DINOSAURS!

COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION

4-H PROGRAMS ARE AVAILABLE TO ALL WITHOUT DISCRIMINATION

VOLUME 9, ISSUE 8, APRIL 2020

MESOZOIC—DINOS!

DINOSAURS! When people think paleontology, they think of scientists working in the hot sun of Colorado National Monument or the Badlands of South Dakota and Wyoming finding enormous, fierce, and long-gone dinosaurs. Dinosaurs safely evoke terror. Better than any scary movie, these were actually living breathing beasts! What was the biggest dinosaur? What was the smallest dinosaur? What color were they? Did they live in herds? What can their skeletons tell us? What evidence is there so that we can understand more about how these animals lived. Are any still alive today? To help us really understand more about dinosaurs, we have the famous dinosaur paleontologist, Dr. Holtz helping with this issue. He will not only

be reviewing the information about dinosaurs, but there is an interview with him at the end of this issue. Meeting him, you will know instantly that he loves his job! It doesn’t matter if you become an electrician, auto mechanic, dancer, computer programmer, author, or paleontologist, I truly hope that you have tremendous job satisfaction, like Dr. Holtz! So, grab your shovels as we Dig into Dinosaurs!

THIS MONTH • Dinosaurs

○ What is a Dinosaur? page 2

○ Bird / Lizard Hip? page 5 ○ Size Activity 1 page 10 ○ Size Activity 2 page 13 ○ Size Activity 3 page 43 ○ Diet page 46 ○ Trackways page 53 ○ Colorado Fossils and

Dinosaurs page 66 POWER WORDS • articulated: fossil

bones arranged in proper order

• endothermic: an organism produces body heat through metabolism

• metabolism: chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life

CAREER CONNECTION • Meet Dr. Holtz,

Dinosaur Paleontologist! page 73

Articulated skeleton of the Tyrannosaurus rex from the American Museum of Natural History

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 2

Dinosaurs, Ichthyosaurs, Pterosaurs are all big reptilian animals of the Mesozoic. What are the characteristics that make dinosaurs distinct from the others? In Paleontology 5: Speciation, activities focused on characteristics of organisms, and how scientists use those to separate organisms into a hierarchy (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Order, Class, Family, Genus, species). Scientists use the characteristics of the organisms that are new or the same as the ancestor characteristics to separate organisms into different species. Directions: • What do you think are the

characteristics of dinosaurs? Record your answers.

• Examine the skeletal drawings of the Tyrannosaurus rex (Sue at the Field Museum in Chicago) and Prestosuchus chiniquensis (at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City) on pages 3-4. Compare the dinosaur and non-dinosaur to find differences between the two. Circle what you see is different.

• Characteristics for a dinosaur include: ○ Number of fingers and

toes (hand had the fourth finger—ring finger and fifth finger—pinkie finger reduced, and the foot had three toes)

○ number of vertebrae (3 or more) attaching to the hip bones

○ hole in the hip socket (acetabulum) where the

Stegosaurus at American Museum of Natural History

Ichthyosaur at American Museum of Natural History (note: she was giving live birth!)

Pterosaur Pterodactylus kochi found in Germany

POWER WORDS • acetabulum: the

socket of the hipbone, into which the head of the femur fits

• characteristics: a feature belonging typically to a thing and serving to identify it

• hierarchy: organization in which groups are ranked one above the other according to status

• perforate acetabulum: dinosauria group (dinosaurs and birds) is defined by a perforate acetabulum, which can be thought of as a "hip-socket"

• speciation: the formation of new and distinct species in the course of change through time

MATERIALS • Print pages 3-4 • Paper • Pencil • computer with internet access • printer

ball of the upper leg attaches so the dinosaur can stand upright

• That’s it! That is what defines a dinosaur from a non-dinosaur!

Perforate acetabulum

(the hole in the hip where the ball of the upper leg

bone (femur) sits) allows for upright stance.

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 3

Above: Tyrannosaurus rex Sue, Field Museum Chicago, IL, a dinosaur Below: Prestosuchus chiniquensis, American Museum of Natural History NYC NY, a suchian reptile

DINOSAURS! — What Is a Dinosaur? 4

Above: Tyrannosaurus rex Sue, sketch of a dinosaur Below: Prestosuchus chiniquensis, sketch of a suchian reptile

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DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 5

The proto-dinosaurs (ancestors, or dinosaur-like animals) were bipedal (walking on two legs). With lots of time and mutations that were favorable, dinosaurs split into two major groups: bird-hipped (Order Ornithischia) dinosaurs and lizard-hipped (Order Saurischia) dinosaurs. In the first paleontology lesson, there was an activity on these crazy science names, and what they really mean. ornith = bird, saur = lizard, and ischia = ischium, one of the three bones of the hip (ilium, ischium, and sacrum). The ischium (depicted or

circled in red directional arrows) points back towards the tail in ornithischian like a bird’s ischium, but forwards, towards the arms in saurischian, like lizards. Note that the ornithischian skull has a predentary bone identified in green which is not present in the saurischian skull. On page 6, is that dinosaur an ornithischian or saurischian dinosaur?

You will generate a list of ornithischian and saurischian dinosaurs, and collect some of their data. Each table has an example to follow. Directions: • Use only scientifically

supported information about dinosaurs. There is a lot misinformation, so be careful. Verify that you have found sources from universities or museums. Check the author, and verify that person is an authority.

• Different dinosaur Families (or Clades) are identified in the table. Search on the dinosaur Family, verify the source you use, and read about the Family (or Clade). Search for the Family or Clade’s “type specimen” and complete the information on that species. If you cannot locate the type specimen you can select any species within the Family (or Clade).

• Record Class (Ornithischia or Saurischia).

• Copy and paste an image of that dinosaur in a word document, and resize to about 3” by 3”. Identify the dinosaur.

• Record the time (or range of time) that it lived.

• Record the length of this

POWER WORDS • bipedal: an animal

using only two legs for walking; bi = two, ped = foot

• clade: group of organisms descended from a common ancestor

• mass: the quantity of matter which a body contains—how much matter pulled down by gravity is weight

• proto: original, primitive • type specimen: the

specimen, or each of a set of specimens, on which the description and name of a new species is based

MATERIALS • computer with internet access (if you don’t have

a computer or internet access, check out your county library!)

• print pages 6-9 (single or double-sided) • color pencils • pencil or pen • glue stick or tape • your Phanerozoic Timeline

species, and if you can find it, the estimated mass (weight).

• Under notes, record location it was found.

• Cut out your pictures and place on your timeline in the correct time range. Identify if the dinosaur is an ornithischian or saurischian, and glue.

• Do you see any patterns?

DINOSAURS! — Bird or Lizard Hip 6

Dinosaurs and other reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals all have the same basic structure of their anatomy. Above is a labeled diagram of dinosaur anatomy.

POWER WORDS • anatomy: bodily structure of humans,

animals, and other living organisms

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DINOSAURS! — Size 10

The sauropod dinosaurs reached the upper hypothetical limits of how big a terrestrial animal can be. The largest predator to ever walk the Earth was the Spinosaurus. Not all dinosaurs reached the these massive sizes. The smallest dinosaurs were the size of chickens or crows. In the last activity, you conducted a computer search on different dinosaurs, including their sizes and collecting images. All the images were scaled about the same size to add to your timeline, but they are actually different sizes. In this activity, you will observe those sizes for yourself. Directions: • Collect the materials and

supplies and head outside to

a large area, like a park or school yard.

• If you have a large grassy area, use the crepe paper streamers. Even better, If you have a large blacktop play area or parking lot, use sidewalk chalk. You can sketch the details of each animal’s features in chalk.

• Each image has the different dimensions of the dinosaur. For example, Tyrannosaurus rex is 12 feet high at the hips and 42 feet long.

• Use the tape measure for body length and body height. If you are working in the grass with the streamers, leave a bit of streamer weighted down with rocks.

• After you have the basic measurements, outline the shape of the animal, using the images to guide the drawing. Stand back to get a better view, and correct the outline as needed.

• A Triceratops fossil specimen has evidence of T. rex tooth marks on it’s frill. They lived in the same area at the same time.

POWER WORDS • hypothesis (plural

hypotheses): proposed explanation made limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation

• hypothetical: best estimate or education guess

• terrestrial: of or relating to the Earth

MATERIALS • steel tape measurer (i.e. 25’) • print pages 11-12 (single or double sided) • ~5 large sidewalk chalks

or • ~5 crepe paper streamers (bright color)

and • you might want to grab some friends or family

to help you

MEASUREMENTS • Body length

measurement is from nose to tip of tail (do not include horns)

• Body height is measured from the highest limb, e.g. from the hip to toes in the T. rex, and from the shoulders to the fingers in Argentinosaurus

12’ | 4 m

4’ | 1.3 m

DINOSAURS! — Size 11

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DINOSAURS! — Size 13

This next activity is another way to comprehend the size, with a life-sized puzzle of a Tyrannosaurus rex skull. The image was taken at the American Museum of Natural History in 2004 of the T. rex on display (full image above). Directions: • The Tyrannosaurus rex

image was cropped to just the skull, and then enlarged to life-sized of 46 inches by 41.33 inches. It was divided into 9.5” x 7.5” grid, with the right margin and the bottom margin in smaller pieces.

• The image was cropped into each grid.

• Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to put the puzzle back together.

• Print pages 15-42. • Find a large space, and start

to put the image back together. At this point, do not trim the margins.

• Tape or glue your picture

MATERIALS • computer with printer • print pages 15-42 single-sided • paper • scissors • glue stick or tape • a large area to lay out your puzzle

together. Use some of the margins for overlap to tape, and trim the unwanted margins.

• Hang up your T. rex puzzle!

DINOSAURS! — Size 14

The final puzzle is of this picture, but enlarged to life-size.

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DINOSAURS! — Size 43

This is the final activity on size. In the first two, you were only looking at two dimensions. It would be the same as outlining and drawing a full-sized school bus on the parking lot, then the real school bus parking next to your drawing. Do this outside. It is MESSY. Generally the items are inexpensive and easy to find, but for this one, you will need chicken wire. Your local building supply or farm supply store can help you. Directions: • Below is an image of a

dinosaur femur as it was being excavated in Argentina. It is not an Argentinosaurus, but its closest known relative, Patagotitan mayorum.

• Locate the femur on the

image of dinosaur anatomy on page 7. It is the upper leg bone. The femur is usually the largest bone in a tetrapod’s body. With dinosaurs, we have talked a lot about the perforate acetabulum (hip socket). The ball of the femur fits into the acetabulum.

• Notice how the bone is contoured. It is largest at the top where it articulates with the acetabulum in the hip bones.

• Wear old or work clothes with long sleeves and long pants to protect yourself from chicken wire scratches.

• Collect all the supplies, and head outside. This activity is really messy. Check with an adult where you can make your mess, and cover the area with a tarp.

• Wear work gloves and use safety glasses or goggles. Ask for help if you need it.

• Form the length of the femur with chicken wire. The dimensions (rounded) are: ○ femur shaft length: 8 feet ○ femur circumference:

4 feet at the narrowest in the center of the shaft

• Spend time shaping your

POWER WORDS • circumference: the

distance around something

• contour: outline bounding the shape or form of something

• dimension: length, breadth, depth, and/or height measurements

• excavate: remove earth carefully and systematically from (an area) in order to find buried remains

• femur: the bone of the thigh or upper hind limb, articulating at the hip and the knee

• tetrapod: a four-footed animal, especially a member of a group which includes all vertebrates higher than fishes

MATERIALS • 10 pounds flour • newspaper (lots) • scissors • large bucket • 8.5’ x 5’ chicken wire • masking tape • wire cutters • work gloves • safety goggles

Only a few bones of Argentinosaurus were found, and therefore size is just an estimate. It is thought that this dinosaur was the heaviest ever found. The femur assigned to Argentinosaurus is 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long. The femoral shaft has a circumference of about 1.18 meters (3.9 ft) at its narrowest part.

• pipe cleaners • shop paper towels • cloth tape measurer • paint and brushes • markers • large mixing spoon • computer with printer • print pg. 45 (optional) • tarp

DINOSAURS! — Size 44

femur. Use the image on page 45 as a guild to the shape. The better this framework is, the more realistic your final sculpture will be.

• Clip off any extra chicken wire with the wire clippers.

• Carefully stuff the inside chicken wire with crumpled newspaper. This will help give your femur stability.

• Cut your pipe cleaners in half, and use them to connect the chicken wire shaft together. Space them about 4-6” apart along the chicken wire seam. Push the ends of the pipe cleaners to the inside of the femur.

• To better form the ends of your femur bones, use newspaper and masking tape to shape the ball of the femur where it articulates with the hip, and the distal end, where the femur articulates with the tibia and fibula of the lower leg.

• To make the paper mâché paste, tear the newspaper into long strips about 4” wide and the length of the newspaper. It works best to tear, forming rough edges. They stick better.

• In the large bucket, add 5 pounds of flour with 10 cups of hot tap water.

• Mix the flour and water until you form a smooth paste.

• You can optionally set the femur between two chairs or place on the tarp.

• Lay your chicken wire bone on the tarp. Dip a newspaper strip into the paper mâché paste. Pinch your index and middle finger with the strip between, and gently slide the strip between

your fingers to remove excess paste, and cover the upper side of your femur. For the final layer of paper, use shop paper towels instead of newspaper. They will give your femur a smoother finish. Tear the shop paper towels into strips, dip them in your paper mâché paste, and add them.

• Allow to dry for several days suspended between two chairs. Be sure that your femur is covered in case it rains. Drape the tarp over the chairs while it dries.

• Turn your femur over. • In the large bucket, add 5

pounds of flour with 10 cups of hot tap water.

• Mix the flour and water until you form a smooth paste.

• Turn over your chicken wire bone, and repeat adding the newspaper strips to your bone.

• For the final layer of paper, use shop paper towels instead of newspaper. They will give your femur a smoother finish. Tear the shop paper towels into strips,

POWER WORDS • distal: situated away

from the center of the body or from the point of attachment

• fibula: the outer and usually smaller of the two bones between the knee and the ankle, parallel with the tibia

• tibia: the inner and typically larger of the two bones between the knee and the ankle parallel with the fibula

Cover with a tarp

WEBSITES: • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QUK8gN1oSY • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8Q8xubfOts (which

are NOT dinosaurs in the video?) • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YeCGYIoqUQM

(which are NOT dinosaurs in the video?) • Make a paper mâché clay dinosaur mask!

https://www.ultimatepapermache.com/paper-mache-clay and https://imgur.com/gallery/eBpke

dip them in your paper mâché paste, and add them to your femur.

• Allow to dry for several days (image above).

• Paint your dinosaur bone.

DINOSAURS! — Size 45

femur tetrapods arm and

leg bones have a pattern:

One

tibia and fibula

Two talus and calcaneus

Few

(there are usually more bones in the ankle than shown

in this dinosaur)

metatarsal bones

Many phalanges

Study images of fossils online and select colors that will make your femur look like a fossil femur.

• Compare this bone to a chicken femur (the drumstick bone). Measure your chicken bone. How many times bigger is your dinosaur femur?

Argentinosaurus femur chicken femur

DINOSAURS! — Diets 46

Teeth are comprised of the hardest organic material. Sometimes, all we know about a fossil is from teeth. Much we know about ancient mammals are from their teeth. Shark teeth fossilize, but the cartilaginous skeletons usually do not. Much we know about ancient sharks are from their teeth. What else can teeth reveal about an animal? Diet. In this activity, we will look at extant mammal species teeth to evaluate what foods they eat. We will then look at dinosaur teeth to predict what they may have eaten. Directions: • Paleontologists use extant

species to better understand how extinct animals lived. In this activity, you will examine the teeth of mammals to compare tooth structures to diets.

• One mammal characteristic is that we have four different kinds of teeth: incisors, canine, premolars and molars. As you examine these teeth, you will find that this is generally true, but not always the case.

• Examine the diagram on page 47. What kind of teeth do we have? Omnivorous teeth.

• Prepare a snack with a carrot, piece of lettuce, and a piece of jerky. Watching closely with the mirror, observe how you bite and chew each of these three items. How is it different when you bit and chew a carrot from a lettuce leaf? Is it different than when you

chew the jerky? Where do you place the food item to tear off a piece. Where is the food in your mouth as you chew? Does your jaw grind differently?

• Look at the images on pages 48—51 of different mammal teeth by diet (carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, and some miscellaneous diets). How would each animal grab the food to eat it? How is the consistency of the food different? Would they tear it first? Where would they grind or slice the food?

• After you have done this thought experiment, look at the images of the 8 dinosaurs on page 52. Except for Fruitadens, there is a picture of the skull with the teeth, and then an enlarged tooth at the bottom, right margin of the image.

• What kind of diet did each dinosaur have, based on the teeth? For the herbivores, would their teeth help to strip leaves from branches? Would they grind vegetation? We have found gastroliths in dinosaurs. These are small stones swallowed to aid in digestion for animals that do not chew food.

• Look carefully at the teeth. Some of the carnivorous dinosaurs had serrated edges on their teeth, like a

POWER WORDS • cartilaginous: of

cartilage; firm, whitish, flexible connective tissue found in various forms in the larynx and respiratory tract, in structures such as the external ear, and in the articulating surfaces of joints

• extant: still in existence • extinct: having no

living members • gastrolith: a small

stone swallowed by a bird, reptile, or fish to aid digestion in the gizzard

• organic: relating to or derived from living matter

• serrated: having or denoting a jagged edge; saw-like

MATERIALS • carrot • lettuce • jerky • mirror • images on pages 47—52 (not necessary to

print) • computer with internet

serrated knife. Spinosaurus, one of the largest carnivores, did not have serrated teeth, but Tyrannosaurus, with it’s 12” teeth, did.

• Check out your guesses on the internet. Were you right?

DINOSAURS! — Diets 47

Carnivores have teeth to grasp and hold prey, as well as tear flesh. Herbivores have teeth to crush and grind vegetation. Omnivores have teeth that can grasp, hold prey, tear flesh, as well as grind vegetation. What kind of teeth do humans have?

DINOSAURS! — Diets 48

Orca (killer whale)—carnivore

Puma (mountain lion)—carnivore

Coyote—carnivore

DINOSAURS! — Diets 49

American black bear—omnivore Grizzley / brown bear—omnivore

Racoon—omnivore Human—omnivore

DINOSAURS! — Diets

Whitetail deer—herbivore American bison—herbivore Horse—herbivore

50

DINOSAURS! — Diets 51

Ord’s Kangaroo Rat—granivore (eats primarily seeds and nuts) Mole—insectivore (worms, spiders, insects, etc.) Giant Ant Eater—insectivore (specializing on social insects—no teeth, but a long sticky tongue) Vampire bat—sanguinivore (feeds on blood)

DINOSAURS! — Diets 52

e. f. g. h.

a.

b. c. d.

Fruitadens haagarorum, the smallest known orthnischian dinosaur. Four individuals were found in Fruita, Colorado.

Answers page 74

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 53

Fossil tracks provide different types of information about the lives of the animals that made them. Researchers study the characteristics of the track-maker's feet, the posture of animals, and how they moved, and even estimated height of the animal. The tracks are not enough to identify a species.

For example, three toed track above were made by a theropod (T. rex is a theropod). We may never know which species. Analyzing multiple trackways, researchers can find clues about how ancient animals interacted with each other.

Directions:

Footprints • Tear a piece a aluminum foil

about 12” x 12”. • Place on soft ground (like a

rug or grass). • Stand next to the aluminum

foil, and walk 5 steps away. • Turn around. Walk towards

the aluminum foil, adjusting your stride so that one of

your feet steps directly on the aluminum foil.

• What can you tell about this footprint? You can tell that the heel took the most weight and sifted to the toes. Look at the sole of the shoe. Could you match that to the actual shoe? Notice that the weight is carried on the outside of the foot, not evenly distributed. It is fainter on the instep (see yellow arrow). I broke my leg when I was 12 year old, and that is how it healed. I place more weight on the outside of my foot than the weight being evenly distributed.

• Ask family members to make an aluminum foil footprint. What can you tell about them just from the print? Did they have any injuries to help explain their step?

Estimated Height (Please note, this works better for adults than youth.) • Recruit your family and

friends (adults and youth) for this activity and divide them into two groups (mixing ages and heights of each person). You will measure the length of the left foot and the height of each person in group one. In group two, you will determine their approximate height by just measuring

POWER WORDS • horizontal: side to

side; parallel to the plane of the horizon; at right angles to the vertical

• track: a mark or line of marks left by a person, animal, or vehicle in passing

• trackway: a path formed by the repeated treading of people or animals

MATERIALS • aluminum foil • print pages 61—64 • color pencils/markers • tape measure • ruler • calculator • meter stick • large kraft paper roll • scissors

their foot. After you have calculated their approximate height, you will measure their height to verify it is close.

• Each person needs to be barefoot or in socks. Stand up straight with heels against a wall. Place the ruler on top of that person’s head, and level the ruler until it is

• 2 12” aluminum pans • 2 clean milk jugs • 1 sponge / person • variety tempera paints • 2-4 paper towel rolls • broom • plaster of Paris • paint stir stick • Vaseline • 8 ounce paper cup

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 54

horizontal to the floor. • Ask the person to step away,

(keep the ruler level). It is easiest if the person you measured finds the distance between the ruler and the floor with the tape measurer while you hold the ruler steady. Record height in inches on the data table (page 61).

• Measure the length of each person’s left foot from the heel to the tip of the longest toe (usually the big toe). Record the foot length measurement in inches on the data table .

• Examine the numbers. Do you see a pattern?

• Divide the length of each person's left foot by his/her height. In your calculator: ○ enter the foot length ○ hit divide by (÷) ○ enter the height ○ hit equals (=) ○ hit multiply (x) ○ enter 100 (to find the

percentage) ○ hit equals (=) ○ What do you get?

• The results of your calculations should be about 15%, demonstrating that the length of a person's foot is approximately 15 percent of his or her height. As stated at the beginning of this activity, it works better for adults than youth.

• Find out the approximate height of each of your friends and family in group two by measuring their foot and charting it on a spreadsheet. Proportions are really easy (and fun) math that have two equivalent ratios. You will use the ratio of the length of the foot is 15% to the body

length of 100%. Therefore, the foot measurement is 15% of the total body length: ○ 15 ÷ 100 = Length of Foot

÷ person's height ○ Example:

foot = 9 inches. 15 9.5” = 100 height

○ rearrange terms 15 x height = 9.5” x 100 15 x height = 950” height = 950” ÷ 15 height = 63.33”

• How close were your approximations? The table helps you with the calculations.

• Each species has a different ratio between foot length and height, stride and height, and other measurements. Scientists can use these measurements to get more information from trackways.

POWER WORDS • equivalent: equal in

value, amount, function, meaning

• proportion: a part, share, or number considered in comparative relation to a whole

• ratio: the quantitative relation between two amounts showing the number of times one value contains or is contained within the other

FASCINATING FACTS

• Dinosaurs are a group of reptiles that have lived on Earth for about 245 million years.

• In 1842, the English naturalist Sir Richard Owen coined the term Dinosauria, derived from the Greek deinos, meaning “fearfully great,” and sauros, meaning “lizard.”

• Dinosaur fossils have been found on all seven continents.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 55

Mystery Tracks • Footprints can leave a telling

story. You can determine if someone is hopping, running, or walking by the footprints. If the footprints crossover other prints, you can determine which was made first, second, and so on. You can tell which direction each person is walking.

• You need three family and friends to help you. This activity MUST be done outdoors on a sunny day.

• Measure 15 feet of rolled paper cut it. Repeat to make five 15’ strips. Brown craft roll paper ( check home improvement stores in the paint section) works great and is inexpensive.

• Gather the following supplies to take outside: ○ five 15’ cut paper rolls ○ 2 large disposable

aluminum pans ○ 2 gallon milk jug filled

with water ○ sponge for each person ○ tempera paint (different

color for each person ○ towels or paper towels ○ broom ○ pencil/marker/pen

• You need a hard surface (like blacktop or a sidewalk) free from rocks and debris. Sweep the area and unroll

the first 15’ paper. You may need to add some weights (rocks, heavy branches) to keep it from being lifted by the wind. Place them at the edges of the paper, so you don’t trip while making the footprints.

• Set up a station at each end of the paper. Both sides will

have the following: ○ Fill the aluminum pans

with the water from the milk jugs. There only needs to be a couple inches of water in the pan. Leave one of the jugs of water.

○ Place paper towels (or rags) by the water.

○ Place some of the tempera paint.

○ Place a sponge • The tempera paint and

sponge are to paint the

POWER WORDS • debris: scattered

pieces of waste or remains

• locomotion: the ability to move from one place to another

FASCINATING FACTS

• All non-avian dinosaurs went extinct about 66 million years ago.

• There are roughly 700 known species of extinct dinosaurs.

• Modern birds are a kind of dinosaur because they share a common ancestor with non-avian dinosaurs.

bottom of your shoes. The water and paper towels are to help clean up the mess. You should have enough water to replace each pan a couple of times.

• The first roll of paper is to examine different patterns of walking locomotion. Label it “Locomotion—Walking”

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 56

with a pencil or marker. • One at a time, just before the

person walks, paint the bottom of his or her shoes (use different colors). Stand up on the edge of the paper and walk normally from one end to the other. You can start from either side of the paper. Do not walk over another person’s track. When each person reaches the other end of the paper, step one foot at a time into the water to clean the sole of the shoe. Use some of the paper towels to clean any additional paint from your shoes. Set aside the paper to dry. Record on the paper with the marker or pencil which color paint each person used.

• Repeat with the next roll of 15’ paper, but this time, label it “Locomotion—Running.”

• One at a time, just before the

person runs, paint the bottom of his or her shoes. Stand up on the edge of the paper and run normally from one end to the other. You can start from either side of the paper. Do not walk over another person’s track. When each person reaches the other end of the paper, step one foot at a time into the water to clean the sole of the shoe. Use some of the paper towels to clean any additional paint from your shoes. Set aside the paper

FASCINATING FACTS

• Paleontologists use fossil evidence preserved in ancient rock to discover how long-extinct animals lived and behaved.

• In most cases, a fossilized bone is actually a rock made out of minerals, with no trace of the original bone material.

• The discovery of dinosaur eggs and nests provided evidence for the behavior of some dinosaurs.

FASCINATING FACTS

• To discover how organisms lived in the past, paleontologists look for clues preserved in ancient rocks—the fossilized bones, teeth, eggs, footprints, teeth marks, leaves, and even dung of ancient organisms.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 57

to dry. Record on the paper with the marker or pencil which color paint each person used.

• Repeat with the third roll of 15’ paper, but this time, label it “Locomotion—Order”

• One at a time, just before the person walks, paint the bottom of his or her shoes. Stand up on the edge of the paper and walk normally from one end to the other. You can start from either side of the paper. This time, the second, third, and fourth person needs to walk over the footprints that are already there. You don’t want to cover the footstep completely, but zig-zag so you can see which is on top and which is on the bottom.

• For example, in the image to the right, the red footprint is on the bottom, then the dark blue, then the light blue, then the yellow footprint on top.

• When each person reaches the other end of the paper, step one foot at a time into the water to clean the sole of the shoe. Use some of the paper towels to clean any additional paint from your shoes. Set aside the paper to dry. Record on the paper with the marker or pencil which color paint each person used.

• You have two more rolls. Divide everyone into two groups. Hopefully you were able to recruit at least 4 people per team. Decide how you want to make your tracks. Do you want to dance across the paper? How about hop or skip? Do you want to tell a story in the footprints? Do not share with

the other team. • Repeat the steps with your

POWER WORDS • e.g.: Latin abbreviation

for: exempli gratia, meaning for example

• mean: in math, the average set of numbers; to calculate, add up all the numbers; divide by how many numbers there are

• pace: as a unit, a double step, or returning to the same foot (e.g. left to left foot)

• step: as a unit, alternating feet, right, left, right

• vertical: the top is directly above the bottom

15’ paper, but this time, label it “Mystery Footprints.”

• One at a time, just before the person moves across the paper, paint the bottom of his or her shoes. Stand up on the edge of the paper and run normally from one end to the other. You can start from either side of the

20” 23” 27”

FASCINATING FACTS

• By comparing the skulls of Protoceratops of different ages, paleontologists can draw conclusions about how some dinosaurs grew.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 58

paper. When each person reaches the end of the paper, step one foot at a time into the water to clean the sole of the shoe. Use some of the paper towels to clean any additional paint from your shoes. Set aside the paper roll to dry. Do not indicate who used which color tempera paint this time.

• It takes about one hour for the paint footprints to dry. Play some games while you are waiting. When they are dry, roll them up and take them home with all your other supplies. Clean the area as best you can, pick up trash, even if it isn’t yours. It is an excellent habit that when you leave, the place is better than when you arrived.

• On the Locomotion—Walking, and Locomotion—Running paper rolls, use the meter stick to make measurements of the walking and running distance for each person. Measure the left footprint from toe to toe. Write the distance on the trackway (see the example left).

Interpreting the Evidence • On the datasheet table

Mystery Trackways identify each person by the color of their footprint and their name.

• Measure the height of each of your friends (if you don’t have their heights from the first activity, Estimating Heights). ○ Each person needs to be

barefoot or in socks. Stand up straight with heels against a wall. Place the ruler on top of

that person’s head, and level the ruler until it is horizontal to the floor.

○ Ask the person to step away, (keeping the ruler level). It is easiest if the person you measured finds the distance between the ruler and the floor with the tape measurer while you hold the ruler steady. Record height in inches on the data table.

• Enter the data on walking and running in the Mystery Tracks datasheet. This will give you a baseline for human trackways. Instead of measuring each step, we will measure a pace. ○ Identify each person by

their color footprint and/or name.

○ Add up all the left foot toe to toe distances.

○ Find the mean pace length. In the example on page 57, 20 + 23 + 27 = 70 ÷ 3 = 23.33 mean.

• There is a graph on page 63. The X axis (the horizontal line) is the average number of paces. The Y axis (the vertical line) is the height of your friends and you. Use a color pencil that matches their footprints. Use a small circle for walking and an X for running. For example, if

FASCINATING FACTS

• Fossilized jaws, teeth, and dung provide important clues about what non-avian dinosaurs ate.

• Series of fossilized footprints, called trackways, reveal some intriguing evidence about dinosaur behavior and locomotion.

• Until recently it was believed that feathers were unique to birds. Recent discoveries, however, have unearthed evidence for feathered non-avian dinosaurs.

FASCINATING FACTS

• Most theropod dinosaurs, such as Tyrannosaurus, had teeth that were pointed, slightly curved backwards, and serrated. The sharp points pierced the meat, and the serrations helped slice it by catching and tearing muscle fibers. Meat eaters didn’t chop or grind their food; they swallowed chunks whole.

you or a friend picked black tempera paint, you will use the black color pencil to identify the point where height and walking average pace meet and put a small circle at that point. You would find the height and average running pace, and put an X. The example has been added, but do not

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 59

use it when you talk about what your graph means.

• What similarities are there among the walking paces? What differences are there among the walking paces?

• What similarities are there among the running paces? What differences are there among the running paces?

• Is there are relationship between the stride and the height of each person? How long are their legs? If you know the leg length, then you can estimate the height. What else can you determine from these footsteps?

• Next analyze the Trackways Order paper roll. Based on

the footprints alone, can you determine the order that you and your friends made the tracks?

• Swap the Mystery Trackways. You and your partner roll out the other team’s trackway. Explore the following, recording it on

the paper: ○ What can you tell about

each person’s footprint? How tall?

○ What is the stride length for each track?

○ How was each person moving across the paper?

○ What order were the footprints made?

○ Do the tracks tell a story? What is it?

• When you have extracted as much information as possible, get back together with the other team. Share what you found in their footprints, and they can add more information, details, and make corrections. They can share what they were

POWER WORDS • bipedal: using only

two legs for walking • quadrupedal: four-

footed; using all four feet for walking and running

FASCINATING FACTS • From an individual footprint, scientists can

estimate the height of the dinosaur that made it. A rough estimate of leg length is obtained by multiplying the print length by four.

able to discover from your tracks, and you can add more information, details, and make corrections.

• You now have the concepts in determining information from trackways. Let’s switch from friends and family to DINOSAURS! YEAH!

Dinosaur Trackways • Obviously, humans and

dinosaurs are very

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 60

different. The techniques to evaluate stride length, running, walking, injuries, height, and even figuring out the story the tracks tell are the same. The ratios and proportions we use are different ratios and proportions. Those are species specific traits. That just makes sense!

• Our data from dinosaurs are from skeletons. The measurements are not, therefore, the true height of the animal, but the height of the bones. It does not include the underlying muscle and skin/scales on top of the skeleton.

• The image below shows seven different species of dinosaurs and their footprints. Which animals walk on two legs (bipedal), and which animals walk on four legs (quadrupedal)?

• Examine each footprint. How are they similar? How are they different?

• The next activity is from the American Museum of Natural History in New York City (https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/dinosaurs-activities-and-lesson-plans/be-a-trackway-detective). It is a great way to take what you learned with human tracks and apply that information to dinosaurs.

• Examine page 64’s image, and answer the questions to the best of your ability.

• Check the answers. How did you do?

• This next activity is examining actual dinosaur tracks found in Picket Wire Canyonlands, Colorado.

This is the largest trackways found in the United States. There are over 1,900 prints in 130 separate trackways. If you are interested in seeing them for yourself, you will find the information at the USDA Forest Service website: https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/psicc/recarea/?recid=77620

• Examine the images on page 65. What can you determine about those tracks

Examine the image above. What do you think happened? Is there more than one

POWER WORDS • depression:

landform sunken or depressed below the surrounding area

• sedimentary rock: made when sand, mud and pebbles get laid down in layers and eventually, the layers are turned to rock

FASCINATING FACTS • A footprint can also provide clues about the

kind of dinosaur that made it. A three-toed, sharp-clawed print means it was likely a theropod—usually a carnivore. A three-toed print with rounded toes probably belonged to an ornithopod dinosaur—an herbivore. Pairs of unequal-sized prints were probably the work of the four-legged, long-necked, long-tailed sauropods dinosaurs, also herbivores.

explanation of the tracks? How many different stories does this image tell?

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 61

How Were Trackways Made? • How could dinosaurs leave

their tracks in the rock? • The rock, during the

dinosaur’s time, was not a rock. It was part of a shoreline, a mudflat or even the bottom of a shallow sea. The tracks dried and hardened. Have you ever found dirt that was almost like a rock? Depending on the amount of clay in the soil, it can get really hard.

• Over time, another layer of sediment filled the prints, protecting them from erosion or damage. You can see that wind will blow dirt, and it will fill protected depressions.

• Over millions of years, these layers of sediment hardened into sedimentary rock -- the same type of rock that preserves dinosaur bones.

• Remember, we don’t usually find fossils until the rock around them begins to erode. Same with these footprints. They remain protected until they finally erode, and we can see them.

• This is another outdoor activity. Gather the following supplies: ○ 1 12” aluminum pan ○ 1 clean milk jug filled with

water ○ paper towel roll ○ plaster of Paris ○ 8 ounce paper cup ○ paint stir stick ○ Vaseline

• Place the aluminum pan on a flat surface.

• With the paper cup, add 2 full scoops of the plaster of Paris in the aluminum pan.

• Measure 1 full paper cup of water, and add to the aluminum pan.

• With the paint stick, mix the plaster of Paris and water. You need at least 1” of plaster of Paris in the pan. If you need more, add 2 more scoops of plaster of Paris, and one cup of water.

• After you have your plaster of Paris ready, coat the bottom of your left shoe with the Vaseline.

• Be sure that you take a step (shifting your weight from heel to toe) rather than just place your foot into the plaster. It will give a more natural track.

• Use the paper towels to clean the Vaseline from your shoe.

• Gather everything and go back home.

• Time how long it takes for the plaster to dry.

• This is a speed version of how tracks are made.

• Examine your track.

POWER WORDS • depression:

landform sunken or depressed below the surrounding area

• sedimentary rock: made when sand, mud and pebbles get laid down in layers and eventually, the layers are turned to rock

FASCINATING FACTS • A footprint can also provide clues about the

kind of dinosaur that made it. A three-toed, sharp-clawed print means it was likely a theropod—usually a carnivore. A three-toed print with rounded toes probably belonged to an ornithopod dinosaur—an herbivore. Pairs of unequal-sized prints were probably the work of the four-legged, long-necked, long-tailed sauropods dinosaurs, also herbivores.

DINOSAURS! — Trackways: Estimated Height 62

Name

Example

Height in inches

5.5’ = 65”

Foot Length in inches

9.5”

Divide Foot by Height

65” / 9.5” = 0.146

Times by 100 to find Percent

100 x 0.146 = 14.6%

Name

Example

Foot Length in inches

9.5”

times 100%

9.0” x 100% = 950 ” %

Divide by 15%

950 ” % ÷ 15% = 63.3”

Actual Height measured in inches

64”

Gro

up

1

Gro

up

2

DINOSAURS! — Trackways: Mystery Tracks 63

Name / Color / Height

. Example / Black/ 46”

Pace lengths

20 + 23 + 27

Total

70

How Many Numbers?

3

Mean—Divide Total by How

Many Numbers 23.333

Name / Color / Height

. Example / Black / 46”

Pace lengths

29 + 27 + 30

Total

86

How Many Numbers?

3

Mean—Divide Total by How

Many Numbers 28.67

Ru

nn

ing

W

alk

ing

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 64 Height

7

2

7

0

6

8

6

6

6

4

6

2

6

0

5

8

5

6

5

4

5

2

5

0

4

8

4

6

4

4

4

2

4

0

3

8

3

6

0

2

4

6

8

1

0 1

2

14

1

6

18

2

0

2

2

24

2

6

28

3

0 3

2

34

3

6

38

4

0

42

4

4

46

4

8

50

M

ea

n P

ace

in in

che

s

Wal

k R

un

Exa

mpl

e ●

X

X

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 65

1. How many individual animals were here? ________________

2. How many different animals were here? ________________

3. Did the animal that left the red tracks move on two or four limbs? ________________

4. Did the dinosaurs that left yellow tracks travel together? ________________

5. Why do you think that? ________________

6. Why are the yellow tracks two different sizes? ________________

7. Were any dinosaurs running? Can you tell? ________________

8. What is the order tracks were made? ________________ ___________________________________ ___________________________________

9. Is there anything else you can determine?

______________________________________

Color each dinosaur track as indicated below (the first one is already colored).

Answers: page 75

DINOSAURS! — Trackways 66

Picketwire Canyonlands, Otero, CO Dinosaur Ridge, Jefferson County, CO Dinosaur Ridge, Jefferson County, CO

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 67

Colorado is rich with Mesozoic fossils. In and around Pagosa Springs, you can find the marine reptile Mosasaurus teeth almost as easy as finding pinecones. Fruitadens haagarorum, the smallest ornithischian, has very interesting teeth. The name “Fruitadens” means Fruita (Fruita, Colorado) dens (teeth). Too cool! The last activity in this month’s newsletter is where you can go in Colorado to see these fossils (dinosaurs as well as other fossils you can find throughout time). Both Dr. Holtz and I belong to the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. As scientists, we ask that if you find something, tell us about it. Send us images that are in clear, sharp focus with something to determine size, like a quarter. You can find the “Ask a Paleontologist” team’s email addresses here: http://vertpaleo.org/What-is-Vertebrate-Paleontology/Ask-a-Paleontologist.aspx Fossils belong to all of us, and as scientists, we strongly oppose the purchase, sale or trade of important specimens.

You can collect invertebrate fossils. For instance, I collect trilobites, invertebrates from the Paleozoic. Collecting invertebrate fossils is perfectly fine. If you, however, find a new species of animal (which you can in Colorado), and do not donate it, it could be lost to science forever. Fossils are national treasurers. If it is an important find, donate it to one of the Natural History Museums: • Colorado School of Mines in

Golden • Denver Museum of Science

and Nature in Denver • Museums of Western

Colorado: Dinosaur Journey Museum in Fruita

• May Natural History Museum in Colorado Springs

• Morrison Natural History Museum in Morrison

• Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center in Woodland Park

• University of Colorado Museum of Natural History in Boulder

With that said, let’s explore for Colorado Fossils!

FASCINATING FACTS • Plant-eating dinosaurs

had various shaped teeth designed for their particular diet. Triceratops had hundreds of teeth that formed a solid “wall” with sharp ridges. The teeth were used to chop off vegetation. Other plant eaters, like Anatotitan, had wide flat teeth that they used to grind up tough vegetation. Sauropods, such as Diplodocus, had long pencil-like teeth that they used to rake the leaves off branches. They swallowed the leaves whole. They also ingested small stones, called gastroliths, most likely to grind up the food in their stomachs.

MATERIALS • Computer with internet access

Museums: • The list to the left is a

good starting point for just seeing fossils at museums. Find the museum closest to you.

• In addition to the list, here are some other Natural History locations: ○ Dinosaur National

Monument (located in Moffat County and

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 68

East, into Utah) ○ Florissant Fossil Beds

National Monument in Florissant

○ Garden of the Gods Visitor and Nature Center in Colorado Springs

○ Picketwire Canyonlands south of La Junta

○ Dinosaur Ridge near Morrison

○ Royal Gorge Dinosaur Experience

○ Garden Park Fossil Area near Cañon City

○ Delta County Museum, in the Delta County Historical Society, Delta

I found this website from CNN that includes not only Colorado, but also Utah.

https://us.cnn.com/travel/article/dinosaurs-utah-colorado-scn/index.html 1. Natural History Museum of

Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 2. Museum of Ancient Life,

Lehi, Utah 3. Dinosaur National

Monument, Jensen, Utah 4. Grand Valley and Dinosaur

Journey Museum, Fruita, CO

5. Moab, Utah 6. Hanksville-Burpee Dinosaur

Quarry, Utah 7. Grand Staircase—Escalante

National Monument, Utah 8. St. George Dinosaur

Discovery Site, St. George, Utah

9. Jurassic National Monument, Cleveland / Elmo, Utah

10. Prehistoric Museum, Price, Utah

FASCINATING FACTS • Modern birds,

paleontologists call avian dinosaurs, have skeletal features that are almost identical to some non-avian dinosaurs.

FASCINATING FACTS • Feathers evolved before flight and may have

functioned as insulation to keep dinosaurs warm, or for display as a way to attract mates.

• Paleontologists looking for dinosaur fossils begin their work by surveying areas to find sedimentary rock from the Mesozoic era. Finding the right spot takes experience and a keen eye.

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 69

Finally, here are a couple of web resources for you to explore fossils and dinosaurs. Some have already been identified in different activities.

• Paleontology Portal: this is one of my favorites. It is a site from University of California, Berkeley’s Museum of Paleontology. The information in it is invaluable. I have downloaded all the maps of the different Periods in Colorado together with the geological information (pages 69-73). What age of rock is exposed closest to where you live?

• The Colorado School of Mines Colorado Geological Survey has a wonderful site about fossils found. It is currently under construction, but is still in full operation. https://coloradogeologicalsurvey.org/geology/colorado/fossils/

• Another Paleontology Portal, but this is from the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. It is one of the world’s great museums founded by President Teddy Roosevelt. This one describes how museums acquire, store, track, and share fossils. http://collections.paleo.amnh.org/

FASCINATING FACTS • Fieldwork is only a

small part of what paleontologists do. They also work in the lab, examining the specimens they’ve found as well as fossils collected years earlier. They spend a lot of time classifying specimens, examining their characteristics, and determining their biological relationships.

FASCINATING FACTS • During the Mesozoic Era (a period of more than

180 million years), a species of non-avian dinosaur emerged into a species of avian dinosaur. This avian dinosaur is the first bird and the forerunner of all birds. Every non-avian dinosaur went extinct 66 million years ago.

Fossil collections at AMNH

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 70

Precambrian: rocks form the core of the Rocky Mountains and include metamorphic rocks as old as 2.7 billion years and intrusive igneous rocks around a billion years old. The only Precambrian sedimentary rocks in Colorado are located in the extreme northwest corner of the state on the eastern margin of the Uinta Mountains. No fossils have been reported from these rocks.

Cambrian: The area that is now Colorado lay near the equator during the Cambrian and rocks of this period are primarily sandstones that lie on eroded Precambrian rocks. The Cambrian sandstones were deposited in a shallow sea that covered much of the state at this time. Burrows, tracks, and trails of marine animals can be found in some of these sandstones.

undifferentiated rock units

Ordovician: A shallow tropical sea covered Colorado during the Ordovician, and the resulting sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, and dolostone. A mudstone near Canon City in central Colorado contains abundant bone fragments from some of the earliest fish, and another site nearby is known for its diversity of marine trace fossils.

undifferentiated rock units

Silurian: The only examples of Silurian rock are fragments preserved in diamond-bearing igneous intrusions near Fort Collins containing distinctive Silurian marine fossils (brachiopods and corals) indicating that part of the state was covered by shallow water. Uplift of the land occurred some time after these marine sediments were deposited, draining the sea from the state. Erosion then removed most of the Silurian rocks. undifferentiated rock units

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 71

Permian: Erosion of the Ancestral Rockies near Denver in a semi-arid climate produced abundant sand and led to the deposition of extensive dunes. These sand dune deposits are mined today for flagstones. Tracks of insects and unknown reptiles that lived on the dunes can be found on these flagstones. Manganese dendrites on the flagstones are commonly mistaken for fossil ferns.

undifferentiated rock units

Carboniferous: Shallow seas expanded in the Early Carboniferous (Mississippian), covering most of the state and depositing a thick sequence of limestone. Later igneous intrusions in the area of the Elk Mountains in northern Colorado metamorphosed some of this limestone to marble. Yule marble is the state rock of Colorado and was used to build the Lincoln Memorial. In the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), the Ancestral Rockies rose near Denver and the Uncompahgre Range formed in west-central Colorado. The low-lying areas between these ranges consisted of coastal and shallow marine environments. Some of the coastlines were arid, and evaporation of the seawater in these areas formed thick layers of gypsum. Nearby marine shale deposits contain the remnants of a rich fauna that includes sharks, trilobites, brachiopods, and crinoids. The terrestrial sedimentary deposits contain some of the earliest conifers, tree lycopods, and the huge horsetail, Calamites. Sediments deposited along the flanks of the Ancestral Rockies consist of red sandstones and conglomerates that make the signature scenery of the Colorado Front Range, including Red Rocks Amphitheater and the Flat Irons of the Boulder area. There is some evidence that there was glaciation in the Uncompahgre Range during this time. This is a controversial hypothesis because of the equatorial location of Colorado at that time.

undifferentiated rock units

Devonian: A shallow sea covered much of the area during this time interval, and a number of Devonian formations are exposed along the flanks of the Rockies. These rocks are generally poor in fossils, but exposures near Ouray in southwestern Colorado contain a well-studied marine fauna, including brachiopods and other fossils typical of shallow tropical seas. Limy sediment was deposited on the floor of this sea across the state. undifferentiated rock units

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 72

Jurassic: Little sediment accumulated in Colorado during the early Jurassic, but the deposition of Morrison Formation sediments in the Late Jurassic finally covered the last remnants of the Ancestral Rockies. The Morrison Formation formed as a series of streams, lakes, and rivers traced across the region, depositing a thick sequence of sandstone and mudstone. Fossil dinosaur bones were first discovered near the town of Morrison, just west of Denver, in 1877. This discovery soon led to others, and it became apparent that the Late Jurassic was a time of large dinosaurs. Major quarries in western Colorado have yielded many kinds of large sauropods, as well as smaller dinosaurs such as stegosaurs, allosaurs, ceratosaurs, and camptosaurs. Subsequent discoveries of fossil plants, mammals, lizards, and plants make the Morrsion one of the most famous formations in the world.

Triassic: During the Triassic, erosion lowered the Ancestral Rockies, burying them in their own debris. Extensive red beds formed adjacent to a shallow seaway that lay to the north in Wyoming, and Colorado hosted its first dinosaur. Other Triassic fossils include armored aetosaurs, crocodile-like phytosaurs, large amphibians, conifers, and the very enigmatic plant known as Sanmiguelia. Portions of the Triassic section near Denver were formed in a coastal environment and contain abundant limestone stromatolites.

undifferentiated rock units

Cretaceous: In the early part of the Cretaceous, Colorado lay at sea level and topographic relief was minimal. By 100 million years ago, shallow seas moved into the area, laying down a layer of beach sand and coastal sediments known as the Dakota Formation. Dinosaur footprints and fossil flowering plants are common in the remains of this forested and swampy coastal area. As the seas deepened, the western portion of the state received a thick deposit of marine mud, while the eastern portion of the state accumulated chalk and mud. This marine rock is extremely rich in fossils, including dinoflagellates (single-celled algae), giant clams, ammonites, baculites, giant fish, mosasaurs, and plesiosaurs. Expansion of the western shoreline around 75 million years ago formed a thick sequence of coastal sediments all the way to the center of the state. Four million years before the end of the Cretaceous, the seas retreated and the Rocky Mountains began to rise. A new fauna that included Triceratops, Tyrannosaurus, and Edmontosaurus moved into the region, which was covered by broadleaf trees and palms. The K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) asteroid impact devastated the Colorado landscape, destroying all the large animals and about 50% of the plant species.

Tertiary: During the Tertiary, the Rocky Mountains rose, began to erode, and were buried in their own debris. Tropical rainforests grew along the eastern slopes of the young Rockies in the Early Tertiary, and volcanoes rose, shedding debris and ash into the Denver Basin. Mammals, crocodiles, and turtles are the most common animal fossils from these areas. In northwestern Colorado, uplift of the mountains left low-lying areas between the ridges, which filled with water to form huge lakes. Algae accumulated with the lake bottom mud to form oil shales that are the source of fossil fish, leaves, and insects. Cooling later in the Early Tertiary (late Eocene) encouraged the growth of Sequoia forests in the Rockies. Mudflows near Florissant (central Colorado) preserved standing trunks of these huge trees. Large volcanic eruptions in the southern half of the state in the Early to Mid-Tertiary (late Eocene and Oligocene) formed the core of the San Juan Mountains. Ash from these eruptions covered the eastern portion of the state and preserved a variety of mammal fossils, including titanotheres, rhinos, giant pigs, gomphotheres, and bear dogs, to name but a few. Grasslands appeared across much of the state near the end of the Tertiary.

DINOSAURS! — Colorado Fossils and Dinosaurs 73

Quaternary: Erosion sculpted the modern Colorado landscape during the Quaternary. Mountain glaciers were present in the Rockies, but did not extend far onto the Great Plains. True prairies appeared for the first time, and mammoths, camels, bison, horses, sloths, lions, cheetah, bear, peccaries and other large mammals were fairly common.

The maps and geological information are directly from Paleontology Portals, University of California’s Museum of Paleontology, Paleontology Society, the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, and United States Geological Survey, funded by the National Science Foundation. The site contains a wealth of information about North American fossils, locations, collections, and so much more. Visit: http://paleoportal.org/ for a fascinating journey through time and space!

MEET A PALEONTOLOGIST — Dr. Thomas Holtz 74

Meet Dr. Thomas Holtz, Dinosaur Paleontologist (The following was an interview with National Park Service) What is your job, and what do you study? I am a vertebrate paleontologist - a scientist who studies ancient animals with a bony skeleton. More specifically, I am a dinosaur paleontologist who specializes in the anatomy, evolution, and behavior of the carnivorous (meat-eating) dinosaurs, most especially Tyrannosaurus rex and its closest relative. I am also the Principle Lecturer at the University of Maryland, where I teach paleontology, evolutionary biology, historical geology, and global change science. On top of that, I write books on paleontology for the general public. What are you working on now? Among many other projects, I am investigating the patterns of changing geography on dinosaurian diversity, and on how tyrant dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus may have changed in behavior throughout their life cycle. Where did you go to school? What were some of your favorite classes that you took? I went to public schools in Nassau Bay, TX and Fairfax

County, VA. I loved most of my science classes, but also history. I was a college student at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, MD, and did my graduate work at Yale University in New Haven, CT. My favorite classes as a college and graduate student were, not surprisingly, about paleontology, evolution, and geology! Was there an experience you had that made you realize you wanted to be a paleontologist? I have wanted to be a paleontologist since before I have memory; in other words, I can't remember a time when I didn't want to be one. My parents told me that I first wanted to be a dinosaur when I grew up, but when they said that was impossible I said I would study them instead. Which is what I did! What is your most memorable experience working with fossils? Once, on the first day of the field season I was

sitting on a hill trying to understand the local geology, then noticed I was sitting among a bunch of fragments of dinosaur eggshell! But in general, whether it is egg, bone, tooth, seashell, leaf, track, or any type of fossil, it is always amazing to think that when you open a rock to see a fossil that you are the first person in the history of the world to see it! Do you have any advice for aspiring paleontologists? Read a lot of books about all sorts of natural and scientific subjects, not just about paleontology. In order to

make sense of the world you have to understand how it works. But get your nose out of your books when you can, and just explore Nature! https://www.nps.gov/articles/meetapaleontologist-thomasholtz.htm

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CITATIONS 75

AUTHORS • Dr. Barbara J. Shaw, Colorado State

University Extension Western Region Youth Development 4-H STEM K/12 Specialist

• Dr. Thomas Holtz, University of Maryland Department of Geology, Senior Principle Lecturer and Director College Park Scholars—Science and Global Change Program

• Tom Lindsay, retired Portland State University instructor (geology and paleontology); HS science teacher (AP and IB Chemistry, Physics, Biology, and Calculus)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS • Funding for this project provided by Colorado

State University System Venture Capital Fund • CJ Mucklow, Colorado State University Extension

Western Regional Director • Monique Mull, Colorado State University

Extension Western Regional Administrative Assistant

• Dr. Joe Cannon and Marketing Strategies students Berlyn Anderson, Jenna Balsley, Rachel Kassirer, Rachel Richman, Colorado State University, College of Business, for marketing strategies and ST[EMpower] graphics

• Doug Garcia, Colorado State University Creative Services Communication Coordinator/ Designer

CITATIONS Information: • Braus, Judy (1989) Digging Up Dinosaurs.

Ranger Rick’s NatureScope, National Wildlife Federation , Washington DC. • Brett-Surman, M. K., Holtz, Thomas R., Farlow, James O. (2012) The Complete Dinosaur (Life of

the Past) Second Edition. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. • Holtz, Thomas R. and Rey, Luis V. (Oct 23, 2007) Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date

Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. Random House Books for Young Readers, Random House, NY.

• Munsart, Craig A. (1993) Investigating Science with Dinosaurs. Teacher Ideas Press, A Division of Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO.

• Scotchmoor, Judith G., Breithaupt, Brent H., Springer, Dale A., Fiorillo, Anthony R. (2002) Dinosaurs: The Science Behind the Stories. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, The Paleontological Society, and American Geological Society.

• Dinosaurs: Activities and Lesson Plans, American Museum of Natural History. Captured 2/28/2020 https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/dinosaurs-activities-and-lesson-plans

• Smith, Dave Dinosauria: Morphology. University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley captured 3/2/20 from the website: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinomm.html.

• General information: Paleontology Portal http://paleoportal.org/; American Museum of Natural

Answers to page 52 a. Fruitadens haagarorum—omnivore Richard

J. Butler, Laura B. Porro, Peter M. Galton, Luis M. Chiappe - Butler RJ, Porro LB, Galton PM, Chiappe LM (2012) Anatomy and Cranial Functional Morphology of the Small-Bodied Dinosaur Fruitadens haagarorum from the Upper Jurassic of the USA. PLoS ONE 7(4): e31556. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031556, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19051958

b. Iguanodon—herbivore https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/search-for-the-real-iguanodon.html

c. Tyrannosaurus—carnivore https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/releases/t-rex-fossil-skeleton-will-arrive-smithsonian-april-15

d. Psittacosaurus—herbivore e. Camarasaurus - herbivore https://

www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/10/giant-sauropod-dinosaurs-may-have-sported-turtlelike-beaks

f. Velociraptor—carnivore https://dinomuseum.ca/2018/12/04/the-real-velociraptor/

g. Diplodocus—herbivore http://www.angelfire.com/mi/dinosaurs/dinosaurs_diplodocus.html

h. Troodon—carnivore https://i.pinimg.com/originals/c9/65/33/c96533e611ac64e5dcf2cda8887e8181.jpg

b. e. Sauropod teeth—herbivore https://www.paleogallery.com/userfiles/REVToothComp001b-(2).jpg

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND CITATIONS 76

History https://www.amnh.org/dinosaurs/dinosaur-facts. Images: • Shaw, Barbara J., Ph.D. American Museum of Natural History or Museo de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina

images not specifically identified • Pterodactylus kochi: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/pterodactyl-fossil/ • Dinosaur skeleton: https://www.fieldmuseum.org/visit/maps-guides/visiting-sue-t-rex-what-know-you-go;

https://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/twomed.html; https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational-resources/how-do-scientists-know-what-dinosaurs-looked-like/

• Prestosuchus chiniquensis; https://www.reptileevolution.com/prestosuchus.htm; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prestosuchus-chiniquensis_(2).jpg

• Perforate acetabulum: https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/x93HsfJ_lKLwqiwgnLvQYP4gD-qQNcCI95m1yry6xgmZtfAnxOrsgYKDhqRqO7lTgbFuJtmrrJupBhbK_u_c3YilN4hJDHlNvzczm740Ofe0z6ryo0cxF-ysirMZ7wHXP7N-ZnFfsKNqC6Cw_2pcxpS0IaVLiGhN-exE7bFtXrbqvOo

• Dinosaur anatomy: https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/images/dinoskeleton.gif; http://vertpaleo.org/Society-News/Blog/Old-Bones-SVP-s-Blog/June/dinohips.aspx; http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agcomm/pubs/ASC/ASC202/ASC202.pdf; https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/SC-027-A-Komodo-Skeleton-f-Lo.jpg; https://www.dimensions.guide/element/t-rex-tyrannosaurus; https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27441156; https://cdn.britannica.com/07/99107-004-B9666996/Bones-foot-tarsal-bones-talus-metatarsal-calcaneus.jpg; https://i.redd.it/pxyinli9pja31.jpg; https://www.vivahealth.org.uk/wheat-eaters-or-meat-eaters/teeth-dentition

• Teeth: https://www.mammalogy.org/search/asm_custom_search/skull?page=1; https://animaldiversity.org/

• Trackways: Martin A. J. (2006) Introduction to the Study of Dinosaurs, Second Edition. Blackwell Publishing; https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kid-hand-foot-prints-260nw-1093338632.jpg; https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcSjzEhT4Zk1cz5FGZsSyqCA126Lm5qF_5KQc0Z0Oz45X7uiLPC6; https://www.istockphoto.com/illustrations/foot?mediatype=illustration&phrase=foot&sort=mostpopular ; http://www.biggerhammer.net/manuals/23-10/ch8.htm; http://southerncolorado.info/attraction.php?id=70; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_Ridge; https://www.outtherecolorado.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Dinosaur-Ridge-Morrison-Colorado-James-St.-John-Flickr-OutThere-Colorado-1024x760.jpg; https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/stone-dinosaur-track1.htm; https://pals.sri.com/tasks/k-4/Follow1/directs.html; http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0001-37652011000100016; http://www.bvda.com/en/foot-and-tireprint-kit2

• Other: https://www.visitgrandjunction.com/family-activities/dinosaur-journey-museum

Answers to page 64 1. How many individual animals were here? (Answer: five adults and one juvenile.) 2. How many different animals were here? (Answer: five different animals.) 3. Did the animal that left the red tracks move on two or four limbs? (Answer: two.) 4. Did the animals that left the yellow tracks travel together? (Answer: Probably.) 5. Why do you think that? (Answer: they are very close together.) 6. Why are the yellow tracks two different sizes? (Answer: An adult and a juvenile traveled

together. The adult made the larger tracks, the juvenile the smaller tracks.) 7. Were any dinosaurs running? Can you tell? (Answer: There is not enough information on

the trackway to determine whether or not any dinosaur was running.) 8. What is the order tracks were made? (Answer: The animal with the black tracks was first, if

the yellow tracks were made at the same time (only the smaller tracks are on top of the black tracks). Other tracks are imprinted over it. Since the other tracks do not overlap, we cannot determine the order.)

9. Is there anything else you can determine? (Answer: You may be able to determine some of the general groups of dinosaurs e.g. ceratopsian, theropod, etc. See page 59.)