Mostareself-cleaning,buttheyshouldbeinspectedperiodicallytoinsureproperoperation.
6.5 Bleeding Air from Remote Cylinders
Anytimearemotecylinderispluggedinthehydrauliccircuit,alltrappedairmustbebled.Thiswillpreventsluggishactionofthecylinder.
Firstattachthecylindertothecircuit.Whilestandingtothesideofthemachine,placethecylinderontheground(oronahanger)withthepistonrodenddown.(Oronmountedcylinders,placetheheadendofthecylinderinitsworkingmount,allowingtherodendfreedomtomoveinandout.)Havesomeoneelsestartthemachineandmovethehydrauliccontrolleverbackandforthsevenoreighttimestoextendandretractthecylinder.Thiswillbleedtheair.(Ondouble-actingcylinders,youmayhavetoturnthecylinderend-for-endandrepeatthecyclingofthecontrollever.)
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6.6 Caution
Longreachdiggerarmcylinderscangeteasilydamaged.
Withanexternalforceactingonthediggerarm,theforceactingonthediggerarmcancausethediggerarm,hydrauliccylindertocracknearthejointwerethecylinderheadisweldedontothecylinder.
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6.7 Basic Hydraulic System
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7. Hydraulic accumulators
7.1 Introduction
Aspringisthesimplestaccumulator.Whencompressed,aspringbecomesasourceofpotentialenergy.Itcanalsobeusedtoabsorbshocksortocontroltheforceonaload.
Hydraulicaccumulatorsworkinmuchthesameway.Basicallytheyarecontainerswhichstorefluidunderpressure.
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Accumulators have four major functions
• StoreEnergy
• AbsorbShocks
• BuildPressureGradually
• MaintainConstantPressure
Whilemostaccumulatorscandoanyofthesethings,theiruseinasystemisusuallylimitedtoonlyone.
Accumulatorswhichstoreenergyareoftenusedas“boosters”forsystemswithfixeddisplacementpumps.Theaccumulatorstorespressureoilduringslackperiodsandfeedsitbackintothesystemduringpeakperiodsofoilusage.Thepumprechargestheaccumulatoraftereachpeak.Sometimestheaccumulatorisusedasaprotectionagainstfailureoftheoilsupply.
Example:powerbrakesonlargermachines.Ifthesystemoilsupplyfails,theaccumulatorfeedsinseveral“charges”ofoilforuseinemergencybraking.
Accumulatorswhichabsorbshockstakeinexcessoilduringpeakpressuresandletitoutagainafterthe“surge”ispast.Thisreducesvibrationsandnoiseinthesystem.Theaccumulatormayalsosmoothoutoperationduringpressuredelays,aswhenavariabledisplacementpumpgoesintostroke.Bydischargingatthismoment,theaccumulator“takesuptheslack.”
Accumulatorswhichbuildpressuregraduallyareusedto“soften”theworkingstrokeofapistonagainstafixedload,asinahydraulicpress.Byabsorbingsomeoftherisingoilpressuretheaccumulatorslowsdownthestroke.
Accumulatorswhichmaintainconstantpressurearealwaysweight-loadedtypeswhichplaceafixedforceontheoilinaclosedcircuit.Whetherthevolumeofoilchangesfromleakageorfromheatexpansionorcontraction,thisaccumulatorkeepsthesamegravitypressureonthesystem.
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The major types of accumulators are:
• Pneumatic(Gas-Loaded)Weight-Loaded
• Spring-Loaded
7.2 Pneumatic accumulators
Welearnedthatfluidswillnotcompress(little),butgaseswill.Forthisreason,manyaccumulatorsuseinertgasasawayof“charging”aloadofoilorofprovidinga“cushion”againstshocks.
“Pneumatic”meansoperatedbycompressedgas.Intheseaccumulators,gasandoiloccupythesamecontainer.Whentheoilpressurerises,incomingoilcompressesthegas.Whenoilpressuredrops,thegasexpands,forcingoutoil.
Inmostcases,thegasisseparatedfromtheoilbyapiston,abladder,oradiaphragm.Thispreventsmixingofthegasandoilandkeepsgasoutofthehydraulicsystem.
7.3 Bladder type accumulators
Aflexiblebagorbladdermadeofsyntheticrubbercontainsthegasandseparatesitfromthehydraulicoil.Thebladderismoldedtothegaschargingstemlocatedatthetopoftheaccumulator.
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Topreventdamagetothebladder,aprotectivebuttonisusedatthebottom.Thisbuttonpreventsthebladderfrombeingdrawnintotheoilportwhenthebladderexpands.Otherwise,thebladdermightbecutortorn.
Bladder-typeaccumulatorscanalsobepre-chargedbeforeuse.
Allhydraulicearthmovingmachinesareusingaccumulators.Tocushionthemainboomwhentraveling(mobileexcavator)orasasuspensionsystemondumptrucksandoff-high-waytrucks.
ButalsotheServosystemisusingaccumulatortoabsorbshockloadswhenoperatingthemaincontrolvalve.Italsoallowsthemainboomtolowersafelytotheground,incaseofenginefailure(notrunning).
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7.4 Precautions
Observethefollowingprecautionswhenworkingonpneumaticaccumulators.Thecorrectproceduresforservicearegivenindetaillaterunder“ServicingandPre-chargingPneumaticAccumulators.”
1. CAUTION: NEVER FILL AN ACCUMULATOR WITH OXYGEN! Anexplosioncouldresultifoilandoxygenmixunderpressure.
2. Neverfillanaccumulatorwithair.Whenairiscompressed,watervaporintheaircondensesandcancauserust.Thisinturnmaydamagesealsandruintheaccumulator.Also,onceairleaksintotheoil,theoilbecomesoxidizedandbreaksdown.
3. Alwaysfillanaccumulatorwithaninert gas suchasdry nitrogen. Thisgasisfreeofbothwatervaporandoxygen:thismakesitharmlesstopartsandsafetouse.
4. Neverchargeanaccumulatortoapressuremorethanthatrecommendedbythemanufacturer.Readthelabelandobservethe“workingpressure.”
5. Beforeremovinganaccumulatorfromahydraulicsystem,release all hydraulic pressure.
6. Beforeyoudisassembleanaccumulator,releasebothgasandhydraulicpressures.
7. Whenyoudisassembleanaccumulator,makesurethatdirtandabrasivematerialdoesnotenteranyoftheopenings.
7.4.1 Checking Precharged Accumulator on the Machine
1. Ifyoususpectexternalgasleaks,applysoapywatertothegasvalveandseamsonthetankatthe“gas”end.Ifbubblesform,thereisaleak.
2. Ifyoususpectinternalleaks,checkforfoamingoilinthesystemreservoirand/ornoactionoftheaccumulator.Thesesignsusuallymeanafaultybladderorpistonsealsinsidetheaccumulator.
3. Iftheaccumulatorappearstobeingoodconditionbutisstillsloworinactive,pre-chargeitasnecessary.
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7.4.2 Before Removing Accumulator from Machine
First be sure all hydraulic pressure is released
Todothis,shutdownthepumpandcyclesomemechanismintheaccumulatorhydrauliccircuittorelieveoilpressure(oropenableedscrew).
REMOVING ACCUMULATOR FROM MACHINEAfterallhydraulicpressurehasbeenreleased,removetheaccumulatorfromthemachineforservice.
7.4.3 Repairing Accumulator
1. Beforedismantlingaccumulator,releaseallgaspressure.Normallyunscrewthegasvalveleververyslowly.Installthechargingvalvefirstifnecessary.Neverreleasethegasbydepressingthevalvecore,asthecoremightberuptured.
2. Disassembletheaccumulatoronacleanbencharea.3. Checkallpartsforleaksorotherdamage.4. Plugtheopeningswithplasticplugsor5. cleantowelsassoonaspartsareremoved.6. Checkbladderorpistonsealsfordamage andreplaceifnecessary.7. Ifgasvalvecoresarereplaced,
besuretousetherecommendedtypes.8. Carefullyassembletheaccumulator.
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7.4.4 Precharging Accumulator
thehosefromaDryNitrogentanktothechargingvalveoftheaccumulatorandopentheaccumulatorchargingvalve.
Openthevalveontheregulatorveryslowlyuntilpressureongaugeissameasthatrecommendedbythemanufacturer.Closethechargingvalveontheaccumulator,thenclosethevalveontheregulator.Removehosefromchargingvalve.
NOTE:Whencheckingpre-chargeonanaccumulatorinstalledonamachine,firstreleasehydraulicpressurefromtheaccumulator.Otherwiseyouwillnotgetatruepressurereading.
7.4.5 Installing Accumulator on Machine
Attachaccumulatortomachineandconnectalllines.Startmachineandcycleahydraulicfunctiontobleedanyairfromthesystem.Thenchecktheaccumulatorforproperaction.
7.5 New Developments
Manufacturesofheavyequipmentarebusymakingtheirmachinesmoreenvironmentalfriendly.ThisnewsystemiscalledHydraulichybridoperated.Accumulatorswillstoreenergyformthedrivelinewhendrivenbytheengine,andfeedtheaccumulatorswhenbrakingthevehicle.Onexcavatorsliftingboomsandswingarealsoavailableintoahydrideversion.
JustvisittheInternetformoreinformationregardingthissubject.
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8.Practical Exercise 1) Refer to the appropriate manual and complete Questions A, B and C
a)Drawthesymbolforthefollowing
VentedReservoir
PressurizedReservoir
Returnlineabovetheoillevel
Suction/Returnlinebelowtheoillevel
Reservoirwithsuctionlineat-tachedatthebottom
Lines,TubesandHoses
Pump
Oilflowonewayonly
Oilcanfloweitherway
Variabledisplacementpump
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NonReversiblemotor
Reversiblemotor
Singleactingcylinder
Doubleactingcylinder
Doublerodendcylinder
Normallyclosedreliefvalve
Normallyopenreliefvalve
Pressurereducingvalve
OneWayvalve
ByPassvalve
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b)Writeshortnotesonthefollowingsymbols
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c)DiscussthegivensimpleschematicsandwritedownthefunctionofvalveA,B,CandD
D c
c
D
B
B
A
A
Detent
Float
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ValveA:
ValveB:
ValveC:
ValveD;
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2) On the test bench, build the shown hydraulic circuit and observe its operation
a)
Notes:
b)
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Notes:
3) Refer to the appropriate manual and conduct Inspection and Adjustment of the following hydraulic pressure Inspection and Adjustment in actual machinery by following all the precautions and sequence prescribed
a)Inspecthydraulicpumppressure
Pressureatidlerpm
Pressureat1000rpm
Pressureat1500rpm
b)Inspectandadjustsystemreliefpressureondirectionalcontrolvalve
Pressurebeforeadjustment
Pressureafteradjustment
c)Howwillyouinspectandadjustpressurereducingvalve(PRV)?(selectanyPRV) Notes:
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d)Forthegivenpracticalmachinery,useappropriatespecialservicetoolsandconductvarioussystempressuretestandadjustment. Notes:
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Hydraulic cylinder
Inspection and replacement of seals
Topreventpossibleinjury,donotusecompressedairforremovingthepistonandpistonrodformthecylinderbarrel.
Highoilpressuresaredangerous.
Hotcomponentscancauseburns.
Given a hydraulic cylinder (double acting), you are to carry out the following:
Inspection of piston rod, piston and cylinder barrel
Inspection and replacement of seals:
1) Selectthecorrecttoolsandaccessories
2) Usethecorrectworkshopmanual
3) Useatorquewrench,ifnecessary
4) Measurethepistonrodforstraightness
5) Installnewoilseals,usingtherightprocedure
CAUTION Followallsafetyrecommendationsandsafeshoppracticesoutlinedintherepairmanualortheselectedcylinder.
Alwaysusetoolsandequipmentthatareingoodworkingorder.Useliftingandhoistingequipmentcapableofsafelyhandlingtheload.Remember,thatultimatelysafetyisyourownresponsibility.
Excavator cylinderThecylinderthatisusedtooperatetheexcavatorboomorbucketisequippedwitharodstopper,whichactsasacushiononlywhenthecylinderrodisfullyretracted(andthebucketispulledclosetothearm).Thistypeofcylinderisshowninthelowerdrawing.
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CAUTION
Ventairfromthehydraulicsystembeforedisconnectingcylinderpipingconnections.Usetheleveronthereservoir,whiletheengineisrunning.
Dischargethehydraulicaccumulatorandventresidualtankpressureaftertheengineisshutoff.
Pourcleanreplacementfluidbackintothesystemifexcessivefluidislost.
Bucket Cylinder
Main FrameLift Cylinder
Steering Cylinder
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Digger arm cylinder
Armcylindershaveacushionorstopperforoperationinbothdirections.
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Reference Number: Description:1 Tubeassembly(cylinderbarrel)2 Bushbearing3 Rodassembly4 Bushbearing5 Rodcover
Digger arm cylinder (continued)
Reference
Number:
Description: Reference
Number:
Description:
6 DD-bush 19 Dustring7 Retainingring 20 O-ring8 Bufferseal 21 Back-upring9 U-packing 22 Pistonnut10 Dustwiper 23 Setscrew11 Retainingring 24 Cushionplunger12 O-ring 25 Stopring13 Back-upring 26 Checkvalve14 O-ring 27 Spring15 Cushionring 28 Supportspring16 Piston 29 Hexsocketplug17 Glydring 30 Greasenipple18 Wearring
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DISASSEMBLY
1. Followingremovalofcylinderfromexcavatorattachment,supportcylinderonsometypeofsturdyworkplatformanddrainalloil.Rotatecylindersothatpipingportsareontop,toallowtrappedairtovent.
2. Positionpistonrodsothatitisextendedapproximatelyonehalfmeter(20”).3. Removealltheboltsontheendofthecylinder.
Note:Wrapaclothorotherprotectivematerialaroundthepistonrod,toavoidscratchingorscoringoftherodsurface
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4. Taptwoboltsintocoverofcylinderhead,180°apart.Tightentheminastaggered,evensequence,tobackoffpistonrodendcoverfromedgeofcylinderwall.
Lookforadequateclearancebetweencoverandendofcylinderwallbeforeusingasoft-facedhammerforfinaldisassembly.
5. Beginwithdrawingpistonrodassembly,awayfromcylinder.Attachaliftingsupportwhenfinal1/3ofrodisstillinsidebarrelofcylinder.Preparesupportblocksforpistonrodbeforeithasbeencompletelywithdrawn.
6. Lowerpistonrodtosupportblocksanddetachwearring(outersurface)fromendofrod.
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7. Immobilizepistonrodbyinsertingawoodenorothernon-scoring,nonmetallicsupportthroughendofrod.
8. Removesetscrewbyusingasocketwrench.
9. Fabricateorpurchaseapistonnutremovalwrench.
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10. Useaplastichammertoevenlypulloffrodcoverfromendofpistonrod.Becarefulnottodamagerodbushinganddustwiper,U-packingandotherseals.
11. Useadull,rounded-tiptooltopryoffO-ringandbackupring.
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12. Findascrewdriverwithanappropriatewidthtiptofacilitateremovalofslipperseal,wearringandslideringfromthepiston.
13. PulloffO-ringandbackupringfromcylinderhead.
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14. Duringdisassemblyofcylinderhead,becarefulnottodamagethebuffersealandU-packing.
15. Disassembletheretainingringanddustwiper.Separatetheretainingringandrodbushing.
16. Forceoutpinbushingfrombodyofcylinder.
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ASSEMBLY
NOTE:Assemblesubassembliesofcylinderinthefollowingorder:
1.Cylinderbody
2.Pistonrod
3.Pistonassembly
4.Cylinderheadassembly
1.Assemblethepinbushingtopistonrodandbodyofthecylinder.
2.Followingtheassemblyofrodcovercomponents,installthedustwiperandrodbushingtotherodcover.Inserttheretainingrings.
IMPORTANT Replaceanypartthatshowsevidenceofdamageorexcessivewear.ReplacementofallO-ringsandflexiblesealsisstronglyrecommended.Beforestartingthecylinderassemblyprocedure,allpartsshouldbethoroughlycleanedanddried,and/orpre-lubricatedwithcleanhydraulicfluid.Preparetheworkareabeforehandtomaintaincleanlinessduringtheassemblyprocedure.
3. Pre-lubricatetheO-ringsandsealsbeforeassembly.
4. Beforestartingtorebuildpistonassembly,heatslippersealfor5minutesinanoilbathwarmedto150°-180°C(302°-356°F).Usespecialslippersealjigofspecializedtoolsatthebeginningofthisprocedure)toattachseal.Coolsealbypushingaretractingjigagainstsealforseveralminutes.Applyastripofclean,see-throughsealingtapearoundslippersealtokeepitfreeofdust.
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5. Immobilizepistonrodonsolidsupportblocks.AssembletheO-ringandbackupringPreparetoattachtherodcoverassemblytopistonrod.Pushrodcoverbytighteningpistonthenut.
6.Assemblethecushionringandattachthepistonassemblytothepistonrod.
7. Usespeciallyfabricateorfactorysourcedtooltotightenthepistonnut.
8.Assemblethewearring,slideringandsetscrewtopistonassembly.
9.Immobilizebodyofcylinderbeforeassembly.
10. Applyfastenerlockingcompound(Loctite),oranalternatemanufacturer’sequivalentproduct,toallendcoverretainingbolts.Wrapaprotectivecushionaroundendofrodwhiletighteningfasteners,topreventpossibledamagetopolishedsurfaceofrod,shouldawrenchslipduringretightening.
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General disassembly and assembly instructions,hydraulic cylinders
Removing the seal
Insertasealpullerbehindtherodseal.
Attention:becarefulnottodamagethebaseofthegroove
Usingthesealpuller,pulltherodsealoutofthegroove
Therodsealcannowberemovedwithusingthefinger.
Followthisprocedureforallothersealsduringdisassembly.
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Fitting the piston seals
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Fitting the piston seals
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Fitting the piston seals
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Fitting the guide seals
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Fitting the guide seals
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Fitting the guide seals
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Practical exercise, hydraulic cylinder overhaulReport your findings in the space below.
An initiative of:
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UNIDO Headquarters Vienna International CentreP.O. Box 300. A-1400 Vienna Austria Tel: +43 (1) 26026-3752Email: [email protected]
www.lkdfacility.orgAn initiative of:
This curriculum has been developed as part of the Learning and Knowledge Development (LKD) Facility, initiated by the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). The LKD Facility is a platform to promote industrial skills development among young people in emerging economies. Working with the private sector through Public Private Development Partnerships, the LKD Facility supports the establishment and upgrading of local industrial training academies to help meet the labour market’s increasing demand for skilled employees, ultimately contributing to inclusive and sustainable industrial development.