medieval water structures and geology – indian context

MEDIEVAL WATER STRUCTURES AND GEOLOGY – INDIAN CONTEXT

Prof. Dr. S.K. Vadagbalkar, Solapur-413004, Maharashtra, India, Email: [email protected]

MEDIEVAL WATER STRUCTURES AND GEOLOGY

– INDIAN CONTEXT

Prof. Dr. S.K. Vadagbalkar

53, Veershaiv nagar, Vijapur road Solapur-413004, Maharashtra, India

Email: [email protected]

Introduction:

Water has played an important role in the architectural heritage of western India from the

earliest times. One of the most characteristic features of the early Harappan towns (3000 BC)

was the presence of a sophisticated system of drains, wells and tanks. The practice of making

wells into an art form was begun by the Hindus but it developed under Muslim rule.

Most of the old temples in south India and palaces in parts of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand,

Northern Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh built centuries ago have large tanks in their premises.

These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs.

About thousand year’s old and still standing India’s forgotten structures step wells are the

fascinating medieval structures. Richard Cox describes their use, “During their heyday, they

were a place of gathering, of leisure, of relaxation and of worship for villages of all but the

lowest castes. Men gained respite from the heat in the covered pavilions, while the women

had a rare chance to chat amongst themselves while drawing water for their families.”

Have been neglected for centuries, efforts are now being made to restore and rejuvenate

many of the ruined or drywells.

However author has attempted to focus on scientific and natural facts about the relation

between geological setting and imposing environments.

Abstract of Geology and Hydrogeology of India:-

Geology of India is as diverse as its geography and people. It contains rocks covering almost

the entire spectrum of the Geological Time Scale ranging from about 3000 million years to

recent (Fig.1). Physiographically India is divided into 3 parts as-

1) Peninsular India- which has basement of igneous and metamorphic rocks of ancient time

like granite, gneisses and schist. These are in general hard and compact with either not having

or having low porosity and permeability i.e. capacity to store or transport water through them.

They are very well distributed in mostly all states of South-India and parts of Rajasthan,

Madhya Pradesh, Eastern-parts of India, Bihar, Orissa, South Maharashtra, northern Gujarat

and Eastern-Ghats ranges. These are underlined by Cuddapah rocks of sedimentary

metamorphic nature like quartzite, slates, marble, sandstone, shale and limestone. These are

having partial porosity and permeability due to major compactness and low metamorphism.

Their distribution is mainly along the south eastern part of Andhra Pradesh. Similar types are

found around Delhi. The ancient northern peripheral part of peninsular India is occupied by

Vindhyan rocks of sedimentary nature like sandstones, shale and limestone. These are having

medium to good porosity and permeability. Their distribution is mainly in central and



northern Madhya Pradesh and its surrounding in adjoining states. The central north eastern

part of India is occupied by rocks of sedimentary nature like sandstone, shale and limestone

with relatively low compaction. These have relatively good to excellent porosity and

permeability. Their distribution is mainly in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,

Bihar etc. The central western part of India is occupied by relatively young lava rocks called

Basalt. These are igneous volcanic rocks and have low porosity and permeability. Their

distribution is mainly in Maharashtra and in parts of surrounding states like Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

2) Extra peninsular or Himalayan India- which is mainly mountainous and hilly terrain

dominated by sedimentary material and rocks like sand, clays, limestone, salts, gypsum,

gravels and rock boulders etc. These have relatively good to excellent porosity and

permeability. Their distribution is mainly in parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh,

Bihar, West Bengal and Assam.

3) Indo Gangetic Alluvium plain – which is mainly part of flood plain and filled valley

portion of Indus-Ganges Rivers and their tributaries. The filled material is called alluvium

which is loose sediment mixture of clays, soils, sand, silt, gravels, pebbles, and calcrits.

These have relatively good to excellent porosity and permeability. Their distribution is

mainly in parts of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West

Bengal. This part is joining the ancient Peninsula land with relatively younger Himalayan

region and itself is youngest in geological age/time.

Weathering and Aquifer Characters:

In geologic time the outcropped rocks of all kind and from any of the geologic and

geomorphic set up(as given above) have undergone weathering and erosion. Weathering in

rocks horizontally and at depth varies with the conditions of Climate, topography, Litho

logical variations as litho units, Depth, Texture, Chemical composition and Soil cover. There

are important differences in the same formation at different horizons and in different

localities. The primary and/or secondary openings are irregularly distributed and/either are

interconnected or remain isolated horizontally and also vertically. The interconnection of

pores / fractures near the surface, in weathered mantle and contacts of various litho units,

make the hard rock’s relatively good aquifer and reservoirs to some extent. Wide open

fractures and its networking may act as conduit to give rise to transmission or percolation of

sufficiently large amount of surface water at depth and in lateral extension to provide good

storage facilities. As the conditions of primary and secondary porosity in different rocks vary

from place to place they vary widely in permeability too.

Erratic pattern of weathering, variations in litho units and their thickness and haphazard

interconnections or isolations of pores and fractures lead to the heterogeneous nature of

aquifer characters, in hard rocks i.e. it is definite that success of storage and recharge of water

on surface or as groundwater either by natural or artificial methods directly depend upon the

geological formations present in the area.



With passage of geologic time and natural action of geological agents on these rocks the

weathering mantle or depositionary places are formed on surface. Soil is directly weathering

product of biochemical and geological processes and its deposition too related with

morphology of the area. The soil texture, porosity, permeability and its composition are also

equally important in availability of groundwater. With the variation in geological litho units,

action of geological agents and climatic conditions, the soil formation also varies from place

to place.

Today these rock formations are capped by weathering mantle or soil. At places flood plain

deposits around major perennial streams and Rivers are seen. Due to climatic changes,

Himalaya formation and earth tectonics linked with drifting of Indian subcontinent to close

the then called Tethys Sea etc., which is ongoing process, probably have deserted parts of

Rajasthan and Gujarat with disappearance of major Saraswati River of these regions; recited

in Vedas-Rigvedas.

From the above data it is evident that the major parts of Central India, South India and parts

of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh (Uttarakhand) are having hard and

massive rocks which have low to medium porosity and permeability i.e. Groundwater storage

and transmission is limited and mainly only at shallow depths i.e. near surface only, thereby

its availability is poor to good at favorable places.

Salient features of Monsoon rainfall in India:-

India is one of the countries in the world blessed with highest water resources potential but

with a special feature of distribution of water is uneven both in space and time.( Fig 2).

However, 80% of the annual rainfall is seasonal and is restricted to average 2 months and

generally occurs in about 100 hours, of which 50% occurs only in 20 to 30 hrs during

monsoon rains i.e. it is erratic, with heavy spells of short duration and with uneven

distribution, which in turn favours run off than percolation and storage.

Out of the total geographical area of 328 million hectares (mha) of the Country an area of 40

mha (about 8%) is flood prone and about 108 mha (about 33%) spread over a total area in 99

districts in 13 states has been identified as drought prone.

In India, where large parts suffer from periodic drought condition, water conservation is of

paramount importance. This is particularly true of all states in peninsular India.

Large parts of the country perennially reel under recurring drought. Over 68% of India is

vulnerable to drought. The 'chronically drought-prone areas' – around 33% – receive less than

750 mm of rainfall, while 35%, classified as 'drought-prone' receive rainfall of 750-1,125

mm. The drought-prone areas of the country are confined to peninsular and western India –

primarily arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions. An overwhelming majority of cropped area

in India – around 68% – falls within the medium and low rainfall ranges. Therefore large

areas of southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,

Gujarat, and Rajasthan are affected if the southwest monsoon plays truant.



The earliest reference to drought and famine in India can be found in the Rig Veda, the

Mahabharata, the Jataka tales of the Buddhists and Chanakya's Arthashastra.Marwar

(Jodhpur state) faced drought and famine from 1309 to 1313 AD during the reign of Rao

Rajpal. Later, in 1570 AD, Emperor Akbar dug the Kukar Talao in Nagaur. Most parts of the

country were ravaged by famine in 1783, remembered as chalisa. The famine of 1812-13 is

referred to as panchkal. The 1848 famine led to mass migration from Ajmer in Rajasthan.

The state was struck again in 1868-69, 1877-78, 1891-92 and 1899-1900. The studies reveal

that drought varies with regard to the time of occurrence, duration, intensity and extent of the

area affected from year to year.

In confirmation of the fact of drought conditions in the past the following record (Table 1) is

helpful.

Table 1: A chronology of drought and famine in India

Period No. of

droughts

/famines

Regions

5th

century BC 1 Kashmir, Ayodhya(eastern UP),Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and

Maharashtra

1st century BC 1 Kashmir

9th

century AD 1 Kashmir

10th century AD 2 Kashmir, Punjab, large parts of northern India

11th century AD 2 Delhi, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Rajasthan and Kashmir

13th century AD 4 Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Bengal, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and

Gujarat

14th century AD 5 Delhi, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Mysore, Karnataka, Gujarat

15th century AD 5 Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Orissa, Assam and most parts of India,

especially the areas along the rivers Ganga and Yamuna

16th century AD 6 Most of the then Bombay presidency and Punjab, Maharashtra,

Delhi, Rajasthan, Kutch and central India

17th century AD 6 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Bengal

18th century AD 24 Bombay presidency, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madras

19th century AD 38 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Bihar

20th century AD 60 Rajasthan, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh,

Bihar, Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir.

(Source ‘Drought of Relief’, Down to Earth, May 2001)

One of the record in social survey connected with growth of casts and sub casts (no source

verified) reviews that about 350 drought periods (i.e. > 50% period) have been experienced

by Indian continent during 11th century to 16

th century.



In the Central, Western and North Western parts and South Indian context – specially

classified as drought prone region is ravaged by recurring droughts and the small tanks and

water harvesting structures that usually fail, when the rainfall is poor, the requirement of

mega water structures like dams, artificial ponds, storage tanks (Temple Tanks, Kunds,

Pushkarni) Sarovar or Lakes (Talav or Talabs), Step wells ( large diameter- medium to large

depths), Large diameter dug wells (for agriculture is basic adoption by Maharashtra Farmers,

Built wells during Shivshahi and Peshvai rules in Maharashtra) , Small and medium Dams /

check dams / Bandhara’s etc. was felt essential from ancient times to present. Step-wells are

most certainly one of India's most unique, but little-known, contributions to architecture, and

it is uncertain whether they are to be encountered anywhere outside the Indian sub-continent.

All forms of the step well may be considered to be particular examples of the many types of

water storage and irrigation tanks that were developed in India, mainly to cope up with

seasonal fluctuations in water availability. A basic difference between step wells on one hand

and tanks and wells on other was to make it easier for people to reach groundwater and to

maintain and manage the well.

Most of the old temples in south India and palaces in parts of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand,

Northern Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh built centuries ago have large tanks in their premises.

Since ancient times, the design of water storage has been important in India's temple

architecture, especially in western India where dry and monsoon seasons alternate. Temple

tank design became an art form in itself. An example of the art of tank design is the large,

geometrically spectacular Stepped Tank at the Royal Center at the ruins of Vijaynagar, the

capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, surrounding the modern town of Hampi. It is lined with

stone and has no drain. It was filled by aqueduct. The tanks are used for ritual cleansing and

during rites of consecration. The water in the tank is deemed to be sacred water from the

Ganges River.

In India, a step well is a deep masonry well with steps going down to the water level in the

well. It is called a vav in west India and a baoli in north India. Some were built by kings and

were richly ornamented. They often were built by nobility, some being for secular use from

Fig 1: Geological Map of India Fig 2: Annual Rainfall Map of India



which anyone could obtain water. Step wells are mainly to be found dotted about the desert

areas of Gujarat and Rajasthan, some descending by as many as 170 steps and 46metres to

reach the water.

Kalyani also called Pushkarni are ancient stepped bathing wells. These wells were typically

built near temples to accommodate bathing and cleansing activities before prayer.

In Sikhism temple tanks are called Sarovar

Impact of geology, monsoonal / climatic variations and construction of ancient water

structures (Medieval Period)

These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs.

Presently with modern techniques and huge requirement of water the large dam structures are

inevitable. To meet the needs and also to mitigate the drought conditions; a need to accelerate

the efforts on storage of water during the monsoons in the rivers and reservoirs and its

optimum and regulated utilisation throughout the year and also to adapt various conservation

methods was felt by the community.

However with the available knowledge and techniques in the past, the efforts made by the

rulers and community are marvelous and noteworthy. The main purpose of storage of water

was restricted to drinking only for the community and pasture during drought periods. It is

important to note that at places the storage devices were classified for separate use as bathing

and washing cloths and for drinking. Total sanctity was observed especially for drinking

water storage, to avoid quality deterioration by the individual’s with effective strict

implementation of legislation.

The thickness of the various litho units in the hard rock terrain, vary laterally & vertically

throughout the country. Due to which the ground water availability vary. Heterogeneity in the

distribution of fracture pattern, weathering mantle etc. has hindered the movement of

groundwater, which has resulted in separation of water pockets of different dimensions with

variable storage. However it is important that Ground water occurs everywhere in some

quantity or the other, and it is relatively drought-proofed.

Due to such prevailing natural geological conditions all of the hard rock terrain in India has

Shallow aquifers (Up to 15 m.). At favorable places of sediment depositions in natural

depressions, floodplains surrounding rivers and similar the aquifer depth may be extended to

medium depth (Up to 20 m >). In normal conditions recharging of only upper shallow aquifer

partly or fully; in various hard rock litho units throughout India takes place during monsoon.

As the stock or storage of water ceases after various uses, the groundwater availability is

naturally at stake. In present situation we are well aware of the fact that, with consecutive

drought years and extreme extraction of ground water in recent years more than 70% of wells

and bore wells, which had good water yield initially, have been modified to low to very low

or no yield conditions. This was the similar condition in the past too. However due to

relatively less population and limited irrigational and other purpose uses; the problem was

handled in effective way by ancestors. With the passage of time, civilization, economic and



social reforms and community leadership provoked the concentration of population

concentrations around places like Nagar, Gadhi, Pethas, small towns, forts and fortresses etc.,

where the water scarcity problems initiated, and then with increase in Agriculture-irrigation,

due to more demand of food, the scarcity started increasing peripherally around in multifold.

Examples:

All forts, built in different terrains and climatic conditions, had elaborate

arrangements for drinking water. Those built on hilltops or in rocky terrain depended

mainly on rain water harvested from surrounding hills.

The Amber Fort near Jaipur built about three centuries ago is a classic example of

such a system.

The Jodhpur fort in western Rajasthan had water harvesting arrangements to tap both

rain water and groundwater.

Mostly on all Forts of Maharaja Shivaji ,water storage arrangement is seen through

Baolis and wells to store surface and underground waters from nearby higher hill

slopes.

The fort at Chittor on top of a hill has a large reservoir.

At the Buddhist site of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) dating back to the 3rd Century B.C.,

there are tanks to store rain water from the hill slopes.

Conclusion:

The average rainfall data reveals that the rain shadow zone is present in central to south

central part of south India and it is least average towards northwestern deserted parts. This

coincides with the geological conditions of hard rocks with low water storage. There by

consecutive years of drought put stress on the living and the community and pastures are at

stake. These natural conditions imposed our ancestors to think and overrule the problem by

implementing construction of relatively larger structures for water harvesting and storage of

water for the people and by the people during adverse conditions.

(Edited) List of some construction in the past:

The first known construction of a Kund was in 1607 by Raja Sur Singh in village

Vadi-Ka-Melan.

In 1755, Maharaja Udai Singh built a large Kund in his fort at Jodhpur. Subsequently,

during the famine of 1895-96 construction of similar storage structures was taken up

on a large scale.

The city of Delhi, founded in the early eleventh century near the present SurajKund in

Haryana, used to get its water supply from SurajKund, which was built to impound

rain water from the Aravalli hills.

During the Sultanate period that followed, several cities were built in the vicinity of

the Aravallis and all these had elaborate rain water harvesting systems to meet the

domestic water requirements. The prominent among these is the Hauz-e-Sultani built

by Sultan Iltutmish (1210-1236 A.D.).

In 1615, during the Mughal rule, Abdul Rahim Khan built a unique water supply

system of the Burhanpur town (Madhya Pradesh). The system involved construction

of long lines of underground tunnels with vertical airshafts to tap the underground



water flow from the nearby Satpura hill ranges to the Tapi River lower down. The

system is still functioning well and is adequate to meet the entire water requirements

of the town.

During 4th and 8th Century Dasmatisagar was built near Titlagarh in Orissa. During

the same period two large reservoirs were built in Mayurbhanj district. The erstwhile

Patna state also had 6 major reservoirs for water supply. All these were zealously

maintained and cattle grazing and agriculture were not permitted in their vicinity.

Under the Nizam Shahi Kings(1490-1635 A.D)15 channels were built to supply water

to the city of Ahmadnagar from deep wells at the foot of the nearby hills. Similar

systems were built by various Kings for the towns of Vadgaon, Junnar, Karad etc.

In the low rainfall areas of present-day Karnataka a large number of tanks were built

during the 15th Century for both irrigation and drinking water, prominent among

these were the Kempambudhi, Dharmambudhi, Sampangi and Siddikatte Kere tanks

built by Kempe Gowda.

The city of Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) has a glorious tradition of tanks built by its

ruler Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah in the 16th Century. The first source of water

supply to the town was the HussainSagar lake built by Hussain Shah Wali in 1562. In

the hills near Daulatabad, two reservoirs were built by the Hindu Kings, in ancient

times to meet the water requirements of the city.

A number of tanks were built in Palanpur, Ahmadabad, Bharuch, Surat and Vadodara

areas of Gujarat during the 15th Century for both irrigation and drinking water.

Acknowledgement:

Author sincerely acknowledges the researchers, authors and up loaders for data, pictures,

images obtained from different web sites through Internet.

Bibliography:

Agrawal A. Narayan S, ‘Dying Wisdom: Rise, Fall and Potential of India's Traditional Water

Harvesting System’, Center for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India, 1998

Bhupendra Pandey, Water Harvesting– Our Age Old Tradition, 2004

D.N.Wadia, Geology of India

K.L.Rao, India’s Water Wealth, 1979

M.S. Krishnan, Geology of India

Report of Poorest Areas Civil Society (PACS) Programme 2001-2008(edited)

Shriram Vaijapurkar, Study of Ancient Water Storage System on Forts in Nashik District of

Maharashtra, 2007

Vadagbalkar S.K., Need for Integrated and holistic development of water resources in

Drought prone region, 2010, www. Slide share

Vadagbalkar S.K., Groundwater quality from Basaltic aquifers, 2010, www. Slide share

Vadagbalkar S.K., Importance of Geology in Rock Monuments. 2012, www. Slide share



Jain teerth - Shravanabelagola, Karnataka

Dad Hari Vav in

Ahmedabad (Guj)(1501)

Agrasen kibaoli in

Delhi is a 60m x 15 m

step well

The Paschim Mehta ni Vav. Its seven level vav, of which six levels are under water almost all round the year

Chandra Baori step wellThis step well is located opposite Harshat Mata Temple in Madhya Pradesh and is one of the deepest and largest step wells in India. It was built in the 9th century and has 3500 narrow steps in 13 stories and is 100 feet deep.

Harishchandragarh, Maharashtra "Saptatirtha Pushkarni”

A village tank in Kannur, Kerala



This is a series of interconnected water structures linked to a canal system and dam with sluice gates. The location is Patan, Gujarat (approx 10th-11th century AD, Solanki dynasty)

Babri- Stepwell in Dholpur, Rajasthan Hulikere, _Hoysala Kalyani, Karnataka

Hadi Rani ki Baori (Step-Well), Toda Raisingh, Rajasthan

Ujali baori - a stepwell Mandu, MP

Inside Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh

Hanamkonda, Andhra Pradesh