memory 1 sciconrev.org the way we were memorieslike the corners of my mind misty watercolor...
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MemoryMemory
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sciconrev.org
The Way We WereThe Way We WereMemories Like the corners of my mindMisty watercolor memories Of the way we
wereScattered pictures Of the smiles we left
behindSmiles we gave to one another For the way we
wereCan it be that it was all so simple thenOr has time rewritten every line If we had the chance to do it all againTell me - would we? could we? Memories May be beautiful and yetWhat’s too painful to rememberWe simply choose to forgetSo it is the laughter We will rememberWhenever we remember The way we wereSo it is the laughter We will rememberWhenever we remember The way we
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The Way We WereThe Way We Were
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MemoryMemoryThe Phenomenon of Memory Information Processing
Encoding: Getting Information inHow We EncodeWhat We Encode
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MemoryMemoryMemory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the
English language, the national anthem, and
yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to
you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.
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thw.coventry.sch.uk
MemoryMemory
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The Phenomenon of MemoryThe Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time.
It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
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commons.wikimedia.org
Memory TestMemory TestName the Seven Dwarfs……SneezySleepyDopeyDocHappyBashfulGrumpy
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Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb MemoryA unique and highly emotional moment
may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb
memory. However, this memory is not free from errors.
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President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
Rut
ers/
Cor
bis
brainvat.wordpress.com
Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb Memory
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Stages of MemoryStages of Memory
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Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk(Storag
e)
Monitor(Retrieva
l)Sequential Process
Information ProcessingInformation ProcessingThe Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a)
sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
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Problems with the ModelProblems with the Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory information in the environment, we select information (through attention) that is important to us.
3. The nature of short-term memory is more complex.
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Working MemoryWorking MemoryAlan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working
memory contains auditory and visual processing controlled by the central executive through an
episodic buffer.
Working Memory – rehearse or use, if not - fade
Frontal Lobe – complex thinking
Parietal and TemporalLobes – auditory and visual information
Talk Drive
Encoding: Getting Encoding: Getting Information InInformation In
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How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
peterboroughmoves.com
Sodahead.comStory – Little Johnny
Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing
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We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the
following: 1. Space: While reading a
textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.
shoponline2011.com
Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing
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Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible memories.
Spencer G
rant/ Photo E
dit
© B
ananastock/ Alam
y
Where you ate yesterday
StudyingPsychology
RehearsalRehearsal
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Effortful learning usually
requires rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)
http://ww
w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
RehearsalRehearsal
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The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on
Day 1,the fewer
repetitions were required to
remember them on Day 2.
The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning!!!!!!
Memory EffectsMemory Effects
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. RESTUDY material to prepare for your AP Exam
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.
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Spacing EffectSpacing EffectDistributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once. Robert
Frost’s poem could be memorized with fair ease if spread over time.
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ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT
Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.
I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
… …
seeingandwriting.com
Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect
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1. TUV2. ZOF3. GEK4. WAV5. XOZ6. TIK7. FUT8. WIB9. SAR10. POZ11. REY12. GIJ
Better recallPrimacy Effect
Better recallRecency Effect
Poor recall
Serial-Position Activity
Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Effect)Effect)
The Von Restorff Effect is when an otherwise homogenous list contains some items that stand out because they are unique in some regard.
There can also be a reverse effect here. You remember the unique item, but the attention that it grabs from you is removed from other items -- thus you may in fact remember less overall.
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•Jump•Cut•Run•Fly•Duck-billed platypus•Read•Build•Lay
If you want people to remember something make it stand out.
What We EncodeWhat We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning
2. Encoding by images
3. Encoding by organization
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Encoding MeaningEncoding Meaning
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Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter?
StructuralEncodingQ: Did the word
rhyme with the word “weight”?Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street.
PhonemicEncoding
SemanticEncoding
“Whale”
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Intermediate
Deep
Shallow
ResultsResults
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Visual EncodingVisual EncodingMental pictures (imagery) are a
powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with
semantic encoding.
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Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply
talking about it.
Both photos: H
o/AP Photo
MnemonicsMnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic
techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.
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1.Method of Loci
2.Link Method
Method of LociMethod of Loci
Greek scholars imagined themselves moving through a familiar series of locations; associating each place as a visual representation of the to-be-remembered topic
29rexgo.net
faculty.washington.edu
Method of LociMethod of Loci
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List of Items
CharcoalPensBed SheetsHammer...Rug
Imagined Locations
BackyardStudyBedroomGarage...Living Room
Link MethodLink Method
Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.
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List of Items
NewspaperShaving creamPenUmbrella...Lamp
Organizing Information for Organizing Information for EncodingEncoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide
them into categories and subcategories.
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1.Chunking
2.Hierarchy
Short-term memory activity
ChunkingChunkingOrganizing items into a familiar,
manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
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1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better.
1776 1492 1812 1941.
ChunkingChunking
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Acronyms are another way of chunking information to
remember it.HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
HierarchyHierarchy
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Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and
subcategories.
Encoding Summarized in a Encoding Summarized in a HierarchyHierarchy
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MemoryMemory
Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-term Memory
Long-Term Memory Storing Memories in the Brain
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Storage: Retaining Storage: Retaining InformationInformation
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Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of
memory are shown below:
SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
Short-term – Long-term Short-term – Long-term Memory Memory
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Sensory MemorySensory Memory
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SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
Sensory MemorySensory Memory
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Whole Report – Iconic Whole Report – Iconic MemoryMemory
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The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.
R G T
F M Q
L Z S50 ms (1/20 second)
“Recall”R T M Z
(44% recall)
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli Sperling (1960)
Partial ReportPartial Report
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Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”J R S
(100% recall)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was
originally thought.
50 ms (1/20 second)
S X TJ R SP K Y
Time DelayTime Delay
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“Recall”N _ _
(33% recall)
TimeDelay
50 ms (1/20 second)
A D IN L VO G H
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
Sensory MemorySensory Memory
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The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
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40
60
80
Perc
en
t R
ecog
niz
ed
0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00
Time (Seconds)
Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory
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Sensory MemoriesSensory Memories
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Echoic Memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Hepatic (Haptic) Memory – a momentary sensory memory of a stimuli connected to touch
facebook.com
Sensory MemoriesSensory Memories
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Iconic0.5 sec. long
Echoic3-4 sec. long
Hepatic< 1 sec. long
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different
senses.
Working MemoryWorking Memory
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SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
Working MemoryWorking MemoryWorking memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2)
and a short duration (20 seconds).
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Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
CapacityCapacity
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You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on
Our Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
George Miller
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
Ready?
Repeat to RememberRepeat to Remember
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ChunkingChunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
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The capacity of the working memory may be increased by
“Chunking.”
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
DurationDuration
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of working memory
by manipulating rehearsal.
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CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
CHJMKTHIJ547
547544541…
Working Memory DurationWorking Memory Duration
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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
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SensoryMemory
WorkingMemory
Long-termMemory
Encoding
RetrievalEncoding
Events
Retrieval
Long-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryUnlimited capacity store. Estimates on
capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information
(Landauer, 1986).
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The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches ofburied pine seeds during winter and spring.
R.J. E
rwin/ Photo R
esearchers
Memory FeatsMemory Feats
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Memory StoresMemory Stores
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FeatureSensoryMemory
Working Memory
LTM
Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic
Capacity Unlimited7±2
ChunksVery Large
Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years
Storing Memories in the Storing Memories in the BrainBrain
1. Through electrical stimulation of the brain, Wilder Penfield (1967) concluded that old memories were etched into the brain.
2. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed Penfield's data and showed that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.
3. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.
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Synaptic ChangesSynaptic ChangesIn Aplysia (California Sea Snail),
Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons
increased after conditioning.
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Photo: S
cientific Am
erican
Synaptic ChangesSynaptic ChangesLong-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the receiving neuron
indicates strengthening of synapses.
Increased synaptic efficiency makes for more efficient neural circuits.
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Both P
hotos: From
N. T
oni et al., Nature, 402, N
ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D
ominique M
uller
Stress Hormones & MemoryStress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger
memories. Continued stress may disrupt memory.
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Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
Stress Hormones & Stress Hormones & MemoryMemory
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Storing Implicit & Explicit Storing Implicit & Explicit MemoriesMemories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know
and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual
does not know or declare what she knows.
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Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system
that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield &
Nicolson archives
Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia
Anterograde
Amnesia(HM)
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No New Memories
Surgery
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but
cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
Henry MolaisonHenry Molaison
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Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to
remember the fact that he has already played the game.69
HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural
(implicit).
CBA
Studies of HM supported the general distinction between short-term and long-term stores of memory
Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia
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CerebellumCerebellum – a neural center in the
hindbrain that processes implicit memories.