memory ap psychology. persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of...
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Memory
AP Psychology
Persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
Can you remember your first memory? Why do you think you can remember certain events in your life over others?
Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer
write to file save to disk read from disk
Encoding the processing of information into the memory system code and put into memory
Acoustic, Visual, & Semantic Encoding Storage
the retention of encoded information over time maintain in memory
Retrieval process of getting information out of memory recover from memory
Episodic – specific events in your life
Semantic – generalized knowledge of the world that does not involve a specific event
Procedural (skill memory) – knowledge of how to perform a physical task
Explicit Memory – used to deliberately remember something
Implicit Memory – unintentional influence of prior experiences
4 Models of Memory that attempt to explain what and how well items are remembered:1. Levels-of-Processing –
What we remember is dependent on how deeply the information is processed or rehearsed
Elaborative rehearsal – applying to real-life Maintenance rehearsal - repetition
1. Transfer-appropriate processing model Remembering things is determined by how well
the encoding matches what is retrieved
2. Parallel distributed processing models (PDP)
New facts change our knowledge base by altering interconnected networks, facts, and associations.
3. Information processing models There are three stages of mental processing
required before information can be firmly stored in memory – sensory, short-term, long-term
Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory
information in the memory system – holds info for a fraction of a second
Working Memory focuses more on the processing of briefly
stored information The part of the memory that allows us to
mentally work with, or manipulate, information being held in our memory Try This: How many windows are on the front of your
house or apartment building? What did you do to remember this?
Short-Term Memory (STM) activated memory that holds a few
items briefly – if no further processing occurs, STM disappears in 20-30 seconds
look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Immediate memory span = 7 +/- 2 Long-Term Memory (LTM)
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable
units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Brown-Peterson Procedure – unless rehearsed, material stays in short-term memory for about 18 seconds
Organized information is more easily recalled
Serial Position Curve – a tendency to recall both the first and last parts of a list when memory is immediately testedPrimacy and Recency Effects
12
Percentage of words
recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Serial Position Effect--tendency to recall best the last items in a list
Short-Term Memory limited in
duration and capacity
“magical” number 7+/-2
0102030405060708090
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentagewho recalledconsonants
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
Recall measure of memory in
which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition Measure of memory in
which the person has only to identify items previously learned
as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning memory measure that
assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time
Priming activation, often
unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
déjà vu -- already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent
with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval
cues State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the long-term
memory
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting
Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retentiondrops,
then levels off
1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage oforiginal
vocabularyretained
Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting)
Interference disruptive effect of prior learning on
recall of new information Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference disruptive effect of new learning on
recall of old information
Retroactive Interference
Without interferingevents, recall isbetter
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentageof syllables
recalled
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise
memories Repression
defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”
Memoryconstruction
Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material Make material personally
meaningful Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something already stored
make up story chunk--acronyms
Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference Test your own knowledge
rehearse determine what you do not
yet know