nyacte · message from the presidents of nyacte and nysate robert j. michael jerry rivera-wilson...
TRANSCRIPT
Mes
sage
fro
m th
e Pr
esid
ents
of
NY
AC
TE
and
NY
SAT
ER
ob
ert
J. M
ich
ael
Jerr
y R
iver
a-W
ilso
nPa
ge v
iiN
otes
fro
m th
e E
dito
rC
ynth
ia A
. L
ass
on
de
Pa
ge
ix
Rep
ort
s o
f R
esearc
h a
nd
Refl
ecti
on
Ref
lect
ive
Th
ink
ing
: T
he
Ess
ence
of
Pro
fess
ion
al D
evel
op
men
t
Ma
rga
ret
Eg
an
Page
1S
hapi
ng t
he P
edag
ogy
of a
n U
nder
grad
uate
Tea
cher
Edu
cati
on P
rogr
am W
ith
Les
son
Stu
dy
Ann
R. T
aylo
r, Su
san
E. B
reck
, Bar
bara
D. O
’Don
nell
, Ste
phen
Mar
lett
e,Je
nnif
er B
olan
der,
Step
hani
e M
cAnd
rew
s, a
nd G
lori
a R
eadi
ngPa
ge 1
5“B
etw
een
a R
ock
and
a H
ard
Pla
ce”:
A S
econ
d-Y
ear
Tea
cher
’s E
xper
ienc
e W
riti
ng R
epor
t C
ards
Jenn
ifer
Tut
enP
ag
e 3
1
Sh
ari
ng
Pers
pecti
ves, P
racti
ces, an
d A
pp
roach
es
Lea
rnin
g A
nytim
e an
d A
nyw
here
With
Adv
ance
d D
istr
ibut
ed L
earn
ing:
Som
e O
ppor
tuni
ties
and
Cha
lleng
es fo
r Edu
cato
rs a
nd E
duca
tion
J. D
. Fle
tche
r, Si
gmun
d To
bias
, and
Rob
ert A
. Wis
her
Page
47
Mak
ing
the
Jour
ney
Into
Tea
chin
g: A
Dif
fere
nt A
ppro
ach
to S
tude
nt T
each
ing
at th
eS
econ
dary
Lev
elJa
mes
J. C
arpe
nter
Page
61
No
ta B
en
e:
Reso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Th
e N
ew Y
ork
Co
mp
reh
ensi
ve
Cen
ter:
Su
pp
ort
ing
Fac
ult
y w
ho
Pre
par
e T
each
ers
Su
san
Vil
lan
i
Page
75
Boo
k R
evie
w o
f R
eade
rs o
f the
Qui
lt:
Ess
ays
on B
eing
Bla
ck, F
emal
e, a
nd L
iter
ate
Kje
rsti
Van
Slyk
e-B
rigg
sPa
ge 8
1B
ook
Rev
iew
of
Ph.
D. S
tori
es:
Con
vers
atio
ns w
ith
My
Sist
ers
Ani
ta C
. Lev
ine
Page
83
Boo
k R
evie
w o
f P
ledg
ing
All
egia
nce:
The
Pol
itic
s of
Pat
riot
ism
in A
mer
ican
Sch
ools
Cha
rles
F. H
owle
ttPa
ge 8
5A
n A
naly
tic
Out
line
of
Why
Soc
ial J
usti
ce M
atte
rsJa
son
Blo
khu
is
Pa
ge
89
Exc
elsi
orLe
ader
ship
in T
each
ing
and
Lear
ning
Vol
ume
2, N
umbe
r 1
Fal
l/Win
ter
2007
NEW
YO
RK
ASS
OC
IATI
ON
OF
CO
LLEG
ES F
OR
TEA
CH
ER E
DU
CAT
ION
NYA
CT
E
NY
AC
TE
Execu
tive B
oard
2006-2
007
Pre
side
nt
V
ice
Pre
side
nt/P
resi
dent
Ele
ctR
ober
t J. M
icha
elL
ois
Fis
chS
UN
Y C
olle
ge a
t New
Pal
tzU
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Col
lege
Pas
t P
resi
dent
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cuti
ve S
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gare
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nC
raig
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olle
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f M
ount
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ince
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azar
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lege
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cuti
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reas
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dbur
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rand
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, CU
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Col
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NY
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Ret
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ools
,B
ronx
Com
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olle
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and
Leh
man
Col
lege
Mar
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Talle
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Bin
gham
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Uni
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Cec
elia
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,B
rook
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pus
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Slyk
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rigg
sSU
NY
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lege
at O
neon
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Rob
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Wei
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Pace
Uni
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Stac
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. S. W
illia
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SUN
Y, U
nive
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at A
lban
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Ann
jane
t Woo
dbur
nPa
ce U
nive
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Call f
or
Man
uscri
pts
Man
uscri
pt
Pre
para
tio
n a
nd
Su
bm
issio
n
To s
ubm
it a
man
uscr
ipt t
o be
con
side
red
for
revi
ew
• S
end
an e
lect
roni
c fi
le c
ompa
tibl
e w
ith
Mic
roso
ft W
ord
as a
n e-
mai
l att
achm
ent t
o
the
edit
or, C
ynth
ia L
asso
nde,
at l
asso
nc@
oneo
nta.
edu.
• M
anus
crip
ts m
ust f
ollo
w A
PA s
tyle
as
outl
ined
in th
e m
ost r
ecen
t edi
tion
of
the
APA
sty
le m
anua
l.•
Res
earc
h an
d P
ersp
ectiv
es m
anus
crip
ts s
houl
d no
t exc
eed
25 p
ages
, inc
ludi
ng r
efer
ence
s. N
ota
Ben
e m
anus
crip
ts s
houl
d no
t exc
eed
5 pa
ges,
incl
udin
g re
fere
nces
.•
Incl
ude
a 10
0-w
ord
abst
ract
for
Res
earc
h an
d P
ersp
ectiv
es m
anus
crip
ts.
• T
he c
over
pag
e sh
ould
con
sist
of
the
titl
e of
the
man
uscr
ipt,
a su
gges
ted
runn
ing
hea
d, a
s w
ell a
s th
e au
thor
s’ n
ames
, aff
ilia
tion
s, a
ddre
sses
, e-m
ail a
ddre
sses
, and
tel
epho
ne n
umbe
rs.
• O
mit
hea
ders
and
foo
ters
exc
ept f
or p
age
num
bers
.•
Om
it a
ll id
enti
fier
s of
the
auth
ors
and
affi
liat
ions
fro
m th
e m
anus
crip
t. B
e su
re c
ompu
ter
soft
war
e do
es n
ot r
evea
l aut
hor’
s id
enti
ty a
s w
ell.
• S
ecur
e al
l per
mis
sion
s to
quo
te c
opyr
ight
ed te
xt o
r us
e gr
aphi
cs a
nd/o
r fi
gure
s of
oth
er n
on-o
rigi
nal m
ater
ial.
Incl
ude
perm
issi
ons
wit
h m
anus
crip
t.•
Dat
a-ba
sed
man
uscr
ipts
invo
lvin
g hu
man
sub
ject
s sh
ould
be
subm
itte
d w
ith
a s
tate
men
t or
veri
fica
tion
fro
m th
e au
thor
that
an
Inst
itut
iona
l Rev
iew
Boa
rd c
erti
fica
te o
r le
tter
app
rovi
ng th
e re
sear
ch a
nd g
uara
ntee
ing
prot
ecti
on o
f hu
man
sub
ject
s ha
s be
en o
btai
ned
from
the
rese
arch
er’s
inst
itut
ion.
Man
uscr
ipts
wil
l be
subj
ect t
o a
blin
d re
view
by
peer
rev
iew
ers
and
the
edit
or.
The
rev
iew
pro
cess
wil
l tak
e ap
prox
imat
ely
thre
e m
onth
s fr
om ti
me
of s
ubm
issi
on.
All
man
uscr
ipts
will
be
judg
ed o
n th
eir s
chol
arsh
ip, c
ontr
ibut
ion
to th
e kn
owle
dge
base
, tim
elin
ess
of to
pic,
cre
ativ
e/th
ough
tful
app
roac
h, c
lari
ty a
nd c
ohes
iven
ess,
appr
opri
aten
ess
to c
ateg
ory,
and
adh
eren
ce to
pre
para
tion
gui
deli
nes.
Sel
ecti
ons
may
also
be
affe
cted
by
edit
oria
l dec
isio
ns r
egar
ding
the
over
all c
onte
nt o
f a
part
icul
ared
itio
n.Exc
elsi
or:
Lea
ders
hip
in T
each
ing
and
Lea
rnin
g pr
ovid
es a
for
um to
exp
lore
issu
es r
elat
ed to
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
at p
ubli
c an
d in
depe
nden
t col
lege
s an
dun
iver
siti
es w
ith
prog
ram
s in
teac
her
prep
arat
ion.
Exc
elsi
or s
olic
its
orig
inal
, tho
ught
-pro
voki
ng m
anus
crip
ts o
f va
riou
s fo
rmat
s,in
clud
ing
pape
rs p
rese
ntin
g re
sear
ch o
n is
sues
and
pra
ctic
es im
port
ant t
o te
ache
red
ucat
ion
and
in-d
epth
dis
cuss
ions
of
pers
pect
ives
on
issu
es a
nd p
ract
ices
that
cont
ribu
te to
the
prep
arat
ion
and
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t of
educ
ator
s. A
thir
dfo
rmat
—N
ota
Ben
e—sh
ould
con
tain
bri
ef, f
ocus
ed a
rtic
les;
boo
k re
view
s; o
rw
ebsi
te o
r te
chno
logy
rec
omm
enda
tion
s.D
eadl
ines
for
subm
issi
on:
June
1 f
or th
e fa
ll/w
inte
r ed
itio
nD
ecem
ber
1 fo
r th
e sp
ring
/sum
mer
edi
tion
NY
SAT
E &
NY
AC
TE
Ann
ual F
all C
onfe
renc
eO
cto
ber
25-2
6, 2007
Ho
lid
ay In
n T
urf
on
Wo
lf R
oad
Alb
any,
New
York
ww
w.H
olid
ayin
ntu
rf.c
om
NY
SA
TE
&
N
YA
CT
E A
nn
ual S
pri
ng
C
on
fere
nce
Ap
ril 17-1
8 2
008
Gid
eo
n P
utn
am
Reso
rt a
nd
Sp
a
Sara
tog
a S
pri
ng
s, N
ew
Yo
rk
ww
w.G
ideo
np
utn
am
.co
m
Vis
it www.NYACTE.org
an
d www.NYS-ATE.org
for
mo
re in
form
ati
on
.
New
Yor
k St
ate
Ass
ocia
tion
ofT
each
er E
duca
tion
and
New
Yor
k A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Col
lege
sfo
r T
each
er E
duca
tion
invit
e y
ou
to
part
icip
ate
in
ou
r
2007-2
008 jo
int
sta
te c
on
fere
nces.
Messag
e f
rom
th
e P
resid
en
ts
Wel
com
e to
the
fall
/win
ter
issu
e of
Exc
elsi
or:
Lea
ders
hip
in T
each
ing
and
Lea
rnin
g. W
e ho
pe y
ou h
ave
enjo
yed
rece
ivin
g an
d re
adin
g th
e jo
urna
l. E
xcel
sior
wou
ld n
ot b
e po
ssib
le if
it w
ere
not f
or o
ur d
edic
ated
edi
tori
al b
oard
. W
e w
ould
like
to a
ckno
wle
dge
all o
f the
aut
hors
and
the
edito
rial
team
who
mad
e th
is is
sue
poss
ible
.In
this
issu
e th
ere
are
a va
riet
y of
tim
ely
and
appe
alin
g ar
ticl
es th
at r
elat
e to
the
fiel
d of
teac
her
educ
atio
n. T
o be
res
pons
ive
to th
e ne
eds
of o
ur m
embe
rs a
ndre
ader
s, a
wid
e-ra
nge
of th
emes
was
sel
ecte
d. I
f th
ere
are
topi
cs y
ou w
ould
like
tose
e in
fut
ure
issu
es, p
leas
e le
t us
know
.A
s w
e lo
ok f
orw
ard,
we
enco
urag
e m
anus
crip
t sub
mis
sion
s to
the
jour
nal a
ndth
e co
nfer
ence
pro
posa
ls th
at r
elat
e to
the
New
Yor
k A
ssoc
iati
on o
f C
olle
ges
For
Teac
her E
duca
tion
( NY
AC
TE
) and
New
Yor
k St
ate
Ass
ocia
tion
of T
each
er E
duca
tors
(NY
SA
TE
) 20
07-2
008
conf
eren
ce th
eme:
Fro
m P
rese
rvic
e to
Ins
ervi
ce:
A S
eam
less
Tra
nsit
ion.
Thi
s in
clus
ive
them
e al
low
s fo
r a
myr
iad
of a
genc
ies—
poli
tici
ans,
teac
her
educ
ator
s, te
ache
rs, a
nd o
ther
s—to
voi
ce th
eir
pers
pect
ives
on
the
prep
arat
ion
and
rete
ntio
n of
P-1
2 te
ache
rs.
Prep
arin
g an
d re
tain
ing
teac
hers
for t
he p
rofe
ssio
n is
with
out q
uest
ion
chal
leng
ing.
The
nev
er-e
ndin
g de
bate
abo
ut h
ow to
bes
t app
roac
h th
e pr
epar
atio
n an
d re
tent
ion
of “
high
ly q
uali
fied
teac
hers
” w
ill a
lway
s be
cha
llen
ged.
The
use
of
the
term
hig
hly
qual
ified
is d
efin
ed a
nd p
erce
ived
dif
fere
ntly
by
vary
ing
auth
orit
ies.
For
man
y in
the
teac
her
educ
atio
n fi
eld,
the
term
is m
eani
ngle
ss d
ue to
the
ambi
guou
s an
d lo
ose
defi
niti
on w
ith
stan
dard
s th
at a
re s
tron
gly
tied
to te
st r
esul
ts.
Whe
ther
you
are
apa
rent
, tea
cher
edu
cato
r, or
pol
itic
al a
genc
y, e
very
one
wil
l agr
ee w
hat i
s ne
eded
are
com
pete
nt a
nd c
arin
g te
ache
rs w
ho e
ngag
e in
eff
ectiv
e te
achi
ng p
ract
ices
and
who
are
life
-lon
g le
arne
rs. E
ven
wit
h de
cade
s of
cre
dibl
e re
sear
ch o
n ho
w th
is is
bes
tac
hiev
ed, t
he d
ebat
e co
ntin
ues.
We
look
for
war
d to
you
r co
mm
ents
on
how
we
can
best
sup
port
our
rea
ders
.G
uide
line
s fo
r m
anus
crip
t sub
mis
sion
s fo
r th
e sp
ring
/sum
mer
issu
e ar
e av
aila
ble
inth
is is
sue
and
on th
e N
YA
CT
E w
ebsi
te a
t ww
w.n
yact
e.or
g. C
onfe
renc
e pr
opos
als
for
the
annu
al f
all a
nd s
prin
g co
nfer
ence
s ca
n be
fou
nd a
t eit
her
NY
AC
TE
or
NY
SA
TE
web
site
s.
Dr.
Rob
ert J
. Mic
hael
Pre
side
nt, N
YA
CT
E
Dr.
Jerr
y R
iver
a-W
ilso
nP
resi
dent
, NY
SA
TE
The
Cha
rles
C. M
acke
y, J
r. E
xcel
lenc
e in
Ser
vice
Lea
ders
hip
Aw
ard
hono
rs a
ned
ucat
or in
New
Yor
k St
ate
who
has
dem
onst
rate
d pe
rson
al a
nd p
rofe
ssio
nal q
ualit
ies
that
exem
plif
y th
e hi
ghes
t sta
ndar
ds o
f ser
vice
lead
ersh
ip in
teac
her e
duca
tion.
An
exce
llent
serv
ant l
eade
r is
one
who
thro
ugh
pers
onal
kno
wle
dge,
wis
dom
, eth
ical
pra
ctic
e, a
ndco
urag
e m
odel
s ef
fect
ive
prac
tice
and
thus
ena
bles
oth
ers
to re
ach
indi
vidu
al, i
nstit
utio
nal,
and
com
mun
al g
oals
.T
he C
harl
es C
. Mac
key,
Jr.
Exc
elle
nce
in S
ervi
ce L
eade
rshi
p A
war
d re
cogn
izes
an
indi
vidu
al w
ho re
pres
ents
Tea
cher
Edu
catio
n in
his
/her
resp
ectiv
e in
stitu
tion
of h
ighe
red
ucat
ion
in N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e. T
he in
divi
dual
exe
mpl
ifie
s se
rvic
e le
ader
ship
with
in h
is/h
erin
stitu
tiona
l set
ting
and
with
in th
e br
oade
r New
Yor
k pr
ofes
sion
al c
omm
unity
thro
ugh
enga
gem
ent,
initi
ativ
e an
d pe
rson
al q
ualit
ies
that
refl
ect r
elev
ant H
igh
Stan
dard
s fo
rTe
ache
r Edu
catio
n A
ccou
ntab
ility
as
defi
ned
by th
e A
mer
ican
Ass
ocia
tion
of C
olle
ges
ofTe
ache
r Edu
catio
n:
1. S
erve
firs
t and
fore
mos
t as
an a
dvoc
ate
for P
-12
stud
ents
, esp
ecia
lly fo
r
pro
mot
ing
the
grow
th a
nd d
evel
opm
ent o
f all
stud
ents
;
2. P
rom
ote
dive
rsity
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n fa
culty
, can
dida
tes,
curr
icul
um, a
nd p
rogr
ams;
3. B
e ac
coun
tabl
e to
pro
spec
tive
teac
hers
for t
heir
pre
para
tion
to m
eet s
tate
licen
sure
exp
ecta
tions
(inc
ludi
ng k
now
ledg
e of
sub
ject
mat
ter a
nd o
f the
stud
ents
to w
hom
thos
e su
bjec
ts a
re ta
ught
);
4. B
e in
form
ed b
y th
e be
st p
ract
ice
and
mos
t cur
rent
rese
arch
on
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
theo
ry a
nd p
ract
ice,
incl
udin
g th
e co
mm
itmen
t to
activ
e sc
hola
rshi
p
by
teac
her e
duca
tion
facu
lty;
5. O
pera
te in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith p
rofe
ssio
nal a
genc
ies
resp
onsi
ble
for q
ualit
y
as
sura
nce
in th
e te
achi
ng p
rofe
ssio
n.
Cal
l for
Nom
inee
s fo
r N
YA
CT
E’s
Ann
ual
CH
AR
LE
S C
. MA
CK
EY
, JR
.E
XC
EL
LE
NC
E I
N S
ER
VIC
E L
EA
DE
RSH
IP A
WA
RD
Past
reci
pien
ts o
f the
aw
ard:
Cha
rles
C. M
acke
y, J
r., D
oris
T. G
arne
r,Ja
mes
Shu
man
, Lin
da B
eim
er,
and
Jan
McD
onal
d.
For
mor
e in
form
atio
n on
nom
inat
ion
requ
irem
ents
,no
min
atio
n fo
rm, a
nd d
eadl
ine,
go to
ww
w.N
YA
CT
E.o
rg o
r co
ntac
tK
ate
DaB
oll-L
avoi
e at
kda
boll9
@na
z.ed
u.
No
tes f
rom
th
e E
dit
or
Thi
s is
sue
of E
xcel
sior
off
ers
a w
ide
vari
ety
of re
sear
ch, r
efle
ctio
ns, a
nd re
sour
ces
focu
sing
on
teac
her e
duca
tion.
I ho
pe y
ou e
njoy
read
ing
abou
t the
val
uabl
e w
ork
your
colle
ague
s ar
e do
ing.
In th
e fir
st s
ectio
n, R
epor
ts o
f Res
earc
h an
d R
efle
ctio
n, th
e jo
urna
l beg
ins
with
api
ece
abou
t ref
lect
ive
thin
king
by
Mar
gare
t Ega
n of
the
Col
lege
of M
ount
Sai
nt V
ince
nt.
Thi
s ar
ticle
look
s at
the
proc
esse
s an
d ch
alle
nges
of e
nabl
ing
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs to
deve
lop
thei
r abi
lity
to re
flec
t mea
ning
fully
on
thei
r tea
chin
g pe
rfor
man
ce. A
nn T
aylo
r,Su
san
Bre
ck, B
arba
ra O
’Don
nell,
Ste
phen
Mar
lette
, Jen
nife
r Bol
ande
r, St
epha
nie
McA
ndre
ws,
and
Glo
ria
Rea
ding
’s w
ork
on th
e in
corp
orat
ion
of J
apan
ese
less
on s
tudy
inan
und
ergr
adua
te p
rogr
am lo
gica
lly fo
llow
s E
gan’
s th
ough
ts a
bout
refl
ectio
n. T
aylo
r and
colle
ague
s de
scri
be h
ow th
ey u
sed
less
on s
tudy
bot
h fo
r pro
gram
impr
ovem
ent a
ndN
atio
nal C
ounc
il fo
r Acc
redi
tatio
n of
Tea
cher
Edu
catio
n (N
CA
TE
) ref
lect
ion.
Nex
t,Je
nnif
er T
uten
sha
res
a st
udy
of th
e re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
s of
an
earl
y ca
reer
urb
anfo
urth
-gra
de te
ache
r. Tu
ten
wea
ves
the
teac
her’
s ac
coun
t and
refl
ectio
ns u
pon
the
repo
rt-
card
wri
ting
proc
ess
with
impl
icat
ions
for t
each
er e
duca
tion.
In S
hari
ng P
ersp
ectiv
es, P
ract
ices
, and
App
roac
hes,
J. D
. Fle
tche
r, Si
gmun
d To
bias
,an
d R
ober
t A. W
ishe
r tel
l abo
ut a
dvan
ced
dist
ribu
ted
lear
ning
, an
appr
oach
they
pro
fess
to b
e th
e in
evita
ble
wav
e of
the
futu
re. H
ow w
ill th
is a
ppro
ach
affe
ct te
ache
r edu
catio
n?N
ext,
Jam
es C
arpe
nter
off
ers
a ne
w a
ppro
ach
to p
laci
ng a
nd s
uper
visi
ng s
econ
dary
stud
ent t
each
ers
that
was
initi
ated
in re
spon
se to
New
Yor
k St
ate
requ
irem
ents
incr
easi
ngth
e nu
mbe
r of d
ays
need
ed fo
r stu
dent
teac
hing
.T
he N
ota
Ben
e se
ctio
n co
ntai
ns n
ot o
nly
inte
rest
ing
book
revi
ews
by K
jers
tiV
anSl
yke-
Bri
ggs,
Ani
ta L
evin
e, C
harl
es H
owle
tt, a
nd J
ason
Blo
khui
s bu
t als
o an
out
line
of th
e N
ew Y
ork
Com
preh
ensi
ve C
ente
r. T
he a
utho
r, Su
san
Vill
ani,
invi
tes
read
ers
to v
isit
the
Cen
ter’
s w
ebsi
te a
nd to
join
Tea
cher
Qua
lity
Onl
ine,
an
inte
ract
ive
onlin
e sp
ace
for
thos
e w
ith a
sta
ke in
teac
her e
duca
tion.
You
will
not
wan
t to
mis
s th
e re
sour
ces
in th
isse
ctio
n.A
s th
e jo
urna
l enj
oys
its g
row
ing
popu
lari
ty, a
s ev
iden
ced
by th
e su
rge
in m
anu-
scri
pt s
ubm
issi
ons,
sub
scri
ptio
ns, a
nd v
olun
teer
s to
revi
ew, I
invi
te y
our f
eedb
ack.
Wha
tw
ould
you
like
to s
ee in
upc
omin
g is
sues
? Pl
ease
forw
ard
your
idea
s an
d m
anus
crip
ts fo
rou
r nex
t iss
ue. T
he d
eadl
ine
for s
ubm
issi
on is
Dec
embe
r 1.
Tha
nk y
ou fo
r you
r sup
port
.
Cyn
thia
A. L
asso
nde
Edi
tor
Ded
icat
ion
Thi
s is
sue
is d
edic
ated
to D
r. L
ucy
DiP
aola
, a lo
ng-t
ime
mem
ber o
f NY
AC
TE
and
NY
SAT
E. A
few
of h
er s
igni
fica
nt a
chie
vem
ents
incl
ude
bein
g a
NY
AC
TE
pas
t pre
si-
dent
and
boa
rd m
embe
r, re
ceiv
ing
the
pres
tigio
us N
eal A
pple
by A
war
d, a
nd te
achi
ng a
s a
full
prof
esso
r and
cha
ir o
f the
Edu
catio
n D
epar
tmen
t at M
ount
Sai
nt M
ary
Col
lege
inN
ewbu
rgh,
New
Yor
k. L
ucy
pass
ed a
way
on
Janu
ary
13, 2
007,
follo
win
g a
cour
ageo
usba
ttle
with
can
cer.
She
will
be
mis
sed.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7 1
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g: T
he E
ssen
ce o
f P
rofe
ssio
nal D
evel
opm
ent
Mar
gare
t Ega
nC
olle
ge o
f M
ount
Sai
nt V
ince
nt
Abs
trac
t
Thi
s ar
ticle
dis
cuss
es th
e pr
oces
ses
and
chal
leng
es o
f ena
blin
g pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
tode
velo
p th
eir a
bilit
y to
refl
ect m
eani
ngfu
lly o
n th
eir t
each
ing
perf
orm
ance
as
it r
elat
esto
the
ir o
ngoi
ng p
rofe
ssio
nal
deve
lopm
ent.
It
revi
ews
prev
ious
and
con
tem
po-
rary
def
init
ions
of
refl
ecti
on. F
rom
thi
s pe
rspe
ctiv
e so
me
diff
erin
g ap
proa
ches
toth
e re
flec
tive
proc
ess
in p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs a
re re
view
ed—
thos
e m
ore
typi
cally
ext
erna
lan
d/or
reac
tive
and
thos
e th
at s
tem
mor
e fr
om o
ne’s
inne
r cor
e.
Kor
thag
en’s
ext
ensi
vew
ork
on th
e re
flec
tive
proc
ess
is s
umm
ariz
ed a
nd h
is e
mph
asis
on
Cor
e R
efle
ctio
nis
car
eful
ly c
onsi
dere
d an
d pr
esen
ted
for
impl
emen
tatio
n.
Rep
ort
s o
f R
esearc
h a
nd
Refl
ecti
on
2R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Intr
od
uct
ion
Dur
ing
the
past
20
or m
ore
year
s th
ere
has
been
con
sist
ent
emph
asis
on
the
util
izat
ion
of r
efle
ctiv
e w
riti
ng—
jour
nals
, ess
ays,
por
tfol
ios—
as a
for
m o
fdo
cum
enta
tion
of p
rogr
ess
in th
e pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent o
f pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
.Se
riou
s th
inki
ng, s
omet
imes
mar
red
with
frus
trat
ion,
led
to th
e re
aliz
atio
n th
at w
e ca
nnot
help
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
cra
ft a
ny a
uthe
ntic
evi
denc
e of
gro
wth
or a
ny in
sigh
tful
pro
duct
unle
ss w
e fir
st h
elp
them
beg
in to
dev
elop
the
art o
f ref
lect
ive
thin
king
. Hen
ce, t
hepu
rpos
e of
this
art
icle
is to
exa
min
e th
e di
ffer
ent a
ppro
ache
s to
faci
litat
ing
refl
ectio
n an
dto
con
side
r the
var
ious
way
s th
at te
ache
r edu
cato
rs c
an a
ssis
t gen
uine
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ngin
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
. Ess
entia
lly, w
e ar
e ex
plor
ing
som
e ke
y qu
estio
ns: W
hat i
s re
flec
-tiv
e th
inki
ng a
nd h
ow d
oes
one
actu
ally
hel
p de
velo
p re
flec
tive
thin
king
in p
rese
rvic
ete
ache
rs?
The
re a
re m
any
who
in th
eir v
ersa
tile
and
prac
tical
wor
ks h
ave
offe
red
us m
uch
enco
urag
emen
t in
our t
ask
of d
evel
opin
g re
flec
tive
thou
ght.
Posn
er (2
000)
war
ns, “
If y
oum
erel
y ‘d
o’ y
our f
ield
exp
erie
nce
with
out t
hink
ing
deep
ly a
bout
it, i
f you
mer
ely
allo
wyo
ur e
xper
ienc
es to
was
h ov
er y
ou w
ithou
t sav
orin
g an
d ex
amin
ing
them
for t
heir
sign
ifica
nce,
then
you
r gro
wth
will
be
seve
rely
lim
ited”
(p. 2
2). K
ilban
e an
d M
ilman
(200
3) a
dvis
e th
at r
efle
ctio
n sh
ould
occ
ur th
roug
hout
the
enti
re p
roce
ss o
f on
e’s
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t. B
eatti
e (2
007)
enc
oura
ges
the
use
of th
e C
ircl
e of
Inqu
iry—
from
Exp
erie
nce
to R
efle
ctio
n to
Inte
rpre
tatio
n to
App
licat
ion—
to h
elp
fost
er c
ontin
uous
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t. In
a s
imila
r vei
n, K
rono
witz
(200
8) c
lear
ly a
nd e
xten
sive
lyex
plai
ns th
at it
is n
ever
too
earl
y to
beg
in re
flec
ting
on o
ne’s
teac
hing
per
form
ance
.Fo
ster
, Wal
ker,
and
Song
(200
7) g
ive
cons
ider
able
em
phas
is to
the
art o
f ref
lect
ion
asth
ey d
escr
ibe
the
proc
ess
as th
e ne
ed to
“di
g be
neat
h th
e su
rfac
e ob
serv
atio
ns to
unc
over
poss
ible
exp
lana
tions
for w
hat h
appe
ned”
(p. 3
4). T
hus,
refl
ectio
n m
ust g
ive
evid
ence
of
disp
ositi
on a
s w
ell a
s ab
ility
—ke
y el
emen
ts in
the
teac
hing
pro
cess
. Bar
rett’
s (2
007,
Ele
ctro
nic
Port
folio
s.or
g) e
xten
sive
wor
k w
ith th
e de
velo
pmen
t of e
lect
roni
c po
rtfo
lios
give
s un
equi
voca
l tes
timon
y to
the
nece
ssity
of f
orm
ativ
e re
flec
tive
asse
ssm
ent i
npr
epar
atio
n fo
r the
sum
mat
ive
prod
uct—
in th
is c
ase
the
elec
tron
ic p
ortf
olio
that
spe
aks
to th
e pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent a
nd c
ompe
tenc
e of
the
indi
vidu
al. W
hile
Bar
rett’
sem
phas
is is
on
the
port
folio
as
an e
lect
roni
c m
aste
rpie
ce, s
he c
ites
refl
ectio
n as
one
of
the
key
peda
gogi
cal r
equi
rem
ents
for d
evel
opm
ent:
“An
elec
tron
ic p
ortf
olio
with
out
refl
ectio
n is
just
a m
ultim
edia
pre
sent
atio
n, a
fanc
y el
ectr
onic
resu
me,
a w
eb p
age,
or a
digi
tal s
crap
book
. The
pow
er o
f ref
lect
ion
turn
s ou
r CO
LL
EC
TIO
NS
into
EV
IDE
NC
Eof
our
lear
ning
…”
(Bar
rett,
Ref
lect
ions
, 200
3).
In h
is w
ork
on u
nder
stan
ding
and
ass
essi
ng th
e re
flec
tive
thin
king
pro
cess
es o
fpr
eser
vice
teac
hers
, Lee
(200
5) d
efin
es re
flec
tive
thin
king
as
a de
velo
pmen
tal p
roce
ssth
at e
ncom
pass
es th
ree
leve
ls o
r dep
ths
of re
flec
tion.
He
desc
ribe
s L
evel
1 a
s th
e R
ecal
lle
vel i
n w
hich
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r mer
ely
desc
ribe
s th
e te
achi
ng s
ituat
ion
in w
hich
he
finds
him
self
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her m
ight
repo
rt th
at a
s he
was
teac
hing
his
less
on, t
he s
tude
nts
wer
e ro
wdy
. Lev
el 2
is th
e R
atio
naliz
atio
n le
vel i
n w
hich
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r tri
es to
find
rela
tions
hips
or r
easo
ns fo
r situ
atio
ns.
Her
e, th
epr
eser
vice
teac
her m
ight
refl
ect t
hat s
tude
nt ro
wdi
ness
was
cau
sed
by th
e up
com
ing
holid
ay o
r by
his
own
inab
ility
to o
rgan
ize
his
mat
eria
ls. A
t Lev
el 3
, the
Ref
lect
ivity
leve
l, th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her v
iew
s th
e si
tuat
ion
with
the
reso
lve
to a
djus
t his
pra
ctic
e in
subs
eque
nt si
tuat
ions
. H
is re
flect
ion
can
incl
ude
com
men
ts s
uch
as “
Nex
t tim
e I w
illpr
ovid
e m
ore
inte
rest
ing
activ
ities
that
are
mor
e ch
alle
ngin
g an
d le
ss fl
avor
ed w
ith d
rill
and
rout
ine.
”
3R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
LeP
age,
Dar
ling-
Ham
mon
d, A
kar,
Gut
ierr
ez, J
enki
ns-G
unn,
and
Ros
ebro
ck (2
005)
clai
m th
at th
ose
who
pra
ctic
e re
flec
tivel
y ca
n re
adily
mov
e be
yond
the
tria
l-an
d-er
ror
stag
e to
sys
tem
atic
teac
hing
per
form
ance
. Fur
ther
mor
e, th
ey n
ote
that
thos
e w
ho a
redi
spos
ed to
refl
ectio
n ar
e le
ss li
kely
to b
lam
e pa
rent
s or
chi
ldre
n fo
r lac
k of
pro
gres
s in
lear
ning
. Rat
her,
thes
e re
flec
tive
prac
titio
ners
hav
e a
stro
nger
tend
ency
to e
ngag
e in
criti
cal s
elf-
anal
ysis
to m
odif
y an
d ad
apt t
heir
str
ateg
ies.
Del
iber
atio
n up
on re
flec
tion
wou
ld b
e se
vere
ly la
ckin
g if
we
did
not d
raw
insp
ira-
tion
from
Joh
n D
ewey
(193
3) w
ho in
sist
ed th
at re
flec
tive
thin
king
mus
t be
an e
duca
-tio
nal a
im.
The
re is
no
choi
ce. D
ewey
not
ed th
at w
e ne
ed to
cha
nge
actio
n th
at c
ould
be
mer
ely
self
-see
king
, blin
d, a
nd im
puls
ive
into
act
ion
that
is in
telli
gent
—ac
tion
that
ism
ore
“in
the
virt
ue o
f tho
ught
” (p
. 18)
. N
eedl
ess
to s
ay, o
ne w
ould
hop
e no
t to
find
self
-se
ekin
g, b
lind,
and
impu
lsiv
e ac
tion
with
in th
e te
achi
ng p
rofe
ssio
n (o
r any
pro
fess
ion)
.R
egre
ttabl
y, s
uch
unre
flec
tive
patte
rns
of b
ehav
ior c
an d
evel
op.
Tha
t is
why
we
mus
the
lp p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs c
ultiv
ate
good
hab
its o
f ref
lect
ing
appr
opri
atel
y, c
onsi
sten
tly,
and
effe
ctiv
ely
from
the
very
beg
inni
ng o
f the
ir p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent.
Una
nim
ous
agre
emen
t am
ong
the
wri
ters
revi
ewed
poi
nts
to th
e ne
cess
ity o
f ref
lec-
tion
in a
ll as
pect
s of
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t. U
nfor
tuna
tely
, goo
d, p
urpo
sefu
l ref
lec-
tion
does
not
com
e ea
sily
. And
so,
bef
ore
docu
men
ting
grow
th in
teac
hing
, one
mus
t fir
stha
ve th
e re
flec
tive
cont
ent t
hat m
akes
the
docu
men
tatio
n au
then
tic. T
he jo
urna
l, es
say,
port
folio
or d
iscu
ssio
n, o
f its
elf,
does
not
ens
ure
refl
ectio
n. T
o pu
t it g
libly
, the
re is
refl
ectio
n an
d th
en th
ere
is h
igh-
qual
ity re
flec
tion.
Bef
ore
ther
e is
refl
ectiv
e co
nten
t,th
ere
mus
t be
a pe
rson
who
is le
arni
ng to
thin
k br
oadl
y an
d de
eply
on
all a
spec
ts o
f his
or h
er o
ngoi
ng p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent.
Whe
n th
is h
as b
een
acco
mpl
ishe
d, o
r at l
east
wel
l beg
un, t
hen
the
jour
nal,
essa
y, p
ortf
olio
, or a
ny p
iece
of w
ritin
g or
any
in-d
epth
disc
ussi
on w
ill b
ecom
e th
e m
eans
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her w
ill b
e ab
le to
expr
ess
mor
e vi
ably
the
evid
ence
of e
xter
nal a
nd, e
qual
ly a
s im
port
ant,
inte
rnal
gro
wth
as a
teac
her.
The
oret
ical
Con
side
ratio
ns a
bout
Ref
lect
ive
Teac
hing
Firs
t, w
e m
ust a
sk o
urse
lves
how
we
defi
ne re
flec
tion.
Kor
thag
en (2
001)
war
ns u
sth
at w
e w
ill n
ot fi
nd u
nani
mity
rega
rdin
g th
e de
finiti
on o
f ref
lect
ion.
Lee
(200
5) s
ees
refl
ectio
n as
a s
yste
mat
ic a
naly
sis
of a
n ev
ent (
or p
robl
em) t
hat c
an b
e ch
arac
teri
zed
acco
rdin
g to
con
tent
(the
mai
n co
ncer
ns o
f the
thin
ker r
egar
ding
a p
artic
ular
situ
atio
n)an
d de
pth
(the
way
the
thin
ker d
evel
ops
the
refl
ectio
n pr
oces
s in
rela
tion
to th
at s
itua-
tion)
. Aft
er d
raw
ing
upon
the
defin
ition
s of
fere
d by
oth
ers,
Kilb
ane
and
Milm
an (2
003)
desc
ribe
refl
ectio
n as
“ta
king
tim
e to
thin
k an
d co
ntem
plat
e m
etac
ogni
tivel
y ab
out
teac
hing
pra
ctic
e” (p
. 63)
. Wol
f (20
06) e
xpla
ins
refl
ectio
n as
a th
ough
tful
ana
lysi
s an
dre
port
ing
of o
ne’s
phi
loso
phy
and
teac
hing
exp
erie
nces
. Dew
ey (1
933)
def
ined
refl
ectio
nas
a “
bette
r way
of t
hink
ing”
that
con
sist
s of
“tu
rnin
g a
subj
ect o
ver i
n th
e m
ind
and
givi
ng it
ser
ious
and
con
secu
tive
cons
ider
atio
n” (p
. 3).
Thi
s “b
ette
r way
of t
hink
ing”
he
refe
rs to
as
“ref
lect
ive
thin
king
” (p
. 3).
In th
is a
rtic
le, a
s w
e di
scus
s th
e qu
inte
ssen
ce o
fre
flec
tion,
we
pref
er to
use
Dew
ey’s
sim
plis
tical
ly a
ccur
ate
term
inol
ogy
that
say
s it
all—
“ref
lect
ive
thin
king
” or
“re
flec
tion.
”Se
cond
, we
real
ize
that
in th
is d
iscu
ssio
n w
e w
ill p
roba
bly
not b
e ab
le fu
lly to
expl
ain
clea
rly
how
one
can
act
ually
teac
h re
flec
tive
thin
king
. We
can
only
dis
cuss
way
sto
hel
p pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
cul
tivat
e a
refl
ectiv
e at
titud
e or
way
of l
ife.
For
tuna
tely
, we
are
deal
ing
with
a n
on-c
ontr
over
sial
issu
e re
gard
ing
the
nece
ssity
of r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ngw
hich
leav
es u
s w
ith th
e lu
xury
of c
once
ntra
ting
on th
e ba
sic
issu
e of
how
we
actu
ally
help
dev
elop
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng in
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
.
4R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Let
us
retu
rn to
Dew
ey (1
993)
to re
view
wha
t is
real
ly e
ssen
tial.
Whe
n w
e ar
ew
orki
ng w
ith p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs (o
r any
teac
hers
for t
hat m
atte
r), w
e m
ust b
egin
with
the
basi
cs. D
ewey
not
ed th
ere
are
cert
ain
attit
udes
that
one
mus
t hav
e to
eng
age
in w
orth
-w
hile
thou
ght.
The
se a
ttitu
des
or d
ispo
sitio
ns a
re o
pen-
min
dedn
ess,
who
le-h
eart
edne
ss,
and
resp
onsi
bilit
y. H
e de
fine
d op
en-m
inde
dnes
s as
free
dom
from
pre
judi
ce a
nd a
ny o
ther
nega
tive
qual
ities
that
“cl
ose
the
min
d an
d m
ake
it un
will
ing
to c
onsi
der
new
pro
blem
san
d en
tert
ain
new
ide
as”
(p. 3
0). T
he c
ause
s of
thi
s “m
enta
l slu
ggis
hnes
s” (p
. 30)
coul
d be
sel
f-ab
sorp
tion,
fear
, lac
k of
kno
wle
dge,
or a
ny o
f a h
ost o
f rel
ated
fact
ors.
Who
le-h
eart
edne
ss, a
ccor
ding
to D
ewey
(193
3), i
s ab
sorp
tion
in th
e ta
sk a
t han
d, th
eta
sk o
f bec
omin
g a
com
pete
nt, c
arin
g te
ache
r. W
ithou
t thi
s w
hole
-hea
rted
ness
, one
’sfo
cus
is d
ivid
ed o
r dis
trac
ted
and
one
cann
ot g
ive
full
sing
le-m
inde
d de
votio
n to
the
situ
atio
n of
issu
e. D
ewey
not
ed th
at w
hen
one
is fu
lly a
bsor
bed,
then
one
is c
arri
ed w
ithth
e ta
sk. Q
uest
ions
ari
se; c
halle
nges
are
wel
com
ed; e
nerg
y is
spo
ntan
eous
. To
day,
we
mig
ht d
escr
ibe
this
pos
itiv
ism
as
mot
ivat
ion,
cre
ativ
ity,
dev
otio
n—a
true
sen
se o
fpr
ofes
sion
alis
m.
Dew
ey (1
933)
def
ines
the
thir
d qu
ality
, res
pons
ibili
ty, a
s m
ore
of a
mor
al tr
ait t
han
anin
telle
ctua
l ass
et.
One
who
is in
telle
ctua
lly re
spon
sibl
e ha
s fu
lly c
onsi
dere
d th
e co
nse-
quen
ces
of o
ne’s
pro
fess
ed g
oals
. If o
ne d
esir
es to
be
a go
od te
ache
r, th
ere
will
be
com
mitm
ent t
o th
e ta
sks
requ
ired
to a
ttain
that
goa
l. T
here
will
be
a fo
cus,
a ha
bit o
f tho
roug
hnes
s an
d pr
epar
atio
n. T
here
will
be
no s
hort
cut
s to
pro
fess
iona
lco
mpe
tenc
e. T
hese
thre
e at
titud
es th
at D
ewey
has
def
ined
are
ess
entia
l to
a st
rong
sen
seof
mis
sion
with
out w
hich
a p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
r can
not b
e su
cces
sful
. Get
ting
in to
uch
with
one’
s pe
rson
al q
ualit
ies
of o
pen-
min
dedn
ess,
who
le-h
eart
edne
ss, a
nd r
espo
nsib
ility
hel
pson
e de
fine
that
per
sona
l mis
sion
, the
iden
tific
atio
n of
whi
ch is
a c
ruci
al c
ompo
nent
of t
here
flec
tion
proc
ess.
If w
e ar
e to
con
tinue
with
this
art
icle
in th
e ex
plor
atio
n of
way
s to
fost
er re
flec
tive
thin
king
, we
can
do s
o on
ly w
ith th
e as
sum
ptio
n th
at th
ese
thre
e re
quis
ite d
ispo
sitio
ns—
open
-min
dedn
ess,
who
lehe
arte
dnes
s, a
nd re
spon
sibi
lity
are
pres
ent w
ithin
the
pres
ervi
cete
ache
r. T
hese
are
the
disp
ositi
ons
that
can
driv
e th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her t
o fu
lfill
a p
erso
nal
mis
sion
to s
triv
e fo
r exc
elle
nce
in p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent.
The
hab
it of
sus
tain
edre
flec
tion
wil
l hel
p th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her
focu
s on
that
mis
sion
. It
is th
e te
ache
red
ucat
ors
who
mus
t con
side
r how
they
will
insp
ire
and
supp
ort t
his
ongo
ing
prac
tice
ofre
flec
tion.
For
the
mos
t par
t, re
flec
tion
does
not
occ
ur s
pont
aneo
usly
. Dew
ey (1
933)
sugg
este
d th
at to
dev
elop
hab
its o
f ref
lect
ive
thin
king
, we
mus
t hav
e a
met
hod
by w
hich
we
can
prov
ide
cond
ition
s th
at n
urtu
re re
flec
tion.
Kor
thag
en a
nd V
asal
os (2
005)
cla
imth
at s
truc
ture
d re
flec
tion
is a
nec
essa
ry c
ompo
nent
of o
ngoi
ng p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
and
beha
vior
.Pe
rhap
s w
e ca
n dr
aw a
sim
ple
para
llel h
ere.
Whe
n w
e “t
each
read
ing,
” w
e us
ually
follo
w a
met
hod,
alth
ough
not
one
met
hod
for a
ll. W
e tr
y to
fost
er th
inki
ng s
kills
inch
ildre
n. W
e kn
ow th
at w
e ca
nnot
say
to a
chi
ld, “
read
and
com
preh
end
this
sel
ectio
n.”
Rat
her,
we
mus
t pro
vide
que
stio
ns th
at s
timul
ate,
que
stio
ns th
at re
quir
e w
hat w
e tr
adi-
tiona
lly d
efin
e as
lite
ral,
inte
rpre
tive,
and
cri
tical
thin
king
to fo
ster
true
com
preh
ensi
on.
We
also
kno
w th
at to
teac
h re
adin
g m
ore
effe
ctiv
ely,
we
mus
t hel
p ch
ildre
n dr
aw u
pon
thei
r bac
kgro
und
expe
rien
ces,
thei
r sch
ema.
Oft
en, w
e us
e a
met
hod,
mor
e or
less
stru
ctur
ed, t
o he
lp th
em re
call
thei
r kno
wle
dge,
con
side
r the
ir e
xper
ienc
es, p
onde
r the
irva
lues
and
bel
iefs
, and
exp
ress
them
acc
ordi
ngly
. The
n, m
aybe
we
can
say
we
have
“tau
ght”
com
preh
ensi
on. O
r, ha
ve w
e? M
aybe
we
have
just
hel
ped
deve
lop
the
esse
ntia
ldi
spos
ition
s fo
r thi
nkin
g lit
eral
ly, i
nter
pret
ivel
y, a
nd c
ritic
ally
. Sim
ilarl
y, in
hel
ping
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs w
ith re
flec
tive
thin
king
, we
need
to fo
llow
a m
etho
d th
at w
ill h
elp
us
5
and
them
to d
raw
upo
n th
eir k
now
ledg
e an
d ex
peri
ence
as
wel
l as
thei
r per
sona
l bel
iefs
and
valu
es.
Fost
erin
g In
-Dep
th R
efle
ctio
n: T
heor
etic
al M
odel
s
In h
is d
iscu
ssio
n of
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng D
ewey
(193
3) c
lear
ly e
mph
asiz
ed th
eim
port
ance
of a
seq
uenc
e or
met
hod.
In d
efin
ing
refl
ectio
n, D
ewey
’s u
se o
f the
wor
d“c
onse
cutiv
e” re
min
ded
us th
ere
has
to b
e so
me
mea
ning
ful o
rder
in th
e pr
oces
s, o
r as
Dew
ey in
dica
ted
“not
just
a s
eque
nce
but a
con
-seq
uenc
e—a
cons
ecut
ive
orde
ring
insu
ch a
way
that
eac
h (t
houg
ht) d
eter
min
es th
e ne
xt a
s its
pro
per o
utco
me”
(p. 4
).To
nur
ture
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng in
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
, the
sup
ervi
sor m
ust b
e cl
ear,
com
pete
nt, a
nd c
omfo
rtab
le w
ith th
e re
flec
tive
appr
oach
that
she
is u
sing
. Sh
e m
ust b
ecl
ear a
bout
her
exp
ecta
tions
.W
hat t
ype
of re
flec
tive
resp
onse
from
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r is
nece
ssar
y? V
ario
usex
celle
nt m
odel
s of
refl
ectio
n ar
e av
aila
ble
for u
se.
Kol
b’s
mod
el (K
olb’
s L
earn
ing
Styl
es 1
984—
rece
ntly
upd
ated
in M
ay, 2
006)
invi
tes
the
lear
ner t
o fo
llow
a p
roce
ss b
yw
hich
one
met
hodi
cally
pro
ceed
s fr
om th
e co
ncre
te e
xper
ienc
e to
the
obse
rvat
ion
of th
eex
peri
ence
to th
e ap
plic
atio
n an
d th
en to
the
activ
e ex
peri
men
tatio
n or
redo
ing
of th
eac
tivity
. The
ste
ps a
re lo
gica
l and
sho
uld
lead
to s
ucce
ssfu
l out
com
es.
The
Nor
th C
arol
ina
Dep
artm
ent o
f Pub
lic In
stru
ctio
n (S
elf-
asse
ssm
ent:
The
Ref
lec-
tive
Prac
titio
ner,
2007
) off
ers
teac
hers
a c
lear
ly d
evel
oped
cir
cula
r mod
el o
f ref
lect
ive
teac
hing
that
req
uire
s th
e pr
actit
ione
r to
sele
ct th
e st
anda
rds,
evi
denc
e an
d ar
tifac
ts fo
rth
e le
arni
ng p
roce
ss; t
hen
to d
escr
ibe
the
who
, wha
t, w
hen,
and
whe
re o
f the
lear
ning
activ
ity. T
hat i
s fo
llow
ed b
y an
alys
is—
the
why
and
how
of w
hat t
ook
plac
e. T
he n
ext
activ
ity is
the
appr
aisa
l of t
he a
ctiv
ity—
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
eve
nts
and
dete
rmin
atio
n of
thei
r im
pact
and
eff
ectiv
enes
s. F
inal
ly, t
here
is th
e re
quir
emen
t to
tran
sfor
m o
ne’s
appr
oach
—ut
ilizi
ng th
e da
ta to
dev
elop
new
goa
ls a
nd s
trat
egie
s th
at c
an b
e ap
plie
d to
one’
s te
achi
ng. E
ach
of th
e di
rect
ive
head
ings
incl
udes
spe
cifi
c de
scri
ptor
s th
at h
elp
tom
ake
the
dire
ctiv
es a
s co
ncre
te a
s po
ssib
le (
Figu
re 1
).T
he c
ircu
lar m
odel
can
pro
vide
the
stru
ctur
e th
at g
uide
s th
e th
inki
ng p
atte
rns
and
conv
ersa
tion
of th
e su
perv
isor
and
pre
serv
ice
or re
gula
r tea
cher
s. H
ere
is w
here
the
infl
uenc
e of
the
teac
hing
sup
ervi
sor i
s cr
itica
l. A
ppro
pria
te q
uest
ions
mus
t be
aske
d at
the
diff
erin
g le
vels
of r
efle
ctiv
e de
velo
pmen
t in
the
circ
ular
mod
el s
o th
at th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
may
resp
ond
appr
opri
atel
y an
d re
vise
teac
hing
pra
ctic
e ac
cord
ingl
y. T
hrou
ghth
eir r
espo
nses
to th
e gu
idin
g qu
estio
ns, p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs m
ay b
e ab
le to
sup
ply
the
evid
ence
that
dem
onst
rate
s th
eir s
peci
fic
know
ledg
e an
d te
achi
ng s
kills
.K
orth
agen
(200
1) d
iscu
sses
his
app
roac
h to
exp
erie
ntia
l lea
rnin
g, w
hich
can
be
desc
ribe
d by
the
AL
AC
T m
odel
of r
efle
ctio
n. T
his
mod
el c
onsi
sts
of fi
ve p
hase
s: a
ctio
n;lo
okin
g ba
ck o
n th
e ac
tion;
aw
aren
ess
of e
ssen
tial a
spec
ts; c
reat
ing
alte
rnat
ive
met
hods
of a
ctio
n; a
nd tr
ial (
Figu
re 2
). A
ccor
ding
to K
orth
agen
, thi
s ap
proa
ch to
refl
ectio
n of
fers
less
dep
ende
nce
upon
ratio
nal o
r clin
ical
thin
king
and
mor
e em
phas
is o
n th
inki
ng,
feel
ing,
wan
ting,
and
act
ing.
The
se in
terp
erso
nal a
nd in
trap
erso
nal r
efle
ctio
ns a
refo
ster
ed b
y qu
estio
ns s
uch
as “
Wha
t did
you
wan
t? W
hat d
id th
e pu
pils
wan
t? W
hat
wer
e yo
u th
inki
ng?
Wha
t wer
e th
e pu
pils
thin
king
? H
ow d
id y
ou fe
el?
How
did
the
pupi
ls fe
el?”
(p. 2
14).
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g6
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Fig
ure
1. T
he c
ycle
of r
efle
ctio
n. (R
eplic
ated
with
per
mis
sion
from
the
publ
ic s
choo
ls o
fN
orth
Car
olin
a, M
arch
200
7.)
Acc
ordi
ng to
Kor
thag
en’s
(200
1) p
lan,
Pha
se 5
, the
Tri
al is
usu
ally
Pha
se 1
,th
e A
ctio
n, o
f th
e ne
xt d
evel
opin
g cy
cle,
ens
urin
g th
at r
efle
ctio
n an
d gr
owth
are
cont
inua
lly
occu
rrin
g. I
n ex
plai
ning
thi
s m
odel
, Kor
thag
en e
mph
asiz
es t
hat
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r, aw
are
of th
ese
five
phas
es, p
rogr
esse
s th
roug
h th
em u
nder
the
guid
ance
of a
sup
ervi
sor w
ho o
ffer
s a
safe
lear
ning
clim
ate
that
sup
port
s ho
nest
refl
ec-
tion.
The
sup
ervi
sor—
who
, nee
dles
s to
say
, mus
t be
know
ledg
eabl
e an
d aw
are
of t
hem
any
cogn
itiv
e, a
ffec
tive,
and
beh
avio
ral d
imen
sion
s of
teac
hing
and
lear
ning
—is
the
stim
ulat
or o
f the
five
-pha
se p
roce
ss.
The
sup
ervi
sor d
oes
not d
omin
ate
the
conv
ersa
tion
but
kno
ws
whe
n to
kee
p si
lent
and
whe
n to
pro
be, c
hall
enge
, and
enco
urag
e.
Pra
ctic
al/P
erso
nal A
pplic
atio
n
In m
y on
goin
g pr
actic
e as
a s
uper
viso
r of p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs, I
hav
e fo
und
mys
elf
stru
gglin
g w
ith th
e re
aliti
es o
f hel
ping
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
as
they
refl
ect u
pon
thei
rex
peri
ence
s. O
ften
, at t
he c
oncl
usio
n of
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r’s
clas
sroo
m p
erfo
rman
ce
1. S
elec
t
Wha
t am
I de
srib
ing?
Wha
t
info
rmat
ion
do I
need
to
incl
ude
?
2. D
escr
ibe
W
ho?
W
hat?
W
hen?
W
here
?
3. A
naly
ze
Why
or h
ow w
as
it m
eani
ngfu
l?
4. A
ppra
ise
In
terp
ret e
vent
s
Det
erm
ine
impa
ct
Det
erm
ine
effe
ctiv
enes
s
Det
erm
ine
the
rela
tions
hip
to
any
goa
ls, v
alue
s an
d
phi
loso
py
5. T
rans
form
H
ow w
ill I
chan
ge m
y
teac
hing
pra
ctic
e as
a
resu
lt of
the
info
rmat
ion?
➤
➤
➤
➤
➤
7R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Cre
atin
g a
lte
rna
tive
me
tho
ds
of
actio
n
Tri
al
Actio
n
Lo
okin
g b
ack o
n
the a
ctio
n
Aw
are
ne
ss o
f
esse
ntia
l a
sp
ects
5 1
4
3
2
I fou
nd m
ysel
f ask
ing,
“H
ow w
ould
you
des
crib
e yo
ur a
ccom
plis
hmen
ts?”
Mos
t oft
en I
was
gre
eted
with
the
resp
onse
, “I d
id w
ell.
The
chi
ldre
n lik
ed it
.” N
eedl
ess
to s
ay, I
dese
rved
that
type
of s
hallo
w re
spon
se.
Why
? M
y qu
estio
n w
as to
o br
oad,
too
supe
rfi-
cial
. As
I ref
ined
my
supe
rvis
ory
skill
s, I
real
ized
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f util
izin
g pr
e-te
achi
ngqu
estio
ns to
gui
de p
erfo
rman
ce.
So, I
wou
ld h
ave
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs re
spon
d, fi
rst i
nw
ritin
g an
d la
ter d
urin
g th
e pr
e-te
achi
ng c
onfe
renc
e, to
que
stio
ns th
at w
ould
requ
ire
them
to in
dica
te th
eir l
esso
n ob
ject
ive,
ratio
nale
, stu
dent
s’ p
rior
kno
wle
dge,
str
ateg
ies,
mat
eri-
als,
and
mea
ns o
f eva
luat
ion.
The
se w
ere
all g
ood
prep
arat
ory
ques
tions
and
requ
ired
agr
eate
r dep
th o
f foc
us b
y th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
. A
fter
the
less
on, I
wou
ld w
ithho
ld m
ypr
actic
ed te
nden
cy to
com
men
t im
med
iate
ly u
pon
the
less
on. I
nste
ad, I
wou
ld h
ave
the
stud
ents
resp
ond
first
to s
peci
fic
post
-les
son
ques
tions
suc
h as
: Did
I at
tain
my
obje
ctiv
e(s)
? H
ow d
o I
know
? D
id I
mot
ivat
e th
e st
uden
ts?
How
did
I h
andl
e an
ydi
ffic
ultie
s th
at o
ccur
red?
In th
e fu
ture
wou
ld I
do th
ings
diff
eren
tly?
The
n, a
fter
this
exte
nded
tim
e of
refl
ectio
n, u
sual
ly o
ne o
r tw
o da
ys, t
he p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
r and
I w
ould
conf
er s
peci
fical
ly a
bout
thes
e po
st-o
bser
vatio
n qu
estio
ns. A
gain
, the
se w
ere
good
pos
t-te
achi
ng a
nd n
eces
sary
refl
ectiv
e qu
estio
ns th
at re
quir
ed a
mor
e fo
cuse
d re
spon
se.
Nev
erth
eles
s, th
ere
was
a m
issi
ng e
lem
ent.
I was
ope
ratin
g so
mew
hat s
uper
fici
ally
.W
as I
getti
ng to
the
hear
t of t
he m
atte
r?To
see
k so
me
answ
ers
I ref
erre
d ag
ain
to D
ewey
(193
3) to
revi
ew th
e qu
aliti
es th
athe
em
phas
ized
: ope
n-m
inde
dnes
s, w
hole
-hea
rted
ness
, and
resp
onsi
bilit
y—th
e co
nnec
t-ed
ness
to th
e in
ner c
ore
of th
e pe
rson
, the
per
sona
l mis
sion
. A te
ache
r can
not t
hriv
ew
ithou
t a p
erso
nal m
issi
on th
at e
nabl
es h
im to
be
pass
iona
te a
bout
his
teac
hing
and
stud
ent l
earn
ing.
To
poss
ess
a pe
rson
al m
issi
on, o
ne m
ust b
e ab
le to
go
to th
e co
re o
f
Fig
ure
2. T
he A
LA
CT
mod
el o
f re
flec
tion
. (C
opyr
ight
Ins
titu
te f
or M
ulti
-Lev
elL
earn
ing,
Am
ster
dam
, 200
5.)
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g7
8 one’
s in
ner b
eing
, to
the
inne
r sel
f tha
t con
tain
s de
ep-r
oote
d, c
ore
valu
es, s
o to
spe
ak.
Som
e of
thes
e co
re v
alue
s co
uld
be id
entif
ied
as d
eter
min
atio
n, c
oura
ge, s
tren
gth,
com
pass
ion,
flex
ibili
ty, a
nd s
o on
. Thi
s, I
belie
ve, i
s ge
tting
clo
ser t
o th
e he
art o
f the
mat
ter.
Cor
e R
efle
ctio
n
Add
ition
al a
nsw
ers
to th
e se
arch
for w
ays
of p
rom
otin
g in
-dep
th re
flec
tion
are
foun
din
the
mor
e re
cent
wri
tings
of K
orth
agen
and
Vas
alos
(200
5).
In th
is w
ork
the
auth
ors
build
upo
n or
refin
e K
orth
agen
’s e
arlie
r (20
01) A
LA
CT
mod
el w
ith a
rene
wed
em
phas
ison
mor
e in
-dep
th re
flec
tion
or c
ore
refl
ectio
n. C
ore
refl
ectio
n is
that
whi
ch ta
kes
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r to
her i
nner
cor
e of
val
ues
and
belie
fs, h
er p
erso
nal m
issi
on. W
hat i
s it
that
mot
ivat
es th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her t
o w
ant t
o te
ach
this
gro
up o
f chi
ldre
n? Is
it ju
st a
resp
onse
to a
requ
ired
or i
mpo
sed
natio
nal,
stat
e, o
r loc
al s
tand
ard
or is
it m
ore
an in
ner
sens
e of
mis
sion
exp
ress
ed in
a p
erso
nal p
hilo
soph
y? W
ithin
Kor
thag
en a
nd V
asal
os’
(200
5) fr
amew
ork
core
refl
ectio
n pe
netr
ates
ben
eath
the
envi
ronm
ent,
beha
vior
, and
com
pete
ncie
s of
the
exte
rnal
s to
the
inne
r rea
lm o
f bel
iefs
, ide
ntity
, and
mis
sion
. Ess
en-
tially
, cor
e re
flec
tion
goes
bey
ond
the
goal
s, o
bjec
tives
, rat
iona
les,
dev
elop
men
tal
activ
ities
, and
ass
essm
ents
of o
ne’s
teac
hing
. Cor
e re
flec
tion
gets
to th
e he
art o
f the
mat
ter.
Kor
thag
en a
nd V
asal
os (2
005)
use
the
“Mod
el o
f Lev
els
of C
hang
e” o
r the
“oni
on m
odel
” (p
. 54)
to d
escr
ibe
the
vari
ous
leve
ls o
f per
spec
tive
that
we
can
look
at t
oex
plai
n ho
w te
ache
rs fu
nctio
n an
d ho
w th
ey th
ink.
Thi
s “o
nion
mod
el”
can
be re
ferr
ed to
as a
n ad
apta
tion
or m
odif
icat
ion
of th
e ea
rlie
r Dilt
z (1
990)
mod
el.
Figu
re 3
list
s th
ese
leve
ls o
f ref
lect
ive
thin
king
as
they
are
iden
tifie
d fr
om th
e m
ore
exte
rnal
to th
e in
nerm
ost c
ore
of o
ne’s
bei
ng.
The
out
erm
ost l
evel
s of
Env
iron
men
t and
Beh
avio
r cou
ld b
e th
ose
mos
t eas
ily m
easu
rabl
e in
the
clas
sroo
m, t
he s
tude
nts,
and
the
scho
ol. I
nter
estin
gly
enou
gh, t
hese
are
the
leve
ls o
f ref
lect
ion
and
disc
ussi
on th
at o
ften
attr
act m
ost a
ttent
ion
from
sup
ervi
sors
and
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
. The
y ar
e m
ost v
isib
lean
d ap
pare
nt d
urin
g th
e te
achi
ng a
nd o
bser
vatio
n of
less
ons.
Stil
l som
ewha
t ext
erna
l,al
thou
gh n
ot a
s ap
pare
nt a
s th
e en
viro
nmen
tal a
nd b
ehav
iora
l lev
els
is th
e le
vel o
fC
ompe
tenc
ies.
The
leve
l of C
ompe
tenc
ies
repr
esen
ts n
ot s
o m
uch
the
beha
vior
as
the
qual
ities
that
pre
cipi
tate
the
beha
vior
. Thi
s le
vel i
nclu
des
the
know
ledg
e, s
kills
, and
disp
ositi
ons
that
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r pos
sess
es.
Dev
elop
men
t of t
hese
com
pete
ncie
sha
s be
en th
e pr
imar
y fo
cus
of n
atio
nal a
nd s
tate
wid
e te
ache
r im
prov
emen
t ini
tiativ
es fo
rse
vera
l rec
ent d
ecad
es. A
s K
orth
agen
(200
4) h
as n
oted
els
ewhe
re, r
efle
ctio
n on
thes
ele
vels
can
hav
e an
inve
rse
effe
ct u
pon
one
othe
r. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, o
ne c
an le
arn
how
tost
reng
then
one
’s b
ehav
iora
l inf
luen
ce in
the
clas
sroo
m e
nvir
onm
ent;
then
this
kno
wle
dge
and
impr
ovem
ent o
f ski
lls, i
n tu
rn, c
an m
ake
one
mor
e co
mpe
tent
in d
ealin
g w
ith fu
ture
issu
es.
The
thre
e in
ner l
evel
s th
at K
orth
agen
and
Vas
alos
(200
5) d
escr
ibe
are
belie
fs,
iden
tity,
and
mis
sion
. Bel
iefs
are
wha
t inf
luen
ce th
e ac
quis
ition
of c
ompe
tenc
ies
and
the
resu
ltant
beh
avio
rs. F
or e
xam
ple,
if a
pre
serv
ice
teac
her b
elie
ves
that
teac
hing
is a
cont
inuo
us tr
ansm
issi
on o
f kno
wle
dge,
then
that
per
son
will
dev
elop
the
corr
espo
ndin
gin
stru
ctio
nal c
ompe
tenc
ies
and
beha
ve (t
each
) acc
ordi
ngly
. Pro
fess
iona
l ide
ntity
is th
ese
lf-c
once
pt th
at th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her h
as—
his
awar
enes
s of
who
he
is a
nd w
hat h
e is
abou
t. T
his
iden
tity
enab
les
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r to
defin
e hi
s ph
iloso
phy
(whi
chpr
obab
ly is
stil
l dev
elop
ing)
and
his
role
as
teac
her.
The
com
mon
ly u
sed
anci
ent G
reek
apho
rism
“K
now
thys
elf”
has
full
appl
icat
ion
to th
is c
once
pt o
f ide
ntity
. Nee
dles
s to
say
,th
is g
oal o
f hel
ping
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
acq
uire
a s
ound
pro
fess
iona
l ide
ntity
requ
ires
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Figu
re 3
. The
oni
on: A
mod
el o
f lev
els
of c
hang
e. (C
opyr
ight
Kor
otha
gen
& V
asal
os,
2005
.) N
ote:
Fig
ure
refl
ects
Bri
tish
spel
lings
as
used
in o
rigi
nal v
ersi
on.
initi
al a
nd o
ngoi
ng p
rim
ary
emph
asis
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n p
repa
ratio
n pr
ogra
ms.
The
mos
t inn
er c
ompo
nent
of t
he “
onio
n m
odel
” is
mis
sion
. Mis
sion
is w
hat d
rives
the
pers
on, t
he s
piri
t tha
t mov
es o
ne to
be
and
do w
hat s
he v
alue
s m
ost.
It is
the
reas
onw
hy s
he w
ants
to te
ach,
why
she
wan
ts to
be
the
best
teac
her p
ossi
ble.
A s
ense
of
mis
sion
is w
hat l
ends
qua
lity
to o
ne’s
life
, mak
ing
it pu
rpos
eful
and
fulfi
lled.
Kor
thag
en a
nd V
asal
os (2
005)
sug
gest
two
ques
tions
that
may
be
help
ful i
n en
ablin
gth
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her t
o be
gin
to m
ove
beyo
nd e
xter
nal,
alm
ost r
eact
iona
ry re
flec
tion,
tore
flec
tive
thin
king
that
touc
hes
the
core
of o
ne’s
exi
sten
ce. T
he fi
rst q
uest
ion
is: W
hat i
sth
e id
eal s
ituat
ion
that
I w
ant t
o br
ing
abou
t as
I tea
ch th
ese
stud
ents
? T
his
is th
e si
tua-
tion
that
the
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r wan
ts to
cre
ate,
and
it is
clo
sely
con
nect
ed to
per
sona
lm
issi
on. I
f res
pons
e to
this
que
stio
n is
hes
itant
, the
n on
e ha
s to
re-t
hink
or r
e-ex
plor
eon
e’s
pers
onal
mis
sion
and
per
haps
has
to a
sk o
nese
lf, “
Wha
t am
I do
ing
here
?”T
he s
econ
d qu
estio
n to
be
aske
d is
: Wha
t are
the
limiti
ng fa
ctor
s th
at k
eep
me
from
this
ach
ieve
men
t? T
hese
lim
iting
fact
ors
are
usua
lly e
xter
nal t
o th
e te
ache
r. T
hey
coul
din
clud
e th
e cl
assr
oom
env
iron
men
t, th
e be
havi
oral
cha
ract
eris
tics
of s
tude
nts
as w
ell a
sge
nera
l sch
ool a
tmos
pher
e. N
ever
thel
ess,
if th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her a
llow
s th
ese
limiti
ngfa
ctor
s to
infl
uenc
e be
havi
or in
a n
egat
ive
fash
ion,
ther
e is
cau
se fo
r ref
lect
ion
on o
ne’s
pers
onal
mis
sion
as
wel
l as
one’
s ab
ility
to s
umm
on th
e in
ner q
ualit
ies
requ
ired
to b
e a
cari
ng, c
ompe
tent
teac
her.
Rec
omm
enda
tion
Whe
n w
e co
mbi
ne K
orth
agan
’s (2
001)
AL
AC
T p
roce
ss (F
igur
e 2)
with
the
onio
nm
odel
(Fig
ure
3), w
e ca
n se
e an
eff
ectiv
e sc
hem
a th
at c
an g
uide
the
supe
rvis
ory
clin
ical
9R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
proc
ess
(Fig
ure
4). N
eedl
ess
to s
ay, u
tiliz
ing
this
form
at re
quir
es e
ven
grea
ter s
uper
viso
ryex
pert
ise
as w
ell a
s ap
prop
riat
e an
d tim
ely
but n
on-i
ntru
sive
inte
rven
tion.
Cru
cial
supe
rvis
ory
ques
tions
nee
d to
be
aske
d at
opp
ortu
ne ti
mes
and
cha
lleng
ing,
sup
port
ive
guid
ance
is a
nec
essi
ty. F
or a
n in
-dep
th d
iscu
ssio
n of
thes
e si
x le
vels
of p
rofe
ssio
nal a
ndre
flec
tive
awar
enes
s an
d ho
w th
e su
perv
isor
s of
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
can
fac
ilit
ate
appr
opri
ate
and
effe
ctiv
e re
flec
tion,
one
can
con
sult
Kor
thag
en’s
200
4 pu
blic
atio
n.U
se o
f the
revi
sed
AL
AC
T M
odel
(Fig
ure
4) in
the
supe
rvis
ory
proc
ess
shou
ld s
erve
to g
ive
the
supe
rvis
or a
s w
ell a
s th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
her t
he m
eans
to fo
cus
mor
e de
eply
on th
is p
roce
ss o
f cyc
lic re
flec
tion
in re
spon
se to
teac
hing
per
form
ance
. Thu
s, it
isst
rong
ly re
com
men
ded
for c
onsi
dere
d im
plem
enta
tion.
Will
this
ong
oing
pra
ctic
e by
supe
rvis
ors
and
pres
ervi
ce t
each
ers
not
lead
to
wha
t D
ewey
(19
33)
stre
ssed
as
fund
amen
tal t
o th
e te
achi
ng p
rofe
ssio
nal—
the
foun
datio
nal i
nner
mis
sion
that
driv
es th
eop
en-m
inde
d, w
hole
-hea
rted
, res
pons
ible
teac
her?
Pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
des
erve
no
less
from
thei
r sup
ervi
sors
.
Fig
ure
4. A
ctua
lisat
ion
of c
ore
qual
ities
. (C
opyr
ight
Kor
thag
en &
Vas
alos
, 200
5.)
Not
e: F
igur
e an
d ca
ptio
n re
flec
t Bri
tish
spel
lings
as
used
in o
rigi
nal v
ersi
on.
10R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
11R
efle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Rel
ated
Com
men
ts
In a
vei
n si
mila
r to
Kor
thag
en a
nd V
asal
os (2
005)
, Tic
kle
(199
9) c
alle
d fo
r a d
e-em
phas
is o
n re
quir
ing
teac
hers
in p
repa
ratio
n to
con
form
blin
dly
to n
atio
nal,
stat
e, o
rlo
cally
impo
sed
stan
dard
s of
per
form
ance
with
out s
earc
hing
with
in to
iden
tify
the
core
of th
eir b
eing
. Tic
kle
(199
9) c
laim
ed th
at m
inim
al a
ttent
ion
has
been
giv
en to
reac
hing
thes
e co
re v
alue
s. In
stea
d, e
duca
tors
and
oth
ers
have
focu
sed
on th
e im
port
ant,
but l
ess
endu
ring
per
iphe
ral q
ualit
ies
that
hav
e to
do
with
pro
cess
and
pro
duct
. Tic
kle
war
ned
that
sev
eral
trou
blin
g co
nseq
uenc
es c
an re
sult
from
an
impo
sitio
n of
ove
rly
regu
late
dpe
rfor
man
ce a
nd c
urri
culu
m s
tand
ards
, the
mos
t not
able
of w
hich
is to
leav
e te
ache
rs in
a st
ate
of d
eper
sona
lizat
ion
that
col
ors
thei
r per
spec
tive
so th
ey re
late
to a
nd re
flec
t upo
non
ly th
e te
chni
cal s
kills
of t
each
ing
whi
le ig
nori
ng th
e m
ore
hum
anis
tic a
spec
t of t
heir
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t. T
ickl
e no
ted:
In th
e pa
st d
ecad
e I h
ave
draw
n ex
tens
ivel
y up
on e
vide
nce
from
new
teac
hers
that
sho
ws
how
they
initi
ally
cam
e to
see
k id
entit
ies
larg
ely
with
in th
e te
chni
cal c
ompe
tenc
e of
teac
hing
…ho
w th
ey u
se a
nd d
evel
op c
linic
al c
ompe
tenc
e in
the
form
of p
ract
ical
pro
blem
- s
olvi
ng, w
hich
invo
lves
refl
ectiv
e ac
tion
for t
he im
prov
emen
t of
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies…
. One
of t
he fe
atur
es o
f the
ir w
ork
was
a la
ck o
f opp
ortu
nity
to m
ake
expl
icit,
let a
lone
revi
ew, t
heir
ow
n ed
ucat
iona
l a
ims
and
valu
es (p
. 122
).
The
con
clus
ions
that
Tic
kle
(199
9) d
rew
from
his
wor
k w
ith p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs w
asth
at in
add
ition
to th
e de
velo
pmen
t of i
nstr
uctio
nal c
ompe
tenc
e in
teac
hers
ther
e w
as a
real
nee
d fo
r tea
cher
pre
para
tion
prog
ram
s to
take
ser
ious
ly a
ll as
pect
s of
sel
f in
the
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t of n
ew te
ache
rs. F
rom
the
very
beg
inni
ng, t
each
er e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s m
ust h
elp
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs b
e aw
are
of th
e di
ffer
ent d
imen
sion
s of
thei
rpr
ofes
sion
al s
elve
s—th
eir d
ispo
sitio
ns, b
elie
fs, p
erso
nalit
ies,
fear
s, w
eakn
esse
s,st
reng
ths,
resp
onse
s to
failu
re, r
espo
nses
to s
ucce
ss—
all o
f the
qua
litie
s th
at, d
irec
tly o
rin
dire
ctly
, aff
ect t
heir
teac
hing
per
form
ance
. Tea
cher
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
mus
t dev
elop
-m
enta
lly n
ouri
sh th
ese
inne
r, co
re q
ualit
ies
with
the
sam
e vi
gor t
hat i
s us
ed to
nou
rish
exte
rnal
beh
avio
rs a
nd d
emon
stra
tions
of c
ompe
tenc
e. S
urel
y, a
ppro
pria
te e
mph
asis
and
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng re
late
d to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
inne
r per
son,
not
just
the
exte
rnal
prof
essi
onal
, will
hel
p pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
com
e cl
oser
to th
e co
re o
f the
ir tr
ue p
rofe
s-si
onal
per
sonh
ood.
Sum
mar
y C
onsi
dera
tions
In th
is a
rtic
le w
e ha
ve b
rief
ly re
view
ed th
e lit
erat
ure
that
reite
rate
s th
e im
port
ance
of
enga
gem
ent i
n re
flec
tive
thin
king
for a
ll te
ache
rs b
ut s
peci
fica
lly fo
r pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
.Su
cces
s in
teac
hing
requ
ires
that
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
be
a pr
ofes
sion
al w
ay o
f lif
e. A
revi
ew o
f var
ying
app
roac
hes
to g
ood
refl
ectiv
e pr
actic
e po
inte
d to
the
ultim
ate
goal
of
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng—
com
ing
in fu
ll to
uch
with
one
’s in
tern
al g
oals
, val
ues,
and
sen
se o
fm
issi
on. T
his
is ju
st a
s ne
cess
ary
as a
war
enes
s of
the
exte
rnal
qua
litie
s of
per
form
ance
that
resu
lt in
eff
ectiv
e te
achi
ng a
nd s
tude
nt le
arni
ng.
Focu
sing
onl
y on
ext
erna
l de
scri
ptor
s of
goo
d in
stru
ctio
n m
ay l
ead
to t
heim
prov
emen
t of t
each
ing
and
lear
ning
, but
it c
an fa
il to
gra
pple
with
the
esse
ntia
ls o
fw
hy p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs d
o w
hat t
hey
do o
r fai
l to
do w
hat t
hey
wan
t to
or s
houl
d
12 do. F
or to
o lo
ng w
e ha
ve n
ot lo
oked
dee
ply
enou
gh in
to th
e po
sitiv
e, in
ner c
ore
qual
ities
that
are
requ
ired
to e
ffec
t str
ong
teac
hing
and
last
ing
lear
ning
. Ref
lect
ion,
for t
hepr
eser
vice
teac
her,
or a
ny te
ache
r, is
not
just
thin
king
abo
ut w
hat o
r how
one
teac
hes
but
how
one
’s in
ner o
r cor
e qu
aliti
es in
flue
nce
one’
s to
tal t
each
ing
perf
orm
ance
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Bar
rett,
H.
(200
3). D
r. H
elen
Bar
rett
on
elec
tron
ic p
ortf
olio
dev
elop
men
t.R
etri
eved
Jan
uary
, 200
7 fr
omht
tp://
new
ali.a
pple
.com
/ali_
site
s/al
i/exh
ibits
/100
0156
/Ref
lect
ions
.htm
l.B
arre
tt, H
. (20
07)
Ele
ctro
nic
port
folio
s. R
etri
eved
Jan
uary
, 200
7 fr
omht
tp://
elec
tron
icpo
rtfo
lios.
com
/.B
eatti
e, M
. (20
07).
The
art o
f lea
rnin
g to
teac
h. U
pper
Sad
dle
Riv
er, N
J: P
ears
onE
duca
tion.
Dew
ey, J
. (19
33).
How
we
thin
k. B
osto
n, M
A: D
. C. H
eath
and
Com
pany
.D
iltz,
R. (
1990
). C
hang
ing
belie
f sys
tem
s with
NLP
. Cup
ertin
o: M
eta
Publ
icat
ions
.Fo
ster
, B.,
Jr.,
Wal
ker,
M. L
., &
Son
g, K
. H. (
2007
). A
begi
nnin
g te
achi
ng p
ortfo
lioha
ndbo
ok. U
pper
Sad
dle
Riv
er, N
J: P
ears
on E
duca
tion.
Kilb
ane,
C. R
., &
Milm
an, N
. (20
03),
The
digi
tal t
each
ing
port
folio
han
dboo
k. U
pper
Sadd
le R
iver
, NJ:
Pea
rson
Edu
catio
n.K
olb,
D. (
2006
) Dia
gram
s of
Kol
b’s
lear
ning
sty
les.
Ret
rieve
d F
ebru
ary
28,
200
7 fr
omht
tp://
ww
w.b
usin
essb
alls
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/kol
blea
rnin
gsty
les.
htm
.K
orth
agen
, F. (
2004
). In
sear
ch o
f the
ess
ence
of a
goo
d te
ache
r; To
war
ds a
mor
e ho
listic
appr
oach
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n. T
each
ing
and
Teac
her
Educ
atio
n, 2
0(1)
, 77-
97.
Kor
thag
en, F
. A. J
. (20
01).
Link
ing
prac
tice
and
theo
ry: T
he p
edag
ogy
of r
ealis
ticte
ache
r ed
ucat
ion.
Mah
wah
, NJ:
Law
renc
e E
rlba
um.
Kor
thag
en, F
. A. J
., &
Vas
alos
, A. (
2005
). L
evel
s in
refl
ectio
n: C
ore
refl
ectio
n as
am
eans
to e
nhan
ce p
rofe
ssio
nal g
row
th. T
each
ers
and
Teac
hing
: The
ory
and
Pra
ctic
e, 1
1(1)
, pp.
47-
71.
Kro
now
itz, E
. L. (
2008
).The
teac
her’
s gu
ide
to s
ucce
ss: T
each
ing
effe
ctiv
ely
in to
day’
scl
assr
oom
s. N
ew Y
ork,
NY
: Pea
rson
Edu
catio
n.Le
e, H
. J. (
2005
). U
nder
stan
ding
and
ass
essi
ng p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs’ r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng.
Refe
ren
ces
13
Aut
hor
Bio
grap
hy
Mar
gare
t Ega
n, E
d.D
., is
Pro
fess
or o
f Edu
catio
n at
the
Col
lege
of M
ount
Sai
ntV
ince
nt,
Bro
nx, N
ew Y
ork.
One
of h
er p
rim
ary
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clud
es th
ede
velo
pmen
t of r
efle
ctiv
e pr
actic
e in
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
as
wel
l as
the
impr
ove-
men
t of e
ffec
tive
supe
rvis
ory
prac
tices
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n. E
mai
l:m
arga
ret.e
gan@
mou
ntsa
intv
ince
nt.e
du.
Teac
hing
and
Tea
cher
Edu
cati
on, 2
1, p
p. 6
99-7
15.
LePa
ge, P
., D
arlin
g-H
amm
ond,
L., A
kar,
H.,
Gut
ierre
z, C
., Je
nkin
s-G
unn,
E.,
&(2
005)
. Cla
ssro
om m
anag
emen
t. In
L. D
arlin
g-H
amm
ond
& J
. Bra
nsfo
rdP
repa
ring
teac
hers
for
a ch
angi
ng w
orld
. San
Fra
ncis
co, C
A: J
osse
y-B
ass.
Posn
er, G
. J. (
2000
). Fi
eld
expe
rien
ce: A
gui
de to
ref
lect
ive
teac
hing
. New
Yor
k: N
Y:
Add
ison
Wes
ley
Lon
gman
.N
orth
Car
olin
a Pu
blic
Sch
ools
. Se
lf-As
sess
men
t: Th
e Re
flect
ive
Prac
titio
ner.
Ret
rieve
d Ja
nuar
y 20
07 f
rom
http
://w
ww
.dpi
.sta
te.n
c.us
/pbl
/pbl
refl
ect.h
tm.
Tick
le, L
. (19
99).
Teac
hers
’ sel
f-ap
prai
sal a
nd a
ppra
isal
of s
elf.
In R
. Lip
ka &
T. M
.B
rint
haup
t (E
ds.)
. The
rol
e of
sel
f in
teac
her
deve
lopm
ent.
Alb
any,
NY
:St
ate
Uni
vers
ity o
f N
ew Y
ork
Pres
s.W
olf,
K. (
2006
). Se
lf-as
sess
men
t: Th
e re
flect
ive
prac
titio
ner.
Ret
rieve
d N
ovem
ber,
2006
from
http
://w
ww
.ncp
ublic
scho
ols.
org/
pbl/p
blre
flec
t.htm
.
Re
fle
ctive
Th
inkin
g
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
1
5
Shap
ing
the
Peda
gogy
of a
n U
nder
grad
uate
Tea
cher
Edu
catio
nP
rogr
am W
ith L
esso
n St
udy
Ann
R. T
aylo
r, Su
san
E. B
reck
, Bar
bara
D. O
’Don
nell,
Ste
phen
Mar
lette
,Je
nnif
er B
olan
der,
Ste
phan
ie M
cAnd
rew
s, G
lori
a R
eadi
ngSo
uthe
rn I
llino
is U
nive
rsity
Edw
ards
ville
Abstract
A te
am o
f sev
en fa
culty
at a
regi
onal
sta
te u
nive
rsity
dev
elop
ed th
e pe
dago
gy o
f an
unde
rgra
duat
e te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m u
sing
Jap
anes
e le
sson
stu
dy b
oth
for p
rogr
amim
prov
emen
t and
the
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for A
ccre
dita
tion
of T
each
er E
duca
tion
(NC
AT
E)
accr
edita
tion.
Fac
ulty
des
crib
es h
ow th
ey in
trod
uce
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ents
in a
llm
etho
ds c
ours
es (m
athe
mat
ics,
sci
ence
, lan
guag
e ar
ts, c
hild
ren’
s lit
erat
ure,
soc
ial
stud
ies,
and
read
ing)
. Gro
ups
of te
ache
r can
dida
tes
com
plet
e le
sson
stu
dies
in p
artn
er-
ship
sch
ools
. Fa
culty
’s a
ctio
n re
sear
ch a
ppro
ach
to th
eir p
rogr
am in
clud
es e
xam
inin
glit
erat
ure
on te
ache
r edu
catio
n (F
eim
an-N
emse
r, 20
01) a
nd fi
ndin
g th
at th
eir d
evel
opin
gpe
dago
gy u
sing
less
on s
tudy
mes
hed
wel
l with
goa
ls fo
r qua
lity
prog
ram
s.
16S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
How
doe
s a
facu
lty d
evel
op c
urri
culu
m a
nd p
edag
ogy
that
bot
h pr
epar
es re
form
-m
inde
d el
emen
tary
teac
hers
and
mee
ts N
CA
TE
pro
gram
acc
redi
tatio
n ne
eds?
O
urso
luti
on, a
s fa
cult
y at
a m
etro
poli
tan
stat
e un
iver
sity
, was
to a
band
on a
nas
cent
prog
ram
-wid
e po
rtfo
lio p
roce
ss a
nd in
stea
d im
plem
ent l
esso
n st
udy
assi
gnm
ents
acr
oss
our c
urri
culu
m. L
esso
n st
udy
(Lew
is, 2
002)
is a
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t pro
cess
inw
hich
gro
ups
of fo
ur to
six
teac
hers
, or i
n ou
r cas
e te
ache
r can
dida
tes,
col
labo
rativ
ely
set a
teac
hing
goa
l, th
en te
ach
and
obse
rve
a le
sson
they
hav
e pl
anne
d in
gre
at d
etai
l;th
eir s
ubse
quen
t gro
up d
iscu
ssio
n of
this
ena
cted
less
on e
nabl
es th
em to
rais
e qu
estio
nsab
out t
heir
stu
dent
s’ le
arni
ng a
nd th
eir p
edag
ogic
al c
hoic
es b
ased
on
thei
r col
lect
ive
expe
rien
ce.
We
belie
ve o
ur u
se o
f les
son
stud
y ha
s en
able
d us
to fo
cus
our p
rogr
am a
roun
dte
ache
r can
dida
tes’
col
labo
rativ
e in
quir
y in
to th
eir p
lann
ed a
nd e
nact
ed te
achi
ng. I
n th
ispa
per,
we
offe
r a
desc
ript
ion
of o
ur r
ecen
tly a
ccre
dite
d pr
ogra
m to
sti
mul
ate
conv
er-
satio
n on
how
one
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
dev
elop
ed a
nd s
tudi
ed it
s pe
dago
gy; t
his
incl
udes
exp
lana
tions
on
how
con
tent
met
hods
cou
rses
in m
athe
mat
ics,
chi
ldre
n’s
liter
atur
e, s
cien
ce, r
eadi
ng, l
angu
age
arts
, and
soc
ial s
tudi
es im
plem
ente
d le
sson
stu
dy.
We
sugg
est t
hat o
ur s
hift
to le
sson
stu
dy o
ffer
s on
e co
ntri
butio
n to
war
ds s
olvi
ng th
eco
ntex
tual
dile
mm
a in
rese
arch
on
the
peda
gogy
of t
each
er e
duca
tion
(Gro
ssm
an, 2
005)
:ho
w to
stu
dy th
e ef
fect
s of
ped
agog
ical
app
roac
hes
acro
ss te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms.
Mak
ing
the
Dec
isio
n
The
dec
isio
n, in
May
200
3, to
em
bark
on
an a
mbi
tious
pla
n to
impl
emen
t a c
omm
onas
sign
men
t, le
sson
stu
dy, a
cros
s ou
r pro
gram
em
erge
d fr
om a
dua
l atte
mpt
to p
rodu
cequ
ality
teac
hers
whi
le p
ayin
g at
tent
ion
to p
rogr
am a
ccre
dita
tion
need
s. S
even
pro
gram
facu
lty w
orke
d on
this
pro
ject
, non
e ha
ving
bee
n w
ith th
e in
stitu
tion
for m
ore
than
thre
eye
ars;
four
wer
e ne
w to
hig
her e
duca
tion,
one
had
one
yea
r of p
revi
ous
expe
rien
ce, a
ndth
e ot
her t
wo
facu
lty b
roug
ht e
xper
ienc
e of
wor
king
on
inte
grat
ed c
ross
-cur
ricu
lar
proj
ects
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n. A
s w
e at
tem
pted
to m
ake
sens
e of
our
new
wor
k en
viro
n-m
ent,
stre
amlin
e cu
rric
ulum
, and
fulfi
ll ou
r edu
catio
n pa
ssio
ns, w
e to
ok th
e co
mm
onro
ute
of d
evel
opin
g a
port
folio
pro
cess
to u
se fo
r pro
gram
ass
essm
ent p
urpo
ses.
From
Jul
y 20
02 th
roug
h M
arch
200
3, in
resp
onse
to n
atio
nal a
nd s
tate
dem
ands
for
acco
unta
bilit
y, w
e pr
oduc
ed a
por
tfol
io-b
ased
ass
essm
ent s
yste
m to
doc
umen
t our
teac
her c
andi
date
s’ p
rogr
ess.
We
defi
ned
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
stat
e st
anda
rds
and
cour
se a
rtif
acts
, des
igne
d co
ver s
heet
s to
link
the
form
er to
the
latte
r, an
d ru
bric
s th
atas
sess
ed th
e co
ver s
heet
s. H
owev
er, d
iscu
ssio
n re
veal
ed o
ur m
utua
l con
cern
that
the
deve
lopi
ng p
ortf
olio
pro
cess
may
be
supe
rsed
ing
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f tea
cher
can
dida
tele
arni
ng (D
elan
dshe
re &
Are
ns, 2
003)
. Was
our
sta
ndar
ds-d
riven
por
tfol
io s
yste
m w
orth
the
enor
mou
s te
ache
r can
dida
te a
nd fa
culty
tim
e an
d ef
fort
? W
as o
ur a
ttent
ion
to “
the
stan
dard
s” a
nd a
ccre
dita
tion
colo
nizi
ng o
ur p
rogr
am w
ith a
tech
nica
l-ra
tiona
l mod
el o
fte
achi
ng?
Wer
e w
e su
bver
ting
our u
ltim
ate
conc
eptu
al fr
amew
ork
goal
: to
prep
are
Inqu
irer
-Pro
fess
iona
ls, c
hara
cter
ized
as
teac
hers
with
a d
ispo
sitio
n “t
o le
arn
in a
nd fr
omth
eir p
ract
ice”
(Fei
man
-Nem
ser,
2001
, p. 1
016)
? W
ere
we
mee
ting
accr
edita
tion
requ
ire-
men
ts b
ut lo
sing
our
teac
hing
sou
l?Tw
o fa
culty
in th
e gr
oup,
one
of w
hom
is th
e pr
ogra
m d
irec
tor,
had
been
exp
eri-
men
ting
with
Jap
anes
e le
sson
stu
dy in
mat
hem
atic
s m
etho
ds c
ours
es fo
r fou
r yea
rs a
ndsu
gges
ted
its u
se a
s a
poss
ible
sol
utio
n to
con
cern
s ab
out t
he w
ay w
e w
ere
deve
lopi
ng a
portf
olio
pro
cess
. One
out
com
e of
our
pre
viou
s six
mon
ths o
f int
ense
focu
s on
accr
edita
tion
was
that
we
had
deve
lope
d a
team
spi
rit m
anif
este
d in
a w
illin
gnes
s to
coo
rdin
ate
wor
k an
d an
eag
erne
ss to
bui
ld a
pro
gram
of q
ualit
y an
d co
here
nce.
Aft
er s
ome
initi
alex
amin
atio
n of
less
on s
tudy
, we
reco
gniz
ed th
at it
mig
ht e
nabl
e us
to a
chie
ve o
urpr
ogra
m’s
con
cept
ual f
ram
ewor
k go
al o
f pro
duci
ng re
form
-min
ded
Inqu
irer
-Pro
fess
ion-
als,
thro
ugh
enga
ging
with
our
can
dida
tes
in d
eep
exam
inat
ions
of r
ich
teac
hing
epi
sode
sin
thei
r fie
ld p
lace
men
ts. I
n th
is s
hift
to le
sson
stu
dy, w
e w
ould
bri
ng to
the
fore
grou
ndth
e pr
oces
ses
of p
lann
ing,
teac
hing
, obs
ervi
ng, a
nd a
naly
zing
cla
ssro
om te
achi
ng a
ndm
ove
to th
e ba
ckgr
ound
atte
ntio
n to
the
stan
dard
s. I
n M
ay 2
003
we
agre
ed to
pilo
t apr
ogra
m-w
ide
less
on s
tudy
app
roac
h to
ele
men
tary
teac
her p
repa
ratio
n be
ginn
ing
that
fall.
Alth
ough
oth
er U
.S. c
olle
ges
are
enga
ged
with
less
on s
tudy
in p
arts
of t
heir
teac
her
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
ms
(Hie
bert
, Mor
ris,
& G
lass
, 200
3; R
eeve
, Pel
letie
r, &
Mor
ley,
200
3;Tu
cher
, Per
ry, &
Lew
is, 2
003)
, we
belie
ve o
urs
is th
e fir
st p
rogr
am-w
ide
impl
emen
tatio
nw
ith u
nder
grad
uate
ele
men
tary
teac
her c
andi
date
s.
Dee
pen
ing
Ou
r U
nd
erst
an
din
g o
f L
esso
n S
tud
y
As
teac
her r
esea
rche
rs w
e w
ere
aski
ng o
urse
lves
: Cou
ld w
e im
plem
ent t
his
ambi
-tio
us in
nova
tion
acro
ss a
n un
derg
radu
ate
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
in a
way
that
impr
oved
our
teac
her c
andi
date
s’ le
arni
ng a
s w
ell a
s m
eet p
rogr
am a
ccre
dita
tion
need
s?Fa
culty
imm
edia
tely
beg
an to
giv
e se
riou
s at
tent
ion
to d
evel
opin
g an
aut
hent
ic u
nder
-st
andi
ng o
f the
less
on s
tudy
pro
cess
. Tw
o ap
proa
ches
wer
e ce
ntra
l to
this
eff
ort.
Firs
t, fa
culty
was
pro
vide
d w
ith o
ppor
tuni
ties
to le
arn
abou
t les
son
stud
y. A
ll fa
culty
atte
nded
a w
orks
hop
give
n by
the
prog
ram
dir
ecto
r who
was
kno
wle
dgea
ble
abou
tle
sson
stu
dy. D
urin
g th
is p
roce
ss fa
culty
wer
e pr
ovid
ed w
ith re
sear
ch m
ater
ials
(Lew
is,
2002
; Lew
is &
Tsu
chid
a, 1
998)
abo
ut le
sson
stu
dy. T
hen
in M
ay 2
003,
sev
en fa
culty
took
par
t as
obse
rver
s in
the
first
pub
lic le
sson
stu
dy in
the
Mid
wes
t at D
ePau
l Uni
ver-
sity
, hos
ted
by A
kahi
ko T
akah
ashi
(Tak
ahas
hi &
Yos
hida
, 200
4) o
ne o
f the
lead
ing
Japa
nese
less
on s
tudy
exp
erts
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
. T
he k
eyno
te s
peak
er w
as C
athe
rine
Lew
is, a
noth
er n
atio
nal r
esea
rche
r in
less
on s
tudy
(Lew
is, P
erry
, & M
urat
a, 2
006;
Lew
is&
Tsu
chid
a, 1
998)
. Dur
ing
the
sess
ion,
we
took
not
es a
s ob
serv
ers
duri
ng a
mat
hem
atic
sle
sson
taug
ht to
fift
h-gr
ader
s, a
nd th
en to
ok p
art i
n th
e po
st-t
each
ing
debr
iefin
g. O
urre
turn
trip
was
fille
d w
ith v
igor
ous
deba
te, v
erba
lized
dou
bts
and
thou
ghtf
ul re
flec
tion
abou
t les
son
stud
y.Se
cond
, we
reco
gniz
ed th
at d
eep
unde
rsta
ndin
g de
velo
ps th
roug
h fa
culty
’s s
tudy
of
thei
r pra
ctic
e ov
er ti
me,
and
we
wan
ted
to a
void
just
focu
sing
on
surf
ace
deta
ils o
f thi
sin
nova
tion
(Ful
lan,
200
1; M
cLau
ghin
& M
itra,
200
1).
Our
app
roac
h w
as ra
ther
for e
ach
facu
lty m
embe
r to
enga
ge w
ith th
eir o
wn
inqu
iry,
bot
h in
to le
sson
stu
dy a
nd a
lso
how
itco
uld
beco
me
part
of t
heir
pra
ctic
e. F
acul
ty id
entif
ied
a va
riet
y of
met
hodo
logi
es a
ndap
proa
ches
to te
ache
r inq
uiry
thro
ugh
whi
ch th
e le
sson
stu
dy in
nova
tion
mad
e se
nse
toth
em, i
nclu
ding
“ki
dwat
chin
g” (O
woc
ki &
Goo
dman
, 200
2), p
ract
ition
er re
sear
ch(Z
eich
ner &
Nof
fke,
200
1), p
urpo
se o
f soc
ial s
tudi
es (N
atio
nal C
ounc
il fo
r Soc
ial
Stud
ies,
199
4), m
icro
teac
hing
(Are
nds,
200
6), a
nd c
ritic
al fr
iend
s (A
llen
& B
lyth
e,20
04).
Vie
win
g le
sson
stu
dy th
roug
h th
ese
lens
es e
nabl
ed fa
culty
to a
sk m
any
clar
ifyi
ngqu
estio
ns a
s w
e co
ntin
ued
our p
roce
ss o
f int
rodu
cing
less
on s
tudy
acr
oss
the
prog
ram
.In
the
next
sec
tion
of th
is a
rtic
le, w
e w
ill d
escr
ibe
the
proc
ess
of le
sson
stu
dy a
sun
ders
tood
by
the
facu
lty in
our
pro
gram
. A
lthou
gh th
e pu
rpos
e of
this
pap
er is
not
todi
scus
s re
sear
ch fi
ndin
gs o
r ana
lysi
s, w
e w
ill in
clud
e a
desc
ript
ion
of th
e ty
pes
of d
ata
we
colle
cted
as
we
enga
ged
in th
is im
plem
enta
tion
proc
ess.
The
n, w
e w
ill d
escr
ibe
the
com
mon
feat
ures
of t
he le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
t in
our c
ours
es a
nd p
rovi
de s
peci
fic
desc
ript
ions
of a
ssig
nmen
ts.
17S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y18
Sh
ap
ing
Pe
da
go
gy W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Les
son
Stud
y
Sinc
e its
intr
oduc
tion
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
from
Jap
an in
the
1990
s, le
sson
stu
dy h
asbe
en a
dopt
ed a
s an
exc
iting
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t str
uctu
re fo
r cla
ssro
om te
ache
rs(F
erna
ndez
& Y
oshi
da, 2
004;
Lew
is, 2
002;
Stig
ler &
Hie
bert
, 199
9; T
akah
ashi
&Y
oshi
da, 2
004;
Tay
lor,
And
erso
n, M
eyer
, Wag
ner,
& W
est,
2005
). L
ewis
, Per
ry, a
ndM
urat
a de
fine
less
on s
tudy
as
char
acte
rize
d by
“ob
serv
atio
n of
live
cla
ssro
om le
sson
s by
a gr
oup
of te
ache
rs w
ho c
olle
ct d
ata
on te
achi
ng a
nd le
arni
ng a
nd c
olla
bora
tivel
y an
alyz
eit”
(200
6, p
. 4).
Thi
s is
a v
ery
sim
ple
idea
, tha
t a g
roup
of a
bout
four
to s
ix te
ache
rs,
wor
king
toge
ther
, pla
n, te
ach,
and
dis
cuss
a s
peci
fic “
rese
arch
less
on”
in th
e co
ntex
t of a
larg
er s
tudy
of t
he c
urri
culu
m. H
owev
er, t
he s
peci
fic s
truc
ture
bui
lt in
to e
ach
stag
e of
this
proc
ess
prov
ides
a ri
ch le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ty fo
r tea
cher
s to
stu
dy th
eir p
ract
ice.
The
“re
sear
ch le
sson
” w
ill fo
cus
on a
gen
eral
lear
ning
goa
l tea
cher
s ha
ve s
et to
addr
ess
an a
rea
of th
eir s
tude
nts’
dev
elop
men
t tha
t nee
ds a
ttent
ion.
For
exa
mpl
e,te
ache
rs m
ay id
entif
y th
at s
tude
nts
need
to le
arn
to th
ink
for t
hem
selv
es, w
ithin
the
cont
ext o
f a s
ocia
l stu
dies
less
on.
Onc
e m
embe
rs o
f the
gro
up h
ave
pool
ed th
eir i
deas
and
mad
e a
deta
iled
wri
tten
plan
to m
eet t
his
goal
, the
less
on is
then
taug
ht b
y on
e of
the
teac
hers
in a
n ac
tual
cla
ssro
om, w
hile
the
rest
of t
he g
roup
obs
erve
s th
e st
uden
ts’ a
ndho
w th
ey le
arn
in re
spon
se to
the
plan
ned
less
on.
Whe
n th
e le
sson
is c
ompl
ete,
the
teac
hers
hav
e a
form
al d
iscu
ssio
n, d
raw
ing
on th
eir d
etai
led
obse
rvat
ions
of s
tude
ntle
arni
ng: T
hey
shar
e in
sigh
ts, c
ritiq
ue th
eir o
wn
plan
, and
mak
e re
com
men
datio
ns fo
rim
prov
ing
and
re-t
each
ing
the
less
on.
Thi
s en
tire
sequ
ence
of a
ctiv
ities
, fro
m g
oal
setti
ng to
fina
l dis
cuss
ion,
is w
hat i
s kn
own
as “
less
on s
tudy
” an
d m
ay b
e sp
read
ove
r ape
riod
of w
eeks
or m
onth
s.
Les
son
stud
ies
are
the
mai
n fo
rm o
f pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
-m
ent f
or J
apan
ese
elem
enta
ry te
ache
rs (L
ewis
& T
such
ida,
199
8), a
nd th
ey p
rovi
de a
rich
lear
ning
exp
erie
nce
that
ena
bles
teac
hers
to q
uest
ion,
rese
arch
, and
cha
nge
thei
rte
achi
ng p
ract
ices
.
Dat
a So
urce
s
Dat
a w
ere
colle
cted
from
bot
h fa
culty
and
teac
her c
andi
date
s as
we
impl
emen
ted
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ents
: fac
ulty
aut
hori
ng th
is p
aper
wro
te th
eir o
wn
jour
nals
and
fiel
dno
tes
duri
ng c
ours
es; f
acul
ty w
rote
obs
erva
tion
note
s du
ring
rese
arch
less
on d
ebri
efin
gse
ssio
ns; a
nd a
ll pr
ogra
m fa
culty
, inc
ludi
ng a
djun
cts
teac
hing
som
e se
ctio
ns o
f the
met
hods
cou
rses
, com
plet
ed w
eekl
y su
rvey
s fo
r the
200
5-20
06 s
choo
l yea
r. D
ata
from
teac
her c
andi
date
s in
clud
ed s
elf-
refl
ectio
ns w
ithin
thei
r les
son
stud
y re
port
s, in
form
alw
ritin
g du
ring
cou
rses
, and
form
al s
urve
ys w
ithin
som
e co
urse
s (s
cien
ce a
nd m
athe
mat
-ic
s).
Add
ition
ally
, tea
cher
can
dida
tes
com
plet
ed a
nnua
l les
son
stud
y su
rvey
s.To
mak
e de
cisi
ons
abou
t the
pro
gram
impl
emen
tatio
n, m
etho
ds fa
culty
ana
lyze
d th
eda
ta fr
om te
ache
r can
dida
tes’
resp
onse
s w
ithin
thei
r cou
rses
. Fac
ulty
hel
d m
onth
lyre
sear
ch m
eetin
gs d
urin
g th
e in
itial
impl
emen
tatio
n ye
ar a
nd a
nnua
l mee
tings
ther
eaft
erto
dis
cuss
ana
lyse
s; a
dditi
onal
ly, m
any
info
rmal
dis
cuss
ions
took
pla
ce b
etw
een
facu
ltyte
achi
ng th
e sa
me
cand
idat
es.
One
exa
mpl
e of
our
ana
lysi
s oc
curr
ed a
t the
Jan
uary
200
5m
onth
ly m
eetin
g: T
hree
facu
lty d
escr
ibed
how
they
thou
ght a
bout
and
par
ticip
ated
in a
debr
iefin
g m
eetin
g w
ith te
ache
r can
dida
tes
afte
r a re
sear
ch le
sson
has
bee
n ta
ught
insc
hool
. T
he d
iffer
ence
s w
ere
subs
tant
ial i
n te
rms
of h
ow m
uch
facu
lty le
d th
e di
scus
sion
and
wha
t the
ir in
tend
ed o
utco
mes
wer
e. A
s a
resu
lt of
this
dis
cuss
ion,
facu
lty a
rtic
ulat
edbo
th a
com
mitm
ent t
o ba
lanc
e th
e ac
adem
ic fr
eedo
m o
f ind
ivid
ual f
acul
ty w
ith th
e ne
edfo
r som
e un
ifor
m p
rogr
am e
xpec
tatio
ns a
bout
less
on s
tudy
. We
are
still
wor
king
on
the
man
y is
sues
that
ari
se w
hen
a gr
oup
of fa
culty
see
ks to
wor
k to
geth
er to
bri
ng m
ore
cohe
renc
e an
d co
mm
on e
xpec
tatio
ns in
to th
eir p
rogr
am.
19S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Ove
rvie
w o
f Les
son
Stud
y in
Our
Pro
gram
Can
dida
tes
ente
r our
und
ergr
adua
te p
rogr
am a
s ju
nior
s in
wha
t we
term
Yea
r One
of
a tw
o-ye
ar s
eque
nce.
Dur
ing
the
field
com
pone
nt o
f the
pro
gram
, eac
h of
four
coh
orts
of th
irty
teac
her c
andi
date
s pa
rtne
rs w
ith s
ix p
ublic
sch
ools
for t
wo
acad
emic
yea
rs.
Eac
h te
ache
r can
dida
te w
ill h
ave
plac
emen
ts in
thre
e of
thos
e sc
hool
s, ro
tatin
g th
roug
h a
rura
l, ur
ban,
and
met
ropo
litan
sch
ool a
t pri
mar
y-, i
nter
med
iate
-, an
d m
iddl
e-le
vel g
rade
s.T
his
syst
em p
lace
s gr
oups
of f
ive
teac
her c
andi
date
s to
geth
er in
eac
h bu
ildin
g du
ring
each
pla
cem
ent.
Our
pro
gram
is v
ery
field
-pla
cem
ent r
ich,
hav
ing
over
700
clo
ck h
ours
prio
r to
stud
ent t
each
ing.
Les
son
stud
y en
able
s us
to li
nk th
is e
xten
sive
tim
e to
our
met
hods
cla
sses
.D
urin
g Y
ear O
ne, o
ur e
nter
ing
120
teac
her c
andi
date
s ar
e in
sch
ools
for t
wo
mor
n-in
gs a
wee
k an
d in
the
afte
rnoo
ns a
ttend
met
hods
cla
sses
in m
ath
and
scie
nce,
or r
eadi
ngan
d ch
ildre
n’s
liter
atur
e (T
able
1).
The
y co
mpl
ete
a le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
t for
eac
hco
urse
for a
tota
l of f
our s
epar
ate
assi
gnm
ents
; eac
h in
clud
es d
etai
led
plan
ning
. Thr
ee o
fth
ese
requ
ire
subs
eque
nt te
achi
ng o
f “re
sear
ch le
sson
s” in
thei
r fie
ld p
lace
men
t cla
ss-
room
s. R
eadi
ng m
etho
ds is
the
exce
ptio
n, w
here
the
teac
hing
is o
n-ca
mpu
s in
am
icro
teac
hing
form
at (A
rend
s, 2
006)
.C
andi
date
’s g
roup
s fo
r the
ass
ignm
ent a
re th
us d
eter
min
ed b
y th
eir f
ield
pla
cem
ents
.E
ach
grou
p of
can
dida
tes
is re
spon
sibl
e fo
r dis
cuss
ing
the
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ent w
ithth
eir c
oope
ratin
g te
ache
r and
det
erm
inin
g w
hich
of t
he fi
ve te
ache
rs’ c
lass
room
s w
ould
be m
ost a
ppro
pria
te f
or th
is a
ssig
nmen
t. T
his
flex
ibil
ity
of c
hoos
ing
one
of f
ive
clas
sroo
ms
enab
les
grou
ps to
loca
te a
sup
port
ive
coop
erat
ing
teac
her w
hose
cur
ricu
lum
expe
ctat
ions
mat
ch w
hat c
andi
date
are
abl
e to
pro
vide
thro
ugh
the
less
on s
tudy
assi
gnm
ent.
(In
a hi
gh-s
take
s te
stin
g en
viro
nmen
t, no
t all
coop
erat
ing
teac
hers
val
ue a
deta
iled
refo
rm-m
inde
d le
sson
). T
he s
elec
tion
of o
ne c
lass
room
from
five
is p
artic
ular
lyim
port
ant d
urin
g th
e fi
rst s
emes
ter
of th
e pr
ogra
m w
hen
teac
her
cand
idat
es a
rein
expe
rien
ced:
The
gro
up is
abl
e to
cho
ose
the
mos
t con
fide
nt c
andi
date
to te
ach
from
the
grou
ps’ d
etai
led
plan
. Thi
s is
usu
ally
a te
ache
r ca
ndid
ate’
s fi
rst e
xper
ienc
e of
who
le-c
lass
teac
hing
, and
our
dat
a su
gges
ts th
at th
is p
roce
ss is
suc
cess
ful.
Dur
ing
Yea
r Tw
o, te
ache
r can
dida
tes
wor
k in
sch
ools
two
full
days
a w
eek
for a
sem
este
r whi
le c
oncu
rren
tly e
nrol
led
in s
ocia
l stu
dies
, lan
guag
e ar
ts, a
nd a
dia
gnos
ticre
adin
g co
urse
. T
hey
com
plet
e on
e le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
t in
thei
r sch
ools
dur
ing
this
sem
este
r, in
tegr
ated
acr
oss
the
thre
e m
etho
ds c
ours
es. E
ach
cour
se is
resp
onsi
ble
for a
com
pone
nt o
f the
less
on s
tudy
pro
cess
, thu
s re
info
rcin
g th
e na
tura
l int
egra
tion
of li
tera
cyw
ithin
con
tent
teac
hing
.T
he g
ener
al p
atte
rn fo
r all
assi
gnm
ents
use
s L
ewis
’s fo
ur-s
tage
less
on s
tudy
cyc
le(L
ewis
, Per
ry, &
Mur
ata,
200
6) a
s a
basi
s (F
igur
e 1)
. In
step
1 G
oal-
Set
ting
and
Pla
nnin
g, g
roup
s of
tea
cher
can
dida
tes
iden
tify
a g
ener
al g
oal
for
stud
ent
lear
ning
(a re
sear
ch th
eme)
, the
n th
ey m
ove
on to
ste
p 2
Res
earc
h L
esso
n. T
he c
andi
-da
tes
as a
team
then
set
abo
ut p
rodu
cing
one
det
aile
d re
sear
ch le
sson
to a
ccom
plis
h th
isgo
al fo
r a s
peci
fic c
lass
room
of f
ield
pla
cem
ent s
tude
nts.
In
step
3 L
esso
n D
iscu
ssio
n,th
e re
sear
ch le
sson
is ta
ught
in a
fiel
d pl
acem
ent c
lass
room
by
one
teac
her c
andi
date
and
othe
r gro
up m
embe
rs. W
here
pos
sibl
e, u
nive
rsity
facu
lty g
athe
rs a
nd d
iscu
sses
the
data
colle
cted
dur
ing
the
less
on, a
fter
whi
ch th
e fin
al m
ove,
ste
p 4
Con
solid
atio
n of
Lea
rnin
g,m
ay b
e ta
ken.
The
out
com
e of
this
dis
cuss
ion
is a
con
soli
dati
on o
f th
eir
lear
ning
,po
ssib
ly a
re-
teac
hing
of a
mod
ified
less
on w
ith a
noth
er c
lass
. Thi
s al
way
s co
nclu
des
with
a w
ritte
n re
port
for a
met
hods
cou
rse
assi
gnm
ent.
20S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Tabl
e 1
Sch
edul
e fo
r Fie
ld a
nd M
etho
ds C
ours
es in
the
Ele
men
tary
Edu
catio
n Pr
ogra
m
Sem
este
r One
Se
mes
ter T
wo
Sem
este
r Thr
ee
S
emes
ter F
our
Mor
ning
F
ield
Pla
cem
ent (
Tues
, Thu
rs)
Fiel
d Pl
acem
ent
(Tue
s, T
hurs
)So
cial
Stu
dies
,L
angu
age
Art
s,D
iagn
ostic
Rea
ding
Met
hods
(Mon
, Wed
, Fri
)
Stud
ent T
each
ing
(Mon
-Fri
)C
hild
ren’
sL
itera
ture
and
Rea
ding
Met
hods
(Tue
s, T
hurs
)
Scie
nce
Met
hods
and
Mat
h M
etho
ds(T
ues,
Thu
rs)
Aft
erno
on
Spec
ific
Des
crip
tions
of L
esso
n St
udy
in M
etho
ds C
ours
es
Year
1 M
athe
mat
ics
Met
hods
The
re a
re tw
o m
athe
mat
ics
met
hods
inst
ruct
ors,
one
of w
hom
impl
emen
ted
Japa
-ne
se le
sson
stu
dy in
mat
h m
etho
ds c
ours
es in
200
0 an
d on
e w
ho, p
rior
to a
rriv
ing
at th
eun
iver
sity
in 2
002,
had
exp
erie
nce
eval
uatin
g a
gran
t tha
t req
uire
d he
r to
atte
nd th
ete
achi
ng o
f res
earc
h le
sson
s ta
ught
by
expe
rien
ced
teac
hers
. T
he m
athe
mat
ics
less
onst
udy
is th
e m
ost d
evel
oped
form
of t
he a
ssig
nmen
t in
the
prog
ram
. It
is d
esig
ned
as a
vehi
cle
thro
ugh
whi
ch te
ache
r can
dida
tes
stud
y ho
w to
lear
n ab
out t
heir
teac
hing
of
mat
hem
atic
s (H
iebe
rt, M
orri
s, &
Gla
ss, 2
003)
.Si
nce
mat
hem
atic
s ed
ucat
ion
facu
lty h
as u
sed
this
ass
ignm
ent m
any
times
, the
irfo
cus
was
on
refin
ing
the
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ent.
Thr
ee a
reas
wer
e ta
rget
ed: t
o im
prov
ete
ache
r can
dida
tes’
con
tent
kno
wle
dge,
to re
fine
obse
rvat
ion
and
data
col
lect
ions
ski
lls,
and
to fo
ster
cri
tical
ana
lysi
s of
the
less
on.
One
way
the
assi
gnm
ent w
as s
tren
gthe
ned
duri
ng fa
ll 20
03 w
as to
sup
port
teac
her c
andi
date
s’ w
eak
cont
ent k
now
ledg
e (M
a, 1
999)
.C
andi
date
s w
ere
requ
ired
sel
ect t
heir
less
on fr
om a
rese
arch
-bas
ed m
athe
mat
ics
refo
rmte
xtbo
ok s
erie
s w
here
con
tent
was
em
phas
ized
(Eco
nom
opou
los
et a
l., 1
998)
. T
his
less
on w
as d
evel
oped
in d
etai
l for
thei
r par
ticul
ar c
lass
room
. Tea
cher
can
dida
tes
also
spec
ifica
lly s
tudy
the
mat
hem
atic
al c
once
pts
in th
e le
sson
usi
ng a
con
tent
-foc
used
cou
rse
text
(Cha
pin
& J
ohns
on, 2
000)
. Fac
ulty
requ
ire
less
on s
tudy
obs
erve
rs to
focu
s on
how
K-9
(K
-9 is
Ill
inoi
s el
emen
tary
cer
tifi
cati
on, w
ith
an a
dd-o
n 6-
9 m
iddl
e-le
vel
endo
rsem
ent a
vaila
ble)
stu
dent
s le
arn
by o
bser
ving
onl
y a
few
stu
dent
s in
the
clas
sroo
m,
reco
rdin
g an
d in
terp
retin
g th
eir u
nder
stan
ding
s an
d m
isco
ncep
tions
. Thi
s da
ta ju
stifi
esan
d su
ppor
ts a
cri
tical
ana
lysi
s of
the
less
on.
Year
1 S
cien
ce M
etho
ds
The
sci
ence
inst
ruct
or te
ache
s bo
th s
ectio
ns, a
nd h
e is
fam
iliar
with
act
ion
rese
arch
and
othe
r fo
rms
of t
each
er i
nqui
ry a
s st
rate
gies
for
ins
truc
tion
al i
mpr
ovem
ent
(Kei
th,
2001
).
21S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Add
ition
ally
, he
was
alr
eady
focu
sed
on in
quir
y as
a c
entr
al th
eme
in s
cien
ce a
s em
bod-
ied
in th
e N
atio
nal S
cien
ce E
duca
tion
Stan
dard
s (N
atio
nal R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil,
199
6).
Thi
s pr
oces
s of
cha
nge
was
dif
ficul
t and
took
tim
e be
caus
e th
e fa
culty
had
sev
eral
yea
rsof
inve
stm
ent i
n co
urse
ass
ignm
ents
; how
ever
, he
read
ily a
gree
d to
ado
pt th
is a
ssig
nmen
tto
bri
ng c
oher
ence
to th
e el
emen
tary
edu
catio
n cu
rric
ulum
.
1. G
oal-S
ettin
g an
d
Pla
nnin
g
Inde
ntif
y go
als
for
stud
ent l
earn
ing
and
long
-ter
mde
velo
pmen
t.
Col
lato
rativ
ely
plan
inst
ruct
ion
desi
gned
tobr
ing
to li
fe th
ese
goal
s, in
clud
ing
a“r
esea
rch
less
on”
that
will
be
obse
rved
.
2. R
esea
rch
Les
son
One
pla
nnin
g te
amm
embe
r tea
ches
clas
sroo
m le
sson
whi
leot
her t
eam
mem
bers
colle
ct d
ata
on s
tude
ntth
inki
ng, l
earn
ing,
enga
gem
ent,
beha
vior
,et
c.
3. L
esso
n D
icus
sion
Shar
e an
d an
alyz
e da
taco
llect
ed a
t res
earc
hle
sson
.
Wha
t is
the
evid
ence
that
goa
ls fo
r stu
dent
lear
ning
and
deve
lopm
ent w
ere
fost
ered
?
Wha
t im
prov
emen
ts to
the
less
on a
nd to
inst
ruct
ion
mor
ege
nera
lly s
houl
d be
cons
ider
ed.
4. C
onso
lidat
ion
of
Lea
rnin
g
If d
esir
ed, r
efin
e an
dre
-tea
ch th
e le
sson
and
stud
y it
agai
n. W
rite
repo
rt th
at in
clud
esle
sson
pla
n, s
tude
ntda
te a
nd re
flec
tions
on w
hat w
as le
arne
d.
➤
➤
➤
Fig
ure
1. L
ewis
’s le
sson
stu
dy c
ycle
. Fr
om L
esso
n st
udy:
A h
andb
ook
of te
ache
r-le
din
stru
ctio
nal c
hang
e (p
.3) b
y C
. Lew
is, (
2002
), Ph
ilade
lphi
a, P
A: R
esea
rch
for B
ette
rSc
hool
s, In
c. ©
200
2 by
Cat
heri
ne C
. Lew
is.
Rep
rint
ed w
ith p
erm
issi
on.
➤
22S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Alth
ough
sev
eral
of h
is e
xist
ing
assi
gnm
ents
rela
ted
to le
sson
stu
dy, t
his
facu
ltym
embe
r had
to re
thin
k th
e en
tire
set o
f ass
ignm
ents
to m
ake
less
on s
tudy
a fr
amew
ork
for o
ther
ass
ignm
ents
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, a
chi
ld in
terv
iew
(Ara
ms
& B
rads
haw
, 200
1) a
ndre
sear
ch in
to p
edag
ogic
al p
ract
ice
wer
e co
mbi
ned
to b
ecom
e an
inve
stig
atio
n in
tost
uden
t und
erst
andi
ngs
in p
repa
ratio
n fo
r the
less
on s
tudy
. Rat
her t
han
stan
ding
alo
ne,
each
ass
ignm
ent s
erve
d to
ass
ist t
each
er c
andi
date
s in
pla
nnin
g th
eir r
esea
rch
less
on.
Year
1 C
hild
ren’
s L
itera
ture
One
facu
lty m
embe
r tea
ches
bot
h se
ctio
ns o
f chi
ldre
n’s
liter
atur
e. L
esso
n st
udy
seem
ed to
her
to e
xten
d an
idea
pro
pose
d by
Ken
and
Yet
ta G
oodm
an th
at te
ache
rssh
ould
eng
age
in “
kidw
atch
ing”
(Ow
ocki
& G
oodm
an, 2
002)
. Tha
t is,
teac
hers
sho
uld
obse
rve
stud
ents
as
they
thin
k an
d pe
rfor
m in
the
clas
sroo
m th
en d
ocum
ent t
heir
suc
-ce
sses
and
cha
llen
ges.
Stu
dyin
g th
eir
stud
ents
giv
es te
ache
rs v
alua
ble
info
rmat
ion
abou
t mot
ivat
ion,
str
engt
hs, l
angu
age
deve
lopm
ent,
soci
al in
tera
ctio
ns, a
nd n
eeds
. T
his
facu
lty id
entif
ied
a co
nnec
tion
betw
een
the
kidw
atch
ing
conc
ept a
nd th
e em
phas
is le
sson
stud
y pl
aces
on
obse
rvin
g le
arne
rs d
urin
g a
less
on. A
s a
resu
lt, s
he a
dded
a le
sson
stu
dyas
sign
men
t to
her c
ours
e.Sh
e fe
lt sh
e w
as o
nly
one
step
ahe
ad o
f her
can
dida
tes
whe
n it
cam
e to
impl
emen
t-in
g le
sson
stu
dy.
She
assi
gned
less
on s
tudy
gro
ups
and
requ
ired
they
mak
e th
e fo
unda
-tio
n of
thei
r les
son
a pi
ece
of li
tera
ture
. T
he fa
culty
was
impr
esse
d w
ith th
e qu
ality
of
less
ons
teac
her c
andi
date
s de
velo
ped.
Year
2 o
f Pro
gram
(Dia
gnos
tic R
eadi
ng, S
ocia
l Stu
dies
, Lan
guag
e A
rts)
Dur
ing
the
seco
nd y
ear,
thir
d se
mes
ter,
of th
e pr
ogra
m th
ere
are
thre
e m
etho
dsco
urse
s ta
ught
(dia
gnos
tic re
adin
g, la
ngua
ge a
rts,
and
soc
ial s
tudi
es).
Rat
her t
han
assi
gnth
ree
sepa
rate
less
on s
tudi
es, m
etho
ds in
stru
ctor
s—al
l new
to le
sson
stu
dy—
envi
sion
edan
am
bitio
us p
lan
for o
ne c
ompl
ex in
tegr
ated
less
on s
tudy
. The
y de
cide
d th
e le
sson
stud
y ex
peri
ence
wou
ld b
e fu
lly im
plem
ente
d w
ithin
soc
ial s
tudi
es w
ith k
ey s
ectio
nsde
velo
ped
in d
iagn
ostic
read
ing
and
lang
uage
art
s.T
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f a tw
o-w
eek
unit
and
teac
hing
a le
sson
dur
ing
the
field
pla
ce-
men
t was
alr
eady
an
assi
gnm
ent i
n th
e so
cial
stu
dies
met
hods
cou
rse.
The
se a
ssig
n-m
ents
wer
e ch
ange
d to
fit t
he le
sson
-stu
dy p
roce
ss s
impl
y by
pla
cing
teac
her c
andi
date
son
team
s to
dev
elop
the
unit
and
requ
irin
g on
e le
sson
with
in th
e un
it to
be
the
deta
iled
rese
arch
less
on ta
ught
in th
eir f
ield
pla
cem
ents
. L
ewis
’s (2
002)
less
on a
nd u
nit o
utlin
esw
ere
used
. Can
dida
tes
wer
e pr
ovid
ed w
ith a
tabl
e of
con
tent
s to
dem
onst
rate
how
the
unit
shou
ld b
e de
velo
ped
incl
udin
g w
here
eac
h of
the
othe
r tw
o cl
asse
s as
sign
men
tsh
ould
fit i
nto
the
end
prod
uct.
Usi
ng th
e de
fined
pur
pose
of t
each
ing
soci
al s
tudi
es: “
tohe
lp y
oung
peo
ple
deve
lop
the
abili
ty to
mak
e in
form
ed a
nd re
ason
ed d
ecis
ions
for t
hepu
blic
goo
d as
citi
zens
of a
cul
tura
lly d
iver
se, d
emoc
ratic
soc
iety
in a
n in
terd
epen
dent
wor
ld”
(Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for S
ocia
l Stu
dies
, 199
4, p
. vii)
, the
met
hods
inst
ruct
orde
sign
ated
as
the
rese
arch
them
e fo
r all
less
on s
tudi
es: H
ow c
an w
e he
lp s
tude
nts
beco
me
good
citi
zens
in a
mul
ticul
tura
l, di
vers
e de
moc
ratic
soc
iety
?R
eadi
ng is
a c
ruci
al s
kill
in d
eter
min
ing
succ
ess
in th
e so
cial
stu
dies
, so
the
diag
nost
ic re
adin
g m
etho
ds in
stru
ctor
s as
ked
teac
her c
andi
date
s to
ass
ess
stud
ents
’re
adin
g ab
ilitie
s in
the
rese
arch
less
on c
lass
room
usi
ng th
e Q
ualit
ativ
e R
eadi
ng In
vent
ory-
3(L
esli
e &
Cal
dwel
l, 20
01).
Bas
ed o
n th
is a
sses
smen
t, te
ache
r ca
ndid
ates
cho
ose
appr
opri
atel
y le
vele
d so
cial
stu
dies
text
s fo
r th
e un
it a
nd s
elec
ted
read
ing
and
ques
tion
ing
stra
tegi
es f
or e
ffec
tive
stud
ent l
earn
ing
(Wal
ker,
2004
). In
the
lang
uage
art
sco
urse
, can
dida
tes
iden
tifie
d an
d in
tegr
ated
a w
ritin
g st
rate
gy in
to th
e re
sear
ch le
sson
as
the
asse
ssm
ent c
ompo
nent
. The
dev
elop
men
t of
wri
ting
str
ateg
ies
was
alr
eady
are
quir
emen
t; it
was
now
focu
sed
on th
e re
sear
ch le
sson
. C
andi
date
s th
en a
sses
sed
stud
ent w
ritte
n w
ork
sam
ples
from
the
rese
arch
less
on, u
sing
this
as
one
piec
e of
evi
-de
nce
whe
n re
flec
ting
on w
ays
to im
prov
e th
e le
sson
.B
y se
mes
ter’
s en
d, d
espi
te a
ll th
e ch
alle
nges
, the
thre
e fa
culty
saw
pos
itive
gro
wth
inte
ache
r can
dida
tes
and
in th
emse
lves
. R
esul
t of a
naly
sis
of p
revi
ousl
y de
scri
bed
data
sour
ces
indi
cate
d th
at th
is a
ssig
nmen
t nee
ded
refin
ing,
esp
ecia
lly in
how
the
unit
was
asse
ssed
. A
lso,
com
mun
icat
ion
betw
een
facu
lty n
eede
d to
be
stre
ngth
ened
to p
rovi
de a
bette
r-in
tegr
ated
exp
erie
nce
for c
andi
date
s.
Dis
cuss
ion
With
Lite
ratu
re
From
May
200
3 on
war
ds, a
s te
ache
r res
earc
hers
(Coc
hran
-Sm
ith &
Lyt
le, 1
993)
we
enga
ged
with
the
trad
ition
of e
duca
tiona
l act
ion
rese
arch
focu
sed
on c
urri
culu
m im
-pr
ovem
ent a
nd c
hang
e (E
lliot
t, 20
03).
Our
larg
er p
urpo
se w
as d
evel
opin
g an
d re
finin
gth
e pe
dago
gy o
f our
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
and
exa
min
ing
prog
ram
out
com
es fo
rbo
th N
CA
TE
acc
redi
tatio
n an
d pr
ogra
m im
prov
emen
t. A
s su
ch, o
ur m
etho
dolo
gy c
ycle
dth
roug
h pl
anni
ng, a
ctin
g, o
bser
ving
, and
refl
ectin
g w
here
eac
h ph
ase
incl
uded
ele
men
tsof
the
othe
r pha
ses.
For
exa
mpl
e, a
s w
e be
gan,
indi
vidu
ally
and
col
lect
ivel
y, to
act
on
our e
arly
pla
ns fo
r les
son
stud
y as
sign
men
ts, w
e ad
apte
d an
d ch
ange
d th
ose
plan
s in
resp
onse
to d
iscu
ssio
ns w
ith e
ach
othe
r—so
met
imes
in fo
rmal
mee
tings
, but
oft
en o
ver
the
lunc
h ta
ble.
Suc
h in
here
nt m
essi
ness
(Ack
off,
1999
), so
fam
iliar
to re
flec
tive
prac
titio
ners
, was
com
poun
ded
beca
use
facu
lty fr
om d
iffer
ent d
isci
plin
es, w
ith d
iffer
ent
rese
arch
ass
umpt
ions
, wor
ked
acro
ss a
larg
e te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m. T
he re
sult
was
an o
rgan
ic p
roce
ss o
f ide
ntif
ying
and
resp
ondi
ng to
thes
e co
ntex
tual
loca
l nee
ds a
s w
ew
ent a
long
(Lew
is, P
erry
, & M
urat
o, 2
006)
. For
exa
mpl
e, in
itial
ly fa
culty
dre
w o
n th
eir
own
fram
e of
refe
renc
e to
mak
e se
nse
of le
sson
stu
dy (i
.e.,
kidw
atch
ing
from
Ow
ocki
and
Goo
dman
, 200
2, o
r mic
rote
achi
ng fr
om A
rend
s, 2
006)
.A
s ou
r dis
cuss
ion
deep
ened
and
our
exp
erie
nce
incr
ease
d th
ese
indi
vidu
al u
nder
-st
andi
ngs
mov
ed to
war
d a
com
mon
def
initi
on.
Our
con
cern
was
alw
ays
to im
prov
ein
stru
ctio
n, a
nd w
e w
ere
just
ifiab
ly fo
cuse
d on
the
issu
es o
f pra
ctic
e. O
ur q
uest
ions
rang
ed f
rom
gen
eral
: How
is it
goi
ng?
To th
e sp
ecif
ic: H
ow c
an w
e se
quen
ceas
sign
men
ts s
o th
at le
sson
stu
dies
will
fit i
nto
our t
each
er c
andi
date
s’ s
ched
ule?
How
ever
, the
re w
as a
lso
anot
her a
ctiv
ity a
t wor
k. A
s re
sear
cher
s se
ekin
g to
mak
ese
nse
of o
ur w
ork,
we
exam
ined
our
ach
ieve
men
ts.
As
we
read
a v
arie
ty o
f lite
ratu
reov
er th
e ne
xt th
ree
year
s, s
ever
al p
iece
s st
ood
out t
o us
: T
hey
spok
e of
the
chal
leng
es in
teac
her e
duca
tion
and
the
way
s in
whi
ch s
ucce
ssfu
l, qu
ality
pro
gram
s ad
dres
s th
ese
chal
leng
es.
The
y ra
nged
from
sch
olar
ly p
iece
s fo
r the
insi
der t
each
er e
duca
tor a
udie
nce
(Coc
hran
-Sm
ith &
Zei
chne
r, 20
05; F
eim
an-N
emse
r, 20
01) t
o re
port
s fo
r pol
icy
and
publ
ic a
udie
nces
(Lev
ine,
200
6).
We
foun
d ou
rsel
ves
surp
rise
d th
at in
our
com
mitm
ent
to o
ur p
assi
ons,
thro
ugh
our a
bilit
ies
and
know
ledg
e as
refl
ectiv
e pr
actit
ione
rs, a
nd in
the
qual
ity o
f our
dai
ly in
tera
ctio
ns w
ith e
ach
othe
r, w
e w
ere
build
ing
a pr
ogra
m th
at h
adbe
gun
to m
eet t
he b
est v
isio
ns o
f qua
lity
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s.Fo
r exa
mpl
e, S
haro
n Fe
iman
-Nem
ser (
2001
) art
icul
ated
a v
isio
n th
at te
ache
red
ucat
ors’
role
sho
uld
be to
pro
vide
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r tea
cher
s to
eng
age
in “
seri
ous
23S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
and
sust
aine
d le
arni
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties”
(p. 1
014)
acr
oss
the
cont
inuu
m o
f the
ir c
aree
rs,
pres
ervi
ce, i
nduc
tion,
and
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t. W
e fo
cus
here
on
her f
ram
ewor
kfo
r thi
nkin
g ab
out a
pre
serv
ice
curr
icul
um. S
he id
entif
ies
five
“cen
tral
task
s” b
ased
on
“wha
t tea
cher
s ne
ed to
kno
w, c
are
abou
t, an
d be
abl
e to
do
in o
rder
to p
rom
ote
subs
tant
ial l
earn
ing
for a
ll st
uden
ts”
(p. 1
016)
. The
se c
entr
al ta
sks
also
enc
ompa
ss th
ebe
liefs
and
imag
es o
f tea
chin
g th
at p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs b
ring
to th
eir e
duca
tion.
Bas
ed o
n pr
elim
inar
y an
alys
is o
f our
dat
a, w
e su
gges
t tha
t asp
ects
of e
ach
of th
eta
sks
and
prac
tices
can
be
acco
mpl
ishe
d th
roug
h le
sson
stu
dy; h
owev
er, w
e w
ould
arg
ueth
at e
ach
need
s ca
refu
l stu
dy if
one
is to
con
fiden
tly a
sser
t tha
t a p
rogr
am is
mee
ting
thes
e de
man
ds. T
he s
cope
of t
his
pape
r doe
s no
t pro
vide
for s
uch
deta
iled
anal
ysis
;ho
wev
er, w
e ar
e in
the
proc
ess
of re
finin
g ou
r dat
a co
llect
ion
and
anal
ysis
for l
ater
publ
icat
ions
. Wha
t we
asse
rt h
ere,
rath
er, i
s th
at th
e go
als,
str
uctu
re, a
nd c
onte
xt o
fle
sson
stu
dy, s
etti
ng a
stri
de a
stu
dy o
f ac
tual
teac
hing
epi
sode
s, d
oes
mak
e th
eac
hiev
emen
t of e
ach
of th
ese
task
s an
d pr
acti
ces
poss
ible
in v
ery
inte
rest
ing
way
s. T
ost
imul
ate
furt
her
conv
ersa
tion
abou
t the
ped
agog
y an
d cu
rric
ulum
of p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
red
ucat
ion,
we
will
illu
min
ate
her c
entr
al ta
sks
and
prom
isin
g pr
actic
es w
ith e
xam
ples
from
less
on s
tudy
in o
ur p
repa
ratio
n pr
ogra
m.
Cen
tral
Tas
k #1
: Ana
lyzi
ng B
elie
fs a
nd F
orm
ing
New
Vis
ions
Feim
an-N
emse
r (20
01) w
arns
,
Unl
ess
teac
her e
duca
tors
eng
age
pros
pect
ive
teac
hers
in a
cri
tical
exa
min
atio
n of
thei
r ent
erin
g be
liefs
in li
ght o
f com
pelli
ng a
ltern
ativ
es a
nd h
elp
them
dev
elop
pow
erfu
l im
ages
of g
ood
teac
hing
and
str
ong
prof
essi
onal
com
mitm
ents
, the
seen
teri
ng b
elie
fs w
ill c
ontin
ue to
sha
pe th
eir i
deas
and
pra
ctic
es. (
pp. 1
016-
1017
)
Whi
le w
e w
ould
like
all
our c
oope
ratin
g te
ache
rs to
pro
vide
“po
wer
ful i
mag
es o
fgo
od te
achi
ng”
(p. 1
017)
, the
real
ity o
f a h
igh-
stak
es te
stin
g en
viro
nmen
t and
a la
rge
stat
e te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m is
that
som
e of
the
best
exp
erie
nces
of s
ucce
ssfu
lre
form
-min
ded
teac
hing
are
pro
vide
d by
the
care
fully
pla
nned
rese
arch
less
ons
taug
ht b
you
r und
ergr
adua
te te
ache
r can
dida
tes.
Eac
h se
mes
ter s
ome
less
on s
tudy
gro
ups
repo
rtth
at d
urin
g th
e te
achi
ng o
f the
ir re
sear
ch le
sson
thei
r stu
dent
s se
emed
sig
nific
antly
mor
een
gage
d an
d m
otiv
ated
than
dur
ing
prev
ious
less
ons.
The
refo
re, r
esea
rch
less
ons
offe
rev
iden
ce to
som
e te
ache
r can
dida
tes
that
alte
rnat
ives
to th
e ev
eryd
ay d
rill
and
prac
tice
appr
oach
, oft
en fo
und
in p
ublic
sch
ools
, can
be
mor
e ef
fect
ive
for s
tude
nt le
arni
ng.
Cen
tral
Tas
k #2
: Dev
elop
ing
Subj
ect M
atte
r fo
r Te
achi
ng
Few
wou
ld d
isag
ree
that
teac
hers
nee
d to
kno
w th
e su
bjec
ts th
ey te
ach.
How
ever
, in
her s
econ
d ta
sk, F
eim
an-N
emse
r (20
01) r
emin
ds u
s th
at th
is k
ind
of k
now
ing
incl
udes
not j
ust u
nder
stan
ding
the
mai
n co
ncep
ts b
ut a
lso
know
ing
how
evi
denc
e an
d pr
oof a
reth
ough
t abo
ut in
diff
eren
t sub
ject
s: “
How
is a
pro
of in
mat
hem
atic
s di
ffer
ent f
rom
ahi
stor
ic e
xpla
natio
n or
a li
tera
ry in
terp
reta
tion?
” (p
. 101
7). A
dditi
onal
ly, d
raw
ing
onSh
ulm
an (1
986)
, Fei
man
-Nem
ser (
2001
) ide
ntifi
es w
hat a
teac
her n
eeds
to u
nder
stan
dab
out w
hat s
tude
nts
typi
cally
find
diff
icul
t, co
mm
on e
ffec
tive
anal
ogie
s an
d m
odel
s th
atm
ay b
e us
ed fo
r cla
rific
atio
n.
24S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
25S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
The
em
erge
nce
of re
sear
ch le
sson
s fr
om a
sub
ject
-bas
ed m
etho
ds c
ours
es h
elps
cand
idat
es d
evel
op th
is k
ind
of k
now
ledg
e of
sub
ject
mat
ter.
For e
xam
ple,
the
mat
hem
at-
ics
less
on s
tudy
requ
ires
can
dida
tes
to e
ngag
e sp
ecifi
cally
in a
stu
dy o
f the
mat
hem
atic
alco
ncep
ts in
the
less
on, a
s w
ell a
s st
udyi
ng h
ow c
hild
ren
best
lear
n th
ese
conc
epts
. In
soci
al s
tudi
es, t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f a re
sear
ch le
sson
requ
ires
the
teac
her c
andi
date
s to
clar
ify
to th
emse
lves
how
to te
ach
inhe
rent
ly c
ompl
ex c
once
pts
such
as
dem
ocra
cy to
prim
ary
stud
ent.
Cen
tral
Tas
k #3
: Dev
elop
ing
Und
erst
andi
ngs
of L
earn
ers
and
Lea
rnin
g
Feim
an-N
emse
r (20
01) b
elie
ves
that
teac
hers
nee
d to
cul
tivat
e to
ols,
dis
posi
tions
,an
d kn
owle
dge
abou
t the
ir s
tude
nts’
dev
elop
men
t, le
arni
ng, c
omm
unity
, and
cul
ture
and
use
this
und
erst
andi
ng in
thei
r tea
chin
g to
mak
e an
d ju
stif
y cu
rric
ular
and
ped
agog
icde
cisi
ons.
The
chi
ldre
n’s
liter
atur
e an
d sc
ienc
e le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
ts, f
or e
xam
ple,
spec
ifica
lly re
quir
e te
ache
r can
dida
tes
to s
tudy
the
child
ren
and
thei
r thi
nkin
g pr
ior t
opl
anni
ng a
nd te
achi
ng th
eir r
esea
rch
less
on. T
hus,
teac
her c
andi
date
s be
gin
to li
nkkn
owle
dge
of h
ow s
tude
nts
may
resp
ond
to p
artic
ular
con
text
s to
spe
cific
ped
agog
ical
deci
sion
s by
requ
irin
g th
at te
ache
r can
dida
tes
pred
ict,
plan
for,
and
obse
rve
thes
ere
spon
ses.
Whe
n te
ache
r can
dida
tes
are
obse
rver
s of
stu
dent
lear
ning
dur
ing
a re
sear
chle
sson
they
hav
e pl
anne
d, th
ey g
ain
new
insi
ghts
into
thei
r ped
agog
ical
dec
isio
ns.
Cen
tral
Tas
k #4
: Dev
elop
ing
a B
egin
ning
Rep
erto
ire
Feim
an-N
emse
r (20
01) a
rgue
s th
at p
rese
rvic
e pr
epar
atio
n’s
four
th c
entr
al ta
sk is
topr
ovid
e a
begi
nnin
g re
pert
oire
for t
each
er c
andi
date
s of
str
ateg
ies,
app
roac
hes,
and
asse
ssm
ents
, and
hel
p th
em m
ake
the
appr
opri
ate
deci
sion
s fo
r usi
ng th
ese
appr
oach
es.
In th
e se
mes
ter 3
less
on s
tudy
, tea
cher
can
dida
tes
are
requ
ired
to g
athe
r and
pro
vide
ath
ough
tful
ana
lysi
s of
read
ing
asse
ssm
ent d
ata
to s
elec
t tex
t and
pro
vide
inst
ruct
ion
inso
cial
stu
dies
. T
hrou
gh th
eir l
angu
age
arts
cou
rse,
can
dida
tes
assi
gn w
ritin
g to
thei
rst
uden
ts a
nd a
naly
ze th
is a
s ev
iden
ce o
f the
ir le
arni
ng o
f soc
ial s
tudi
es.
Thu
s, th
ey b
egin
to p
ut in
to p
ract
ice
an in
crea
sing
ly s
ophi
stic
ated
app
roac
h to
teac
hing
that
eng
ages
them
with
ass
essm
ent,
stra
tegy
sel
ectio
n, s
ubje
ct m
atte
r int
egra
tion,
as
wel
l as
refl
ectin
g on
thei
r pra
ctic
e an
d its
eff
ectiv
enes
s.
Cen
tral
Tas
k #5
: Dev
elop
ing
the
Tool
s to
Stu
dy T
each
ing
As
they
eng
age
in th
is p
roce
ss a
s a
less
on s
tudy
gro
up, t
each
er c
andi
date
s se
em to
embo
dy F
eim
an-N
emse
r’s
(200
1) fi
fth
cent
ral t
ask.
Fei
man
-Nem
ser a
sser
ts th
at:
Pre-
serv
ice
prep
arat
ion
is a
tim
e to
beg
in fo
rmin
g ha
bits
and
ski
lls n
eces
sary
for t
heon
goin
g st
udy
of te
achi
ng in
the
com
pany
of c
olle
ague
s. P
re-s
ervi
ce te
ache
rs m
ust
com
e to
see
that
lear
ning
is a
n in
tegr
al p
art o
f tea
chin
g an
d th
at s
erio
us c
onve
rsa
tions
abo
ut te
achi
ng a
re a
val
uabl
e re
sour
ce in
dev
elop
ing
and
impr
ovin
g th
eir
prac
tice.
The
stu
dy o
f tea
chin
g re
quir
es th
e sk
ills
of o
bser
vatio
n, in
terp
reta
tion,
and
anal
ysis
. Pre
-ser
vice
stu
dent
s ca
n be
gin
deve
lopi
ng th
ese
skill
s by
ana
lyzi
ng s
ampl
esof
stu
dent
wor
k, c
ompa
ring
diff
eren
t cur
ricu
lar m
ater
ials
, int
ervi
ewin
g st
uden
ts to
unco
ver t
heir
thin
king
, stu
dyin
g ho
w d
iffer
ent t
each
ers
wor
k to
war
d th
e sa
me
goal
s,an
d ob
serv
ing
wha
t im
pact
thei
r ins
truc
tion
has
on s
tude
nts.
Car
ried
out
in th
e
com
pany
of o
ther
s, th
ese
activ
ities
can
fost
er n
orm
s fo
r pro
fess
iona
l dis
cour
se s
uch
as re
spec
t for
evi
denc
e, o
penn
ess
to q
uest
ions
, val
uing
of
alte
rnat
ive
pers
pect
ives
,a
sear
ch f
or c
omm
on u
nder
stan
ding
s, a
nd s
hare
d st
anda
rds.
(p. 1
019)
The
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ents
thro
ugho
ut th
e pr
ogra
m p
rovi
de c
andi
date
s w
ithop
port
uniti
es to
wor
k w
ith o
ther
s on
a c
ompl
ex a
naly
sis
of th
eir s
tude
nts’
lear
ning
and
how
it is
rela
ted
to th
e in
stru
ctio
nal d
ecis
ions
they
mad
e, b
oth
in te
rms
of c
urri
culu
m a
ndpe
dago
gy.
The
pri
or p
lann
ing,
and
the
subs
eque
nt d
ebri
efin
g of
the
rese
arch
less
on,
freq
uent
ly in
the
com
pany
of f
acul
ty w
ho h
ave
also
obs
erve
d th
e le
sson
, pro
vide
rich
expe
rien
ces
in u
sing
evi
denc
e of
stu
dent
lear
ning
to in
form
this
ana
lysi
s. G
roup
sst
rugg
le to
com
e to
com
mon
und
erst
andi
ngs,
as
they
que
stio
n th
eir d
ecis
ions
and
lear
n to
deve
lop
a re
spec
tful
pro
fess
iona
l dis
cour
se a
roun
d te
achi
ng.
Feim
en-N
emse
r (20
01) t
hen
cons
ider
s th
ree
prom
isin
g pr
actic
es th
at e
nabl
e te
ache
red
ucat
ion
prog
ram
s to
acc
ompl
ish
thes
e ce
ntra
l tas
ks. S
he re
min
ds u
s th
at th
e m
eani
ngan
d im
pact
of a
ny o
ne in
divi
dual
str
ateg
y or
com
pone
nt o
f a p
rogr
am d
epen
ds o
n “t
heov
eral
l pur
pose
s th
ey s
erve
. A
nd th
ese,
in tu
rn, a
re in
flue
nced
by
a pr
ogra
m’s
con
cept
ual
orie
ntat
ion…
. Eve
ryth
ing
depe
nds
on th
e qu
ality
of i
deas
that
giv
e th
e pr
ogra
m d
irec
tion
and
purp
ose”
(pp.
102
2-10
23).
She
nam
es th
ree
prom
isin
g pr
actic
es th
at p
rom
ote
refo
rm-m
inde
d te
achi
ng: 1
) con
cept
ual c
oher
ence
, 2) p
urpo
sefu
l, in
tegr
ated
fiel
dex
peri
ence
s, a
nd 3
) atte
ntio
n to
teac
hers
as
lear
ners
. W
e be
lieve
eac
h of
thes
e pr
actic
esca
n be
impl
emen
ted
thro
ugh
less
on s
tudy
ass
ignm
ents
.
Pro
mis
ing
Pra
ctic
e #1
: Con
cept
ual C
oher
ence
Acc
redi
ting
bodi
es s
uch
as N
CA
TE
requ
ire
that
pro
gram
s ha
ve a
con
cept
ual f
ram
e-w
ork
(Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for A
ccre
dita
tion
of T
each
er E
duca
tion,
200
6) to
pro
vide
them
with
a c
entr
al fo
cus.
Alth
ough
our
pro
gram
has
suc
h a
fram
ewor
k, th
e In
quir
er-P
rofe
s-si
onal
, in
uniti
ng a
roun
d le
sson
stu
dy, w
e de
cide
d on
a c
omm
on s
et o
f pra
ctic
es th
atw
ould
bri
ng th
is la
ngua
ge to
life
in o
ur c
ours
es a
nd a
cros
s ou
r pro
gram
. Im
port
antly
,us
ing
less
on s
tudy
als
o in
crea
sed
our p
rogr
am c
oher
ence
bec
ause
we
chos
e a
com
mon
stra
tegy
that
put
the
prac
tices
of t
each
ing
in p
ublic
sch
ool c
lass
room
s as
the
cent
ral f
ocus
of o
ur m
etho
ds c
ours
es.
Sim
ulta
neou
sly,
we
gave
str
uctu
re to
our
exp
ecta
tion
of in
quir
y:W
e di
rect
ed w
ho w
ould
con
duct
the
inqu
iry
(gro
ups
of te
ache
r can
dida
tes)
, wha
t the
inqu
iry
wou
ld b
e ab
out (
plan
ning
and
ena
ctin
g te
achi
ng e
piso
des
in p
ublic
sch
ool)
, and
how
the
inqu
iry
wou
ld b
e co
nduc
ted
(thr
ough
stu
dy, r
esea
rch,
det
aile
d pl
anni
ng, a
ndga
ther
ing
evid
ence
, obs
ervi
ng s
tude
nt le
arni
ng, h
eari
ng p
ersp
ectiv
es fr
om fe
llow
pro
fes-
sion
als,
dra
win
g co
nclu
sion
s).
With
this
incr
ease
d pr
ogra
m c
oher
ence
as
sim
ilar e
vent
sbe
gan
to ta
ke p
lace
in d
iffer
ent c
ours
es, w
e al
so w
orke
d on
the
seco
nd p
rom
isin
gpr
actic
e.
Pro
mis
ing
Pra
ctic
e #2
: Pur
pose
ful,
Inte
grat
ed F
ield
Exp
erie
nce
Our
pro
gram
from
Jul
y 20
02 o
nwar
ds p
rovi
ded
both
var
ied
and
exte
nsiv
e fi
eld
expe
rien
ces.
But
as
teac
her e
duca
tors
kno
w, t
each
er c
andi
date
s ne
ed to
lear
n “d
esir
able
less
ons”
(Fei
man
-Nem
ser,
2001
, p. 1
024)
from
thes
e sc
hool
pla
cem
ents
. T
he le
sson
stud
y as
sign
men
t, w
ith it
s em
phas
is o
n th
e th
orou
gh, d
etai
led
plan
ning
, tea
chin
g, a
ndan
alys
is o
f one
hig
h-qu
ality
less
on, p
rovi
des
man
y ca
ndid
ates
, coo
pera
ting
teac
hers
, and
publ
ic s
choo
l chi
ldre
n w
ith a
n un
usua
l exp
erie
nce
of s
ucce
ssfu
l lea
rnin
g th
roug
h an
enga
ged,
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d, a
ctiv
e le
sson
.
26S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
27S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Mos
t sig
nific
antly
, the
se in
tens
e le
sson
stu
dy e
xper
ienc
es a
re d
riven
from
the
subj
ect
mat
ter
met
hods
cou
rses
, and
obs
erve
d by
bot
h cl
inic
al a
nd s
ubje
ct f
acul
ty w
here
poss
ible
, thu
s pr
ovid
ing
a co
nsta
nt in
terp
lay
betw
een
field
pla
cem
ents
and
met
hods
cour
ses.
Can
dida
tes
repo
rt le
arni
ng th
ese
desi
rabl
e le
sson
s—th
e im
port
ance
of p
lann
ing,
of e
ngag
ing
stud
ents
act
ivel
y in
lear
ning
dur
ing
less
ons,
and
the
sign
ifica
nt ro
le th
atw
atch
ing
stud
ents
lear
n pl
ays
in s
tren
gthe
ning
teac
hing
. T
his
last
poi
nt le
ads
dire
ctly
toth
e th
ird
prac
tice.
Pro
mis
ing
Pra
ctic
e #3
: Tea
cher
s as
Lea
rner
s
Les
son
stud
y, ra
ther
than
dir
ectin
g w
hat t
each
er c
andi
date
s le
arn
abou
t tea
chin
g,pr
ovid
es th
em w
ith a
rich
exp
erie
nce
and
take
s th
em s
erio
usly
as
a te
am o
f lea
rner
s. W
eha
ve o
bser
ved
duri
ng le
sson
stu
dy d
ebri
efin
g se
ssio
ns, t
each
er c
andi
date
s in
thei
rre
sear
ch te
ams
ques
tion
toge
ther
the
impa
ct o
f the
ir a
ctio
ns o
n st
uden
t lea
rnin
g. T
hele
sson
stu
dy e
xper
ienc
e m
odel
s th
e ki
nd o
f eff
ectiv
e le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
es w
e ho
pe th
eyw
ill c
onst
ruct
for t
heir
stu
dent
s.O
ur a
ppro
ach
seem
ed re
ason
able
to u
s, a
nd o
ur re
view
of l
itera
ture
con
firm
s ou
rid
eas
wer
e so
und
and
wel
l gro
unde
d. T
he li
tera
ture
als
o ch
alle
nged
us
to m
aint
ain
our
focu
s an
d ex
amin
e m
ore
clos
ely,
thro
ugh
a pr
actit
ione
r res
earc
h le
ns, t
he p
edag
ogy
ofou
r tea
cher
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.
Impl
icat
ions
for
Acc
redi
tatio
n
Ref
ocus
ing
our e
nerg
y on
dev
elop
ing
a pr
ogra
m th
at m
et o
ur v
isio
n fo
r tea
chin
g,ra
ther
than
usi
ng a
ccre
dita
tion
as o
ur g
oal,
in th
e en
d se
rved
us
wel
l. W
e fo
und
our
sem
este
r 3 le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
t met
two
of o
ur re
quir
ed N
CA
TE
ass
essm
ents
. T
hese
asse
ssm
ents
indi
cate
d th
at o
ur te
ache
r can
dida
tes
wer
e ab
le to
pla
n, te
ach,
and
eva
luat
ein
stru
ctio
n an
d ha
ve a
n im
pact
on
K-9
stu
dent
lear
ning
. Dat
a co
llect
ed fr
om o
ur P
rogr
amA
dvis
ory
Boa
rd, a
long
with
ane
cdot
al d
ata
prov
ided
by
our f
ield
sup
ervi
sors
con
firm
edth
at o
ur c
onst
ituen
ts c
onsi
dere
d ou
r pro
gram
to b
e hi
gh q
ualit
y. W
hile
this
ana
lysi
s w
assa
tisfy
ing,
we
still
nee
d to
stu
dy o
ur p
rogr
am in
mor
e de
pth.
We
agai
n tu
rn to
the
exis
ting
liter
atur
e to
hel
p pr
ovid
e us
with
a m
ore
spec
ific
focu
s to
how
we
mig
ht c
on-
tinue
.
Nex
t Ste
ps
In h
er c
ontr
ibut
ion
to S
tudy
ing
Teac
her
Edu
catio
n: th
e R
epor
t of t
he A
ER
A p
anel
on
Res
earc
h an
d Te
ache
r E
duca
tion,
Pam
ela
Gro
ssm
an (2
005)
con
tend
s th
ere
is a
lack
of
atte
ntio
n to
the
peda
gogy
of t
each
er e
duca
tion.
She
arg
ues
that
atte
ntio
n to
how
one
teac
hes
is p
art a
nd p
arce
l of w
hat o
ne te
ache
s. G
ross
man
def
ines
the
peda
gogy
of
teac
her
educ
atio
n br
oadl
y as
incl
udin
g tw
o as
pect
s: c
lass
room
inst
ruct
ion
and
inte
ract
ion,
and
task
s an
d as
sign
men
t. C
lass
room
inst
ruct
ion
and
inte
ract
ion
incl
ude
“all
inte
ract
ions
am
ong
facu
lty,
stu
dent
s, a
nd c
onte
nt d
urin
g cl
ass
tim
e.”
Tas
ks a
ndas
sign
men
ts “
focu
s st
uden
ts’ a
ttent
ion
on p
artic
ular
pro
blem
s of
pra
ctic
e an
d in
trod
uce
them
to w
ays
of re
ason
ing
or p
erfo
rmin
g” (p
. 426
).G
ross
man
(200
5), h
owev
er, d
oes
war
n of
the
dile
mm
a of
rese
arch
on
the
peda
gogy
of te
ache
r edu
catio
n, a
ddre
ssin
g “t
he in
ner r
elat
ions
hip
of a
ny p
artic
ular
ped
agog
y to
the
larg
er c
onte
xt o
f the
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
” (p
. 448
) may
be
prob
lem
atic
bec
ause
itis
har
d to
isol
ate
the
effe
ct o
f any
one
str
ateg
y ac
ross
a te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m.
We
belie
ve th
e st
reng
th o
f our
pro
gram
lies
in th
e fa
ct th
at w
e ha
ve a
com
mon
ped
agog
ical
28S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
stra
tegy
, exp
ress
ed in
spe
cific
task
s an
d as
sign
men
ts a
roun
d le
sson
stu
dy.
Thi
s m
ay o
ffer
an a
ppro
ach
to s
olvi
ng th
is c
onte
xtua
l dile
mm
a. T
he le
sson
stu
dy a
ppro
ach
is p
rogr
am-
wid
e an
d w
ould
ena
ble
us to
exa
min
e its
eff
ects
with
mor
e co
nfid
ence
than
one
cou
ldex
amin
e an
y st
rate
gy u
sed
in o
ne p
artic
ular
met
hods
cla
ss. T
here
fore
, Gro
ssm
an’s
atte
ntio
n to
task
s an
d as
sign
men
ts p
rovi
des
us w
ith a
pos
sibl
e le
ns fo
r loo
king
at o
urpr
ogra
m.
In c
oncl
usio
n, th
e im
plem
enta
tion
of le
sson
stu
dy a
ssig
nmen
ts a
cros
s m
etho
dsco
urse
s le
ft u
s en
cour
aged
by
the
outc
omes
for o
ur te
ache
r can
dida
tes,
adm
inis
trat
ors,
and
prac
titio
ners
in th
e fie
ld.
We
belie
ve th
at a
band
onin
g ou
r les
s pr
oduc
tive
port
folio
syst
em w
as ju
stif
ied
and
thro
ugh
this
shi
ft w
e w
ere
able
to f
ocus
mor
e de
eply
on
prep
arin
g In
quir
er P
rofe
ssio
nals
than
pre
pari
ng p
ortf
olio
s. T
his
does
not
pre
clud
e fu
ture
requ
irem
ents
of a
por
tfol
io o
f les
son
stud
y ar
tifac
ts a
cros
s th
e pr
ogra
m.
We
see
poss
ibili
ties
for t
each
er c
andi
date
s be
com
ing
refo
rm-m
inde
d te
ache
rs a
s th
eyfo
cus
on s
tude
nt le
arni
ng a
nd k
eep
a cr
itica
l eye
on
thei
r tea
chin
g. A
dditi
onal
ly, o
urca
ndid
ates
’ abi
lity
to p
lan
for
and
impa
ct K
-9 s
tude
nt le
arni
ng w
as c
onfi
rmed
by
Ass
ocia
tion
for C
hild
hood
Edu
catio
n In
tern
atio
nal a
ppro
val,
as p
art o
f our
rece
ntN
CA
TE
revi
ew u
sing
sem
este
r 3 le
sson
stu
dy d
ata.
We
have
gro
wn
toge
ther
as
we
stru
ggle
d w
ith th
e co
mpl
exity
of i
mpl
emen
ting
our v
isio
n an
d fe
el g
reat
pro
fess
iona
lsa
tisfa
ctio
n an
d gr
owth
from
our
col
legi
al e
ffor
ts to
inco
rpor
ate
less
on s
tudy
thro
ugho
utou
r und
ergr
adua
te p
rogr
am. D
ata
sugg
ests
our
teac
her c
andi
date
s’ h
ave
resp
onde
dpo
sitiv
ely.
We
are
exci
ted
as w
e co
nsid
er th
e ne
xt s
tage
of o
ur re
sear
ch.
Refe
ren
ces
Ack
off,
R. (
1999
). A
ckof
f’s
best
. New
Yor
k: J
ohn
Wile
y an
d So
ns.
Alle
n, D
., &
Bly
the,
T. (
2004
). Fa
cilit
ator
’s b
ook
of q
uest
ions
: Too
ls fo
r lo
okin
g to
geth
erat
stu
dent
and
teac
her
wor
k. N
ew Y
ork:
Tea
cher
s C
olle
ge P
ress
.A
ram
s, R
., &
Bra
dsha
w, B
. (20
01).
How
do
child
ren
know
wha
t the
y kn
ow?
Scie
nce
and
Chi
ldre
n, 3
9(2)
, 29-
33.
Are
nds,
R. I
. (20
06).
Lear
ning
to te
ach
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). N
ew Y
ork:
McG
raw
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.C
hapi
n, S
., &
Joh
nson
, A. (
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). M
ath
mat
ters
: und
erst
andi
ng th
e m
ath
you
teac
hgr
ades
K-6
. Sau
salit
o, C
A: M
ath
Solu
tions
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licat
ions
.C
ochr
an-S
mith
, M.,
& L
ytle
, S. (
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). In
side
out
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earc
h an
d kn
owle
dge.
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each
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.C
ochr
an-S
mith
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eich
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udyi
ng te
ache
r ed
ucat
ion:
The
rep
ort o
fth
e A
ER
A p
anel
on
rese
arch
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teac
her
educ
atio
n. M
ahw
ah, N
ew J
erse
y:A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
n R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion.
Del
ands
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& A
rens
, S. A
. (20
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Exa
min
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the
qual
ity o
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evi
denc
e in
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
r por
tfol
ios.
Jou
rnal
of T
each
er E
duca
tion,
54(
1), 5
7-73
.E
cono
mop
oulo
s, K
., E
ston
, R.,
Goo
drow
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ros,
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ray,
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Rus
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., &
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). In
vest
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umbe
r, da
ta, a
nd s
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ark,
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lliot
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nter
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n E
lliot
, 6 D
ecem
ber 2
002.
Edu
catio
nal A
ctio
nR
esea
rch,
11(
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69-1
80.
Feim
an-N
emse
r, S.
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1). F
rom
pre
para
tion
to p
ract
ice:
Des
igni
ng a
con
tinuu
m to
stre
ngth
en a
nd s
usta
in te
achi
ng. T
each
ers
Col
lege
Rec
ord,
103
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1013
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5.
29S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Fern
ande
z, C
., &
Yos
hida
, M. (
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). Le
sson
stu
dy: A
Jap
anes
e ap
proa
ch to
impr
ovin
gm
athe
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ics
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renc
e E
arlb
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her
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atio
n: r
epor
t on
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AE
RA
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ache
r ed
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., &
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rnin
g to
lear
n to
teac
h: a
n ex
peri
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tal
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el f
or te
achi
ng a
nd te
ache
r pr
epar
atio
n in
mat
hem
atic
s. J
ourn
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fM
athe
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ics
Teac
her
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ion
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arch
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ngs
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lts. S
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.L
eslie
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aldw
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duca
ting
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ol te
ache
rs: E
xecu
tive
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ashi
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n, D
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catio
n Sc
hool
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ojec
t.L
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esso
n st
udy:
A h
andb
ook
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ache
r-le
d in
stru
ctio
nal c
hang
e.P
hila
delp
hia,
PA
: Res
earc
h fo
r Bet
ter S
choo
ls, I
nc.
Lew
is, C
., P
erry
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& M
urat
a, A
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06).
How
sho
uld
rese
arch
con
trib
ute
toin
stru
ctio
nal i
mpr
ovem
ent?
A c
ase
stud
y of
less
on s
tudy
. Edu
cati
onal
Res
earc
her,
35(3
), 2-
14.
Lew
is, C
., &
Tsu
chid
a, I.
(199
8). A
less
on is
like
a s
wif
tly fl
owin
g riv
er: H
ow re
sear
chle
sson
s im
prov
e Ja
pane
se e
duca
tion
. Am
eric
an E
duca
tor
(Win
ter)
, 14-
17,
50-5
2.M
a, L
. (19
99).
Kno
win
g an
d te
achi
ng e
lem
enta
ry m
athe
mat
ics:
teac
hers
’ und
erst
andi
ngof
fund
amen
tal m
athe
mat
ics
in C
hina
and
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es. M
ahw
ah, N
J:L
awre
nce
Erl
baum
.M
cLau
ghin
, M. W
., &
Mitr
a, D
. (20
01).
The
ory-
base
d ch
ange
and
cha
nge-
base
d th
eory
:G
oing
dee
per,
goin
g br
oade
r. Jo
urna
l of E
duca
tiona
l Cha
nge,
2(3
01-3
23).
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for A
ccre
dita
tion
of T
each
er E
duca
tion.
(200
6). P
rofe
ssio
nal s
tand
ards
for
the
accr
edit
atio
n of
sch
ools
, col
lege
s, a
nd d
epar
tmen
ts o
f edu
cati
on.
Was
hing
ton,
DC
: Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for t
he A
ccre
dita
tion
of T
each
er E
duca
tion.
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for S
ocia
l Stu
dies
. (19
94).
Cur
ricu
lum
sta
ndar
ds fo
r so
cial
stu
dies
.W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C: N
atio
nal C
ounc
il fo
r Soc
ial S
tudi
es.
Nat
iona
l Res
earc
h C
ounc
il. (1
996)
. Nat
iona
l sci
ence
edu
catio
n st
anda
rds.
Was
hing
ton
D.C
.: N
atio
nal A
cade
my
Pres
s.O
woc
ki, G
., &
Goo
dman
, Y. M
. (20
02).
Kid
wat
chin
g. P
orts
mou
th, N
H: H
eine
man
.R
eeve
, R.,
Pelle
tier,
J., &
Mor
ley,
E. (
2003
). Le
sson
stu
dy a
t the
Inst
itute
of C
hild
Stu
dyLa
bora
tory
Sch
ool:
Pre
-ser
vice
and
in-s
ervi
ce te
ache
r co
llabo
ratio
n. P
aper
pres
ente
d at
the
Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n, C
hica
go, I
L.
Shul
man
, L. (
1986
). T
hose
who
und
erst
and:
Kno
wle
dge
grow
th in
teac
hing
. Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
her,
15(2
), 4-
14.
Stig
ler,
J., &
Hie
bert
, J. (
1999
). Th
e te
achi
ng g
ap: B
est i
deas
from
the
wor
ld’s
teac
hers
for
impr
ovin
g ed
ucat
ion
in th
e cl
assr
oom
. New
Yor
k: F
ree
Pres
s.Ta
kaha
shi,
A.,
& Y
oshi
da, M
. (20
04).
Idea
s fo
r est
ablis
hing
less
on-s
tudy
com
mun
ities
.Te
achi
ng C
hild
ren
Mat
hem
atic
s, 1
0(9)
, 436
-444
.Ta
ylor
, A.,
And
erso
n, S
., M
eyer
, K.,
Wag
ner,
M. K
., &
Wes
t, C
. (20
05).
Les
son
stud
y: A
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t mod
el fo
r mat
hem
atic
s re
form
. Rur
al E
duca
tor,
26(2
),17
-22.
30S
ha
pin
g P
ed
ag
og
y W
ith
Le
sso
n S
tud
y
Tuch
er, P
., Pe
rry,
R.,
& L
ewis
, C. (
2003
, Apr
il). L
esso
n st
udy
in p
rese
rvic
e ed
ucat
ion,
Mil
ls C
olle
ge. P
aper
pre
sent
ed a
t the
Am
eric
an E
duca
tion
al R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion,
Chi
cago
, IL
.W
alke
r, B
. J. (
2004
). D
iagn
ostic
teac
hing
of r
eadi
ng. U
pper
Sad
dle
Riv
er, N
J: M
erri
llPr
entic
e H
all.
Zei
chne
r, K
., &
Nof
fke,
S. (
2001
). P
ract
itio
ner
rese
arch
. In
V. R
icha
rdso
n (E
d.),
Han
dboo
k of
res
earc
h on
teac
hing
(pp.
298
-330
). W
ashi
ngto
n D
C: A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion.
Aut
hor
Bio
grap
hies
Ann
Tay
lor,
Ph.D
., is
Ass
ocia
te P
rofe
ssor
of E
duca
tion
at S
outh
ern
Illin
ois
Uni
vers
ity E
dwar
dsvi
lle.
Her
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clud
e te
ache
r pro
fess
iona
lde
velo
pmen
t, m
athe
mat
ics
educ
atio
n, a
nd a
ctio
n re
sear
ch.
E-m
ail:
atay
lor@
siue
.edu
.
Susa
n E
. B
reck
, Ph.
D.,
is A
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or a
t Sou
ther
n Il
linoi
s U
nive
rsity
Edw
ards
ville
. Her
rese
arch
are
as a
re s
ocia
l stu
dies
and
mid
dle-
leve
l edu
catio
n.E
-mai
l: sb
reck
@si
ue.e
du.
Bar
bara
D. O
’Don
nell,
Ed.
D.,
is A
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or o
f Edu
catio
n at
Sou
ther
nIl
linoi
s U
nive
rsity
Edw
ards
ville
in E
dwar
dsvi
lle, I
llino
is. H
er re
sear
ch in
tere
sts
in m
athe
mat
ics
educ
atio
n in
clud
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
nd in
stru
ctio
nal d
isco
urse
.E
-mai
l: bo
donn
e@si
ue.e
du.
Step
hen
Mar
lette
, Ph.
D.,
is A
ssis
tant
Pro
fess
or o
f Edu
catio
n at
Sou
ther
n Il
linoi
sU
nive
rsit
y E
dwar
dsvi
lle.
His
res
earc
h in
sci
ence
edu
cati
on i
s in
the
impl
emen
tati
on o
f re
form
-bas
ed id
eas
and
the
use
of in
form
al le
arni
ngen
viro
nmen
ts. E
mai
l: sm
arle
t@si
ue.e
du.
Jenn
ifer
A. B
olan
der,
Ed.
D.,
is A
ssis
tant
Pro
fess
or o
f Cur
ricu
lum
and
Inst
ruct
ion
at S
outh
ern
Illin
ois
Uni
vers
ity E
dwar
dsvi
lle. H
er re
sear
ch in
tere
sts
incl
ude
liter
acy
and
begi
nnin
g te
ache
r ind
uctio
n an
d m
ento
ring
.E
-mai
l: je
bola
n@si
ue.e
du.
Step
hani
e L
. McA
ndre
ws,
Ph.
D.,
is A
ssoc
iate
Pro
fess
or in
Lite
racy
at S
outh
ern
Illin
ois
Uni
vers
ity E
dwar
dsvi
lle, i
n E
dwar
dsvi
lle, I
llino
is.
Her
rese
arch
inte
rest
sin
clud
e de
velo
ping
lite
racy
lead
ers,
lite
racy
ass
essm
ent,
and
clin
ical
pra
ctic
e fo
rK
-12.
E-m
ail:
smca
ndr@
siue
.edu
.
Glo
ria
Rea
ding
, Ed.
D.,
is A
ssis
tant
Pro
fess
or o
f Edu
catio
n at
Sou
ther
n Il
linoi
sU
nive
rsity
Edw
ards
ville
in E
dwar
dsvi
lle, I
llino
is.
Her
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clud
em
ultic
ultu
ral c
hild
ren’
s lit
erat
ure
with
a M
iddl
e E
ast f
ocus
.E
-mai
l: gr
eadi
n@si
ue.e
du.
“Bet
wee
n a
Roc
k an
d a
Har
d P
lace
”:A
Sec
ond-
Yea
r Te
ache
r’s
Exp
erie
nce
Wri
ting
Rep
ort C
ards
Jenn
ifer
Tut
enH
unte
r Col
lege
Abs
trac
t
Thi
s ar
ticle
doc
umen
ts th
e re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
s of
an
earl
y ca
reer
urb
anfo
urth
-gra
de te
ache
r. H
er a
ccou
nt a
nd re
flec
tions
upo
n th
e re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
sar
e in
terw
oven
with
a c
ritic
al d
isco
urse
ana
lysi
s of
repo
rt fo
rm s
he c
ompl
etes
alo
ng w
ithhe
r nar
rativ
e co
mm
ents
. Re-
cons
ider
ing
this
“ta
ken
for g
rant
ed”
aspe
ct o
f tea
chin
gill
umin
ates
the
ever
yday
real
ity o
f tea
chin
g in
an
era
of in
crea
sing
acc
ount
abili
ty.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
3
1
32W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
Elle
n M
artin
,* a
four
th-g
rade
teac
her i
n an
urb
an s
choo
l, re
coun
ts a
dile
mm
a in
com
plet
ing
a re
port
car
d fo
r one
of h
er s
tude
nts:
One
of t
he c
hild
ren
was
hav
ing
a ha
rd ti
me
that
yea
r and
his
gra
des
real
ly w
ent
dow
n si
gnifi
cant
ly b
ut n
ot s
o m
uch
that
he
was
in fa
iling
sta
tus.
But
the
prin
cipa
lth
ough
t tha
t he
wou
ld n
eed
to h
ave
anot
her y
ear i
n or
der f
or h
im to
be
able
to s
tay
inth
e sc
hool
, he’
d ha
ve to
do
four
th g
rade
ove
r aga
in. S
o ac
tual
ly s
he d
id c
hang
e m
ygr
ades
so
that
they
wer
e fa
iling
so
that
we
coul
d ho
ld th
e ch
ild o
ver.
The
mot
her w
aski
nd o
f ups
et. B
ut I
kind
of m
ade
a co
mm
itmen
t to
mys
elf.
I’m
not
goi
ng to
ow
n th
isan
d I j
ust r
efer
red
her t
o th
e pr
inci
pal [
Ms.
Wal
sh].
I w
as v
ery—
I kne
w th
at it
was
wro
ng a
nd I
was
n’t g
oing
to s
ay th
at th
e pr
inci
pal w
as w
rong
. But
, I s
aid,
“Pl
ease
talk
to M
s. W
alsh
* ab
out t
his.
I ca
n sh
ow y
ou m
y re
cord
s if
you
wou
ld li
ke to
see
them
.” T
hat w
as a
rock
and
a h
ard
plac
e.
For M
s. M
artin
* an
d m
any
othe
r tea
cher
s, th
e pr
oces
s of
wri
ting
repo
rt c
ards
is fi
lled
wit
h pe
rson
al a
nd p
hilo
soph
ical
qua
ndar
ies.
Lyo
ns (
1990
) ex
plor
ed th
e ty
pes
ofdi
lem
mas
teac
hers
enc
ount
er a
s th
ey w
ork
with
stu
dent
s. T
hese
dile
mm
as a
rise
from
“thi
s pa
rtic
ular
set
of e
lem
ents
—of
sel
f, re
latio
nshi
ps, c
raft
, one
’s v
alue
s an
d on
e’s
stan
ce to
war
ds k
now
ledg
e…”
(p. 1
67).
Tea
cher
s m
ay e
xper
ienc
e th
ese
dile
mm
as in
the
grad
ing
and
subs
eque
nt re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
ses,
as
they
bal
ance
thei
r kno
wle
dge
ofst
uden
ts a
s in
divi
dual
s w
ith w
hom
they
hav
e de
velo
ped
cari
ng re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd in
rela
tion
to th
e cu
rric
ulum
, aga
inst
thei
r aw
aren
ess
of th
e au
dien
ces
for r
epor
t car
ds,
nam
ely,
fam
ilies
and
the
scho
ol a
dmin
istr
atio
n. M
s. M
artin
face
d su
ch a
dile
mm
a w
hen
she
foun
d he
r gra
des
chan
ged
by h
er s
uper
viso
r. S
he w
as to
rn b
etw
een
her p
rofe
ssio
nal
know
ledg
e of
her
stu
dent
, her
resp
onsi
bilit
y to
the
stud
ent’s
fam
ily, a
nd h
er jo
b.N
oddi
ngs
(198
4) d
escr
ibed
gra
ding
as
an in
trus
ion
upon
the
cari
ng re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
nte
ache
r an
d st
uden
t, co
nten
ding
, “T
he te
ache
r is
torn
bet
wee
n ob
liga
tion
to th
eem
ploy
ing
com
mun
ity a
nd fa
ithfu
lnes
s to
the
stud
ent”
(pp.
193
-194
).M
s. M
artin
’s s
tory
illu
min
ates
the
tens
ions
freq
uent
ly fa
ced
by e
arly
car
eer t
each
ers
as th
ey c
ompl
ete
repo
rt c
ards
. Whi
le re
port
car
d w
ritin
g m
ay a
ppea
r to
play
a m
inor
role
in a
teac
her’
s pr
ofes
sion
al li
fe, i
t doe
s em
body
the
com
plex
ity o
f tea
chin
g. R
epor
t car
dsca
n be
vie
wed
as
a te
xtua
l int
erse
ctio
n—a
wri
tten
expr
essi
on o
f a re
latio
nshi
p—am
ong
teac
her,
fam
ily, s
tude
nt, a
nd s
choo
l. In
com
plet
ing
repo
rt c
ards
, tea
cher
s ne
gotia
te th
eem
bodi
ed in
ters
ectio
ns o
f acc
ount
abili
ty, f
amily
, and
pro
fess
iona
l exp
ertis
e.In
this
art
icle
, I e
xplo
re th
e re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
s of
an
earl
y ca
reer
urb
anfo
urth
-gra
de te
ache
r. T
hrou
gh in
terw
eavi
ng h
er a
ccou
nt a
nd r
efle
ctio
ns u
pon
the
repo
rt-
card
wri
ting
proc
ess
with
an
anal
ysis
of t
he fo
rm s
he c
ompl
etes
, I p
robl
emat
ize
this
“ta
ken
for g
rant
ed”
aspe
ct o
f tea
chin
g. M
s. M
artin
’s s
tory
illu
min
ates
the
ever
yday
real
ity o
f tea
chin
g in
an
era
of in
crea
sing
acc
ount
abili
ty. I
t is
a st
ory
impo
rtan
t to
con-
side
r as
we
deve
lop
our t
each
er p
repa
ratio
n pr
ogra
ms
and
wor
k w
ith in
-ser
vice
teac
hers
.
Res
earc
h an
d T
heor
etic
al F
ram
ewor
kTe
ache
rs a
nd R
epor
t Car
dsW
hile
repo
rt c
ards
are
a fi
xtur
e on
the
educ
atio
nal l
ands
cape
(Gur
skey
, 199
6), t
here
is li
ttle
rece
nt re
sear
ch th
at a
ddre
sses
teac
hers
’ exp
erie
nces
and
per
cept
ions
of t
his
aspe
ct
*All
nam
es a
nd id
entif
ying
info
rmat
ion
have
bee
n ch
ange
d. Q
uota
tions
wer
e ta
ken
from
tape
-re
cord
ed a
nd tr
ansc
ribe
d in
terv
iew
s an
d ar
e re
port
ed v
erba
tim.
33W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
of th
eir p
rofe
ssio
nal l
ife.
Tw
o st
udie
s de
scri
bed
the
chal
leng
es e
xper
ienc
ed b
y te
ache
r,no
vice
and
vet
eran
, whi
le w
ritin
g re
port
car
ds. D
espi
te c
ompl
etin
g an
ass
essm
ent c
ours
e,pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
inte
rvie
wed
by
Lom
ax (1
996)
felt
unpr
epar
ed fo
r the
diff
icul
ties
ofgr
adin
g an
d re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g. W
hile
they
had
lear
ned
abou
t diff
eren
t way
s to
ass
ess
stud
ents
, the
y di
d no
t ant
icip
ate
the
diff
icul
ties
of d
ecis
ion-
mak
ing
abou
t gra
des
and
com
men
ts, a
nd th
ey re
port
ed g
reat
anx
iety
abo
ut fa
mily
reac
tion.
Vet
eran
ele
men
tary
leve
l tea
cher
s al
so fi
nd w
ritin
g re
port
car
ds c
halle
ngin
g. In
a s
tudy
of r
eadi
ng te
ache
rs,
Aff
erbl
ach
and
John
ston
(199
3) d
escr
ibed
con
flic
ts b
etw
een
wha
t the
y kn
ew a
nd v
alue
din
thei
r tea
chin
g an
d th
e sy
stem
and
str
uctu
re o
f the
repo
rt c
ards
they
wer
e re
quir
ed to
com
plet
e. T
he a
utho
rs c
oncl
uded
, “W
e di
d no
t ant
icip
ate
how
str
essf
ul te
ache
rs w
ould
find
the
repo
rt-w
ritin
g pr
oces
s or
how
sev
erel
y th
e pr
oces
s w
ould
be
affe
cted
by
the
cons
trai
nts
unde
r whi
ch te
ache
rs w
orke
d” (p
. 85)
.
Rep
ort C
ards
as
Scho
ol D
isco
urse
One
pos
sibl
e re
ason
for t
he s
tres
sful
nat
ure
of re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g m
ay b
e th
eir
offic
ial s
tatu
s in
sch
ools
(Aff
lerb
ach
& J
ohns
ton,
199
3; G
ursk
ey, 1
996)
. A
s fo
rmal
docu
men
ts, t
hey
embo
dy w
hat c
ount
s in
sch
ool.
Thi
s “s
choo
l kno
wle
dge,
” as
des
crib
edby
Luk
e an
d L
uke
(199
5), i
s “k
now
ledg
e an
d pr
actic
e di
scur
sive
ly c
onst
ruct
ed a
ndac
hiev
ed in
the
clas
sroo
m s
ite”
(p. 3
69).
Tea
cher
s w
rite
repo
rt c
ards
for m
ultip
leau
dien
ces;
onc
e a
repo
rt c
ard
leav
es it
s “a
utho
r,” it
is fr
eque
ntly
use
d fo
r mul
tiple
func
tions
.E
duca
tiona
l doc
umen
ts, s
uch
as s
choo
l bro
chur
es, l
ette
rs, c
ompa
cts,
and
repo
rtca
rds,
can
be
seen
as
disc
ours
es th
at c
onst
ruct
iden
titie
s of
fam
ilies
, stu
dent
s, a
nd s
choo
lpe
rson
nel,
and
posi
tion
part
icip
ants
. Keo
gh (1
996)
arg
ued
that
thro
ugh
lette
rs a
ndbr
ochu
res
the
scho
ol d
isco
urse
com
pete
d w
ith fa
mili
es fo
r con
trol
in th
e ho
me.
Keo
ghsa
ys, “
Fro
m a
naly
sis
of v
ario
us ty
pes
of h
ome-
scho
ol c
omm
unic
atio
ns, i
t see
ms
reas
onab
le to
vie
w s
choo
ls a
s ag
enci
es o
f reg
ulat
ion
and
cont
rol o
ver h
omes
” (p
. 456
).Si
mila
rly,
Nak
agaw
a (2
000)
foun
d th
e of
ficia
l dis
cour
se in
sch
ool c
ompa
cts
esta
blis
hed
an “
idea
lized
par
ent.”
She
sta
ted,
“U
ltim
atel
y, th
e di
scou
rse
not o
nly
repr
esen
ts p
aren
tsto
oth
ers
but a
lso
repr
esen
ts p
aren
ts to
them
selv
es”
(p. 4
66).
A fa
mily
mem
ber w
hore
ads
abou
t her
chi
ld’s
sho
rtco
min
gs, f
or e
xam
ple,
may
feel
the
teac
her v
iew
s he
r as
anin
adeq
uate
par
ent o
r gua
rdia
n, p
artic
ular
ly if
the
teac
her a
dvis
es c
lose
r sup
ervi
sion
of
hom
ewor
k or
oth
er re
spon
sibi
litie
s.T
he p
rese
nt s
tudy
, thr
ough
its
docu
men
tatio
n an
d an
alys
is o
f a te
ache
r’s
repo
rt c
ards
and
repo
rt-c
ard
wri
ting
proc
ess,
inve
stig
ates
the
scho
ol d
isco
urse
that
as
Keo
gh (1
996)
stat
es, r
epre
sent
s st
uden
ts to
oth
ers
and
them
selv
es, a
s w
ell a
s th
e ex
pert
dis
cour
se th
atdi
rect
s w
hat t
he te
ache
r can
say
, bot
h em
bodi
ed in
the
repo
rt c
ard
form
. T
he re
sult
is a
n“i
deal
ized
” st
uden
t and
an
“ide
aliz
ed”
fam
ily, a
s w
ell a
s pe
rhap
s, a
n “i
deal
ized
” te
ache
r.T
his
stud
y as
sum
es it
is im
port
ant t
o he
ar fr
om te
ache
rs fi
rst-
hand
. Fur
ther
mor
e,ap
art f
rom
Com
ber
(199
6), t
he d
isco
urse
of
repo
rt c
ards
has
not
bee
n co
nsid
ered
inco
njun
ctio
n w
ith te
ache
rs’ e
xper
ienc
e. R
epor
t car
ds a
re te
xts
that
mak
e cl
aim
s to
“rep
rese
nt”
the
achi
evem
ent o
f ch
ildr
en.
How
doe
s a
teac
her
inte
ract
wit
h th
atdi
scou
rse?
Cri
tical
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis
prov
ides
an
anal
ytic
lens
to fi
gure
out
and
dis
cove
rth
e co
mpl
exity
of t
hat r
epre
sent
atio
n fo
r the
teac
her.
Cri
tical
Dis
cour
se A
naly
sis
as a
The
oret
ical
Len
s an
d M
etho
dolo
gy
Cri
tical
Dis
cour
se A
naly
sis
(CD
A) w
as th
e th
eore
tical
and
met
hodo
logi
cal p
ersp
ec-
tive
info
rmin
g th
e st
udy
desi
gn o
f (Fa
ircl
ough
, 198
9; G
ee, 1
999;
Rog
ers,
200
2).
Rog
ers
(200
4) p
rovi
des
a us
eful
fram
ewor
k fo
r exp
lain
ing
CD
A fr
om a
rese
arch
per
-sp
ectiv
e. T
he “
criti
cal”
in C
DA
, as
she
wri
tes,
refe
rs to
the
anal
yst’s
goa
l to
desc
ribe
and
inte
rpre
t th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e fo
rm o
f lan
guag
e an
d its
func
tion,
with
an
atte
mpt
to e
xplo
re w
hy a
nd h
ow c
erta
in fo
rms
and
func
tions
of l
angu
age
are
priv
ilege
d ov
erot
hers
(Rog
ers,
200
4, p
. 4).
The
“di
scou
rse”
in C
DA
is n
ot a
n is
olat
ed p
rodu
ct, b
ut is
an
expr
essi
on o
f soc
ially
con
stru
cted
and
soc
ially
con
stru
ctin
g re
pres
enta
tions
of “
the
wor
ld, s
ocia
l ide
ntiti
es, a
nd s
ocia
l rel
atio
nshi
ps”
(Luk
e, 2
001,
p. 8
). Fi
nally
, the
“an
aly-
sis”
in C
DA
incl
udes
the
met
hodo
logi
cal d
ecis
ions
an
anal
yst m
akes
to “
figu
re o
ut a
ll th
epo
ssib
le c
onfi
gura
tions
bet
wee
n te
xts,
way
s of
repr
esen
ting,
and
way
s of
bei
ng, a
nd to
look
for a
nd d
isco
ver t
he re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
text
s an
d w
ays
of b
eing
and
why
cer
tain
peop
le ta
ke u
p ce
rtai
n po
sitio
ns v
is-à
-vis
situ
ated
use
of l
angu
age”
(Rog
ers,
200
4, p
. 7).
CD
A, a
s L
uke
(199
5) a
rgue
d, is
a p
ower
ful t
ool t
o ex
amin
e ho
w k
now
ledg
e is
cons
truc
ted
thro
ugh
text
s in
inst
itutio
ns a
nd h
ow s
tude
nts
are
repr
esen
ted.
The
repo
rtca
rd d
isco
urse
, the
n, p
rese
nts
wha
t is
“say
able
” an
d “k
now
able
” ab
out a
stu
dent
to a
teac
her,
even
thou
gh te
ache
rs m
ay h
ave
othe
r, “e
xtra
-tex
tual
” di
scou
rse
they
wou
ld li
keto
incl
ude.
The
met
hodo
logy
of t
his
stud
y w
as d
esig
ned
to u
npac
k an
d ex
plor
e re
port
card
dis
cour
se. T
he d
esig
n co
mbi
ned
a na
rrat
ive
case
stu
dy w
ith c
ritic
al d
isco
urse
anal
ysis
(CD
A) o
f bot
h th
e in
terv
iew
tran
scri
pts
and
the
repo
rt c
ards
. Ms.
Mar
tin’s
expe
rien
ce o
f wri
ting
the
repo
rt c
ards
is p
rese
nted
as
a na
rrat
ive,
pri
mar
ily in
her
ow
nw
ords
. The
CD
A a
naly
sis
follo
ws
to p
robe
the
inte
rsec
tions
and
inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f the
disc
ours
e.T
hus,
wha
t fol
low
s is
the
stor
y of
Ms.
Mar
tin a
s sh
e ne
gotia
tes
the
chal
leng
es o
fco
mpl
etin
g re
port
car
ds w
ith a
CD
A le
ns fo
cuse
d up
on th
e re
port
car
d te
xt it
self
and
the
narr
ativ
e co
mm
ents
she
sel
ecte
d an
d co
mpo
sed
to a
dd to
the
num
ber r
atin
gs.
Eac
h of
the
narr
ativ
e co
mm
ents
is d
iscu
ssed
in a
sep
arat
e se
ctio
n.
The
focu
s th
en s
hift
s to
an
anal
ysis
of M
s. M
artin
’s u
nder
stan
ding
s of
her
repo
rt-c
ard
wri
ting
proc
ess.
Con
text
of t
he S
tudy
Was
hing
ton
Scho
ol is
a p
ublic
pre
-kin
derg
arte
n th
roug
h gr
ade
six
elem
enta
rysc
hool
, loc
ated
in o
ne o
f the
poo
rest
are
as o
f a la
rge
nort
heas
tern
city
. T
here
are
755
stud
ents
with
five
cla
sses
per
gra
de le
vel.
Nin
ety-
five
perc
ent o
f the
stu
dent
s ar
e el
igib
lefo
r fre
e lu
nch.
Acc
ordi
ng to
200
2 da
ta fr
om th
e sc
hool
dis
tric
t, 29
.2%
of t
he s
tude
nts
wer
e A
fric
an A
mer
ican
, 69.
3% H
ispa
nic,
and
0.8
% A
sian
and
oth
ers.
Ms.
Mar
tin, 2
5ye
ars
old
and
Eur
opea
n A
mer
ican
, was
a fo
rmer
stu
dent
of t
he re
sear
cher
and
agr
eed
topa
rtic
ipat
e in
the
stud
y. It
was
Ms.
Mar
tin’s
firs
t yea
r at W
ashi
ngto
n Sc
hool
; her
firs
t yea
rof
teac
hing
was
at a
par
ochi
al s
choo
l whi
le s
he a
ttend
ed g
radu
ate
scho
ol.
The
rese
arch
stu
dy w
as a
n in
-dep
th a
sses
smen
t of M
s. M
artin
’s e
xper
ienc
es w
ithre
port
car
ds d
urin
g he
r fir
st y
ear t
each
ing
in a
pub
lic s
choo
l and
an
anal
ysis
of t
he re
port
card
fram
ewor
k an
d la
ngua
ge.
The
Lim
its o
f the
Rep
ort C
ard
Fra
mew
ork:
Num
bers
and
Com
men
ts
Lea
rnin
g th
e R
ules
: “T
here
’s O
nly
1s a
nd 2
s…”
Ms.
Mar
tin fi
rst s
aw th
e re
port
car
d fo
rms
one
wee
k be
fore
she
was
requ
ired
tosu
bmit
them
to h
er p
rinc
ipal
, Ms.
Wal
sh. T
he te
ache
rs a
t Was
hing
ton
Scho
ol re
ceiv
ed th
ere
port
car
ds a
t a s
taff
dev
elop
men
t mee
ting.
The
y al
so re
ceiv
ed a
list
of c
omm
ent s
heet
sth
at h
ad b
een
prev
ious
ly u
sed
for a
n ol
der c
ompu
teri
zed
syst
em. T
each
ers
wer
e di
rect
edto
wri
te a
com
men
t int
o th
e bo
x on
the
four
th p
age:
34W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
35W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
We
had
a m
eetin
g la
st T
uesd
ay o
n ou
r sta
ff d
evel
opm
ent d
ay, a
nd a
bout
45
min
utes
or s
o w
as d
evot
ed to
repo
rt c
ards
and
oth
er is
sues
rela
ted
to, r
elat
ing
to th
at d
ay, j
ust
kind
of l
ike
prot
ocol
. And
I ra
ised
my
hand
and
sai
d, c
an w
e tr
y to
fit a
s m
any
com
men
ts in
ther
e (l
augh
s) e
ven
thou
gh it
’s n
ot v
ery
big?
And
they
sai
d, n
o, w
ew
ant o
ne c
omm
ent a
nd it
has
to b
e fr
om th
is li
st.
The
repo
rt c
ard
give
n to
Ms.
Mar
tin w
as th
e st
anda
rd e
valu
atio
n fo
rm re
com
men
ded
for
use
in th
e la
rge
urba
n sc
hool
sys
tem
for u
se in
gra
des
thre
e th
roug
h si
x du
ring
the
2003
-20
04 a
cade
mic
yea
r. A
num
eric
sys
tem
is u
sed
on th
e fo
rm :
4—
Exc
eeds
gra
de-l
evel
stan
dard
s; 3
—M
eets
gra
de le
vel s
tand
ards
; 2—
App
roac
hes
grad
e-le
vel s
tand
ards
; 1—
Far b
elow
gra
de-l
evel
sta
ndar
ds. T
he s
ame
syst
em w
as a
lso
used
for t
he fo
urth
-gra
deex
amin
atio
ns th
at th
e st
uden
ts w
ould
take
late
r in
the
year
. Tea
cher
s w
ere
also
inst
ruct
edto
onl
y us
e th
e tw
o lo
wer
end
“nu
mer
ical
indi
cato
rs”
(tha
t is,
“2—
App
roac
hes
grad
e-le
vel s
tand
ards
” an
d “1
—Fa
r bel
ow g
rade
-lev
el s
tand
ards
”) in
ass
essi
ng th
eir s
tude
nts’
prog
ress
. As
Ms.
Mar
tin e
xpla
ined
:
Eve
ryon
e sh
ould
be
appr
oach
ing
the
stan
dard
so
a 3
wou
ld b
e ex
cept
iona
l….T
hem
ajor
ity o
f you
r cla
ss s
houl
d be
hav
ing
lots
of 1
s an
d 2s
and
this
box
on
the
back
side
if th
ere’
s an
y in
klin
g th
at th
ey m
ight
be
stru
gglin
g an
d th
ere’
s on
ly 1
s an
d 2s
,th
en y
ou n
eed
to c
heck
that
, to
be o
n th
e sa
fe s
ide
if th
ere’
s an
y ch
ance
that
the
child
mig
ht n
ot m
eet t
he c
rite
ria,
incl
udin
g th
e te
st s
core
s yo
u ha
ve to
mar
k th
is b
ox ‘
caus
e if
you
don
’t m
ark
it he
re a
nd h
ere
[poi
nts
to th
e tw
o bo
xes
on th
e fo
rm].
Itca
n’t b
e le
gal t
o ho
ld th
e ch
ild o
ver.
Add
ition
ally
, Ms.
Mar
tin’s
col
leag
ues
told
her
not
to g
ive
the
high
est m
ark,
a 4
; “I’
vebe
en w
arne
d th
at if
you
’re
givi
ng 4
s yo
ur re
port
car
ds w
ill p
roba
bly
be g
iven
bac
k to
you
to re
do th
em.”
The
Ide
al S
tude
nt: “
Dem
onst
rate
s E
ffor
t and
Com
plet
es H
omew
ork”
Ms.
Mar
tin in
itial
ly d
irec
ted
her a
ttent
ion
to th
e se
cond
and
thir
d pa
ges
of th
e re
port
card
that
con
tain
ed th
e ev
alua
tion
grid
. The
gri
d w
as o
rgan
ized
by
cont
ent a
rea,
suc
h as
read
ing,
wri
ting,
and
mat
hem
atic
s. B
enea
th e
ach
gene
ral a
rea
wer
e tw
o or
thre
e pe
rfor
-m
ance
indi
cato
rs. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
perf
orm
ance
indi
cato
rs fo
r mat
hem
atic
s w
ere
“Dem
onst
rate
s an
und
erst
andi
ng o
f con
tent
; Com
pute
s w
ith a
ccur
acy
and
effic
ienc
y; a
ndSo
lves
pro
blem
s an
d ex
plai
ns s
olut
ions
and
str
ateg
ies.”
The
teac
her t
hen
inse
rted
anu
mbe
r by
each
per
form
ance
indi
cato
r.T
he id
eal s
tude
nt, c
onst
ruct
ed th
roug
h th
e la
ngua
ge o
f thi
s gr
id, i
s an
inde
pend
ent
acto
r. T
hrou
gh th
e re
petit
ive
use
of in
itial
act
ive
verb
s, th
e id
eal s
tude
nt ta
kes
an a
ctiv
ean
d vi
sibl
e ro
le in
the
lear
ning
pro
cess
. Thi
s le
arni
ng is
mad
e vi
sibl
e th
roug
h th
e cl
uste
rof
nou
ns fo
und
in th
e gr
id. O
ne c
lust
er c
onta
ins
oral
lang
uage
, with
nou
ns s
uch
aslis
teni
ng, s
peak
ing,
dis
cuss
ion,
turn
s, c
onve
rsat
ion,
and
opi
nion
s. L
earn
ing
is m
ade
visi
ble
thro
ugh
wri
ting,
voc
abul
ary,
gra
mm
ar, a
nd s
pelli
ng. M
ore
deve
lope
d sp
ecifi
csan
d co
nten
t of a
ll ac
tivity
, how
ever
, wer
e no
t mad
e vi
sibl
e in
this
con
stru
ctio
n. T
here
wer
e fe
wer
adj
ectiv
es a
nd a
dver
bs th
an v
erbs
and
nou
ns.
Onl
y th
ree
phra
ses
used
adje
ctiv
es to
add
det
ail t
o th
e cl
ause
s: “
Rea
ds in
depe
nden
tly fo
r sus
tain
ed p
erio
ds o
ftim
e.”
“Use
s a
wid
e ra
nge
of v
ocab
ular
y,”
and
“Use
s co
rrec
t gra
mm
ar a
nd s
pelli
ng.”
Yet
,ev
en th
ese
adje
ctiv
es a
re v
ague
and
und
efin
ed.
The
ling
uist
ic c
onst
ruct
ion
of th
e re
port
car
d cr
eate
d co
nstr
aint
s, a
ccor
ding
to M
s.M
artin
. In
a p
revi
ousl
y qu
oted
seg
men
t, sh
e as
ked
at a
sta
ff m
eetin
g if
she
cou
ld “
fit in
”as
man
y co
mm
ents
as
she
coul
d by
wri
ting
smal
l. E
ven
the
phys
ical
layo
ut o
f the
form
impo
ses
cons
trai
nt.
The
teac
her w
as li
mite
d by
the
narr
ow ra
nge
of n
umer
ical
indi
cato
rsth
at w
ere
“allo
wed
” as
wel
l as
by th
e re
quir
emen
ts o
f one
pre
wri
tten
com
men
t. T
helim
ited
num
ber o
f the
lear
ning
beh
avio
rs c
onst
rict
ed h
er a
bilit
y to
fully
add
ress
the
curr
icul
um s
he ta
ught
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, M
s. M
artin
was
con
cern
ed a
bout
the
indi
cato
r“S
how
s ev
iden
ce o
f und
erst
andi
ng te
xt.”
She
sta
ted,
“T
hat’s
all
they
’re
sayi
ng a
bout
read
ing
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd th
at’s
suc
h a
huge
blo
ck o
f our
day
.” A
dditi
onal
ly th
eco
mbi
ning
of t
wo
inde
pend
ent p
hras
es in
sev
eral
of t
he le
arni
ng in
dica
tors
mad
e it
diff
icul
t for
her
to a
ccur
atel
y co
mm
unic
ate
her e
valu
atio
n of
stu
dent
s (T
able
1).
She
stat
ed:
I fel
t tha
t “D
emon
stra
tes
effo
rt a
nd c
ompl
etes
hom
ewor
k”…
sho
uldn
’t ha
ve b
een
coup
led
toge
ther
bec
ause
ther
e ar
e a
lot o
f kid
s th
at I
know
and
wor
king
with
the
fam
ilies
and
wor
king
with
them
that
a lo
t of t
hem
, for
pra
ctic
al re
ason
s ha
ve a
lot o
fdi
ffic
ulty
com
plet
ing
the
hom
ewor
k at
nig
ht a
nd s
omet
imes
it d
oesn
’t n
eces
sari
lym
ean
that
they
’re
not d
emon
stra
ting
effo
rt.
Thu
s, in
stea
d of
faci
litat
ing
a m
ore
nuan
ced
or d
escr
iptiv
e ev
alua
tion,
the
lang
uage
of t
here
port
car
d its
elf c
reat
ed p
robl
ems.
Whi
le s
he w
ould
hav
e lik
ed to
inte
grat
e he
r und
er-
stan
ding
of a
con
text
wid
er th
an th
e sc
hool
, tha
t of t
he fa
mily
, she
was
lim
ited.
Exa
mple
s of P
hra
ses
on the
Rep
ort
Card
Form
Act
ivity
Phra
se 1
Phra
se 2
Rea
dsal
oud
flue
ntly
with
exp
ress
ion
Wri
tes
inde
pend
ently
on a
var
iety
of t
opic
s
Dem
onst
rate
sef
fort
and
com
plet
es h
omew
ork
Lis
tens
resp
ectf
ully
and
take
s tu
rns
Use
sco
rrec
t gra
mm
aran
d sp
ellin
g
Rea
dsin
depe
nden
tlyfo
r sus
tain
ed p
erio
ds o
f tim
e
Mor
e sp
ecif
ical
ly s
he q
uest
ione
d th
e re
port
car
d la
ngua
ge s
uch
as th
e so
cial
stu
dies
indi
cato
r; “
App
lies
soci
al s
tudi
es s
kills
—I d
on’t
real
ly k
now
wha
t ski
lls th
ey’r
e ta
lkin
gab
out.”
Bec
ause
of h
er u
ncer
tain
ty, s
he d
ecid
ed to
giv
e 2s
to a
ll st
uden
ts “
with
the
exce
ptio
n of
a c
oupl
e of
kid
s w
ho h
aven
’t p
rodu
ced
muc
h or
are
not
par
ticip
atin
g. T
hen
they
are
get
ting
1s.”
The
lang
uage
of t
he re
port
car
d te
xt, a
s pr
evio
usly
not
ed, i
s to
oge
nera
l for
the
teac
her.
She
refe
rs to
the
text
as
“the
y,”
an in
stitu
tiona
lized
bod
y th
atcr
eate
d th
e re
port
car
d te
xt a
t a d
ista
nce
from
her
live
d cl
assr
oom
exp
erie
nce.
The
resu
ltis
her
eva
luat
ion
of s
tude
nt b
ehav
ior b
ased
on
prod
uctio
n an
d pa
rtic
ipat
ion.
Tab
le 1
36W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
37W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
The
“R
eal”
Stu
dent
: “D
isru
pts
the
Cla
ss W
ith P
oor
Beh
avio
r”
Aft
er c
ompl
etin
g th
e pe
rfor
man
ce in
dica
tors
on
page
s tw
o an
d th
ree,
Ms.
Mar
tintu
rned
her
atte
ntio
n to
the
com
men
t sec
tion
on th
e ba
ck p
age
of th
e re
port
car
d. T
hefo
urth
pag
e of
the
form
con
tain
ed b
oxes
for t
he te
ache
r to
incl
ude
com
men
ts. D
urin
g he
rfir
st y
ear o
f tea
chin
g at
a p
aroc
hial
sch
ool,
Ms.
Mar
tin h
ad w
ritte
n fiv
e-to
-sev
en-s
ente
nce
com
men
ts fo
r eac
h st
uden
t. H
ere,
at W
ashi
ngto
n Sc
hool
, she
was
told
to s
elec
t one
com
men
t fro
m a
pre
wri
tten
list.
Her
initi
al im
pres
sion
of t
he li
st w
as th
at “
they
real
lydo
n’t s
ay v
ery
muc
h” a
nd s
he fe
lt th
at th
ey w
ould
com
mun
icat
e ve
ry li
ttle
with
out
addi
tiona
l ela
bora
tion.
She
trie
d to
look
at e
ach
stud
ent i
ndiv
idua
lly b
ut “
foun
d th
atth
ere
wer
e so
me
I was
dra
wn
to o
r dra
wn
away
from
.” S
he e
xpla
ined
:
I tri
ed a
s m
uch
as p
ossi
ble
to fi
nd p
ositi
ve o
nes
but w
ith o
nly
one
com
men
t I d
idn’
tw
ant t
o le
ave
the
impr
essi
on th
at e
very
thin
g’s
okay
. “D
oing
sat
isfa
ctor
y w
ork
but
can
do b
ette
r” I
used
with
a c
oupl
e of
my
kids
who
I th
ink
can
show
impr
ovem
ent
and
I thi
nk m
aybe
I w
ould
wor
d th
at a
littl
e di
ffer
ently
but
I th
ink
that
’s a
mes
sage
I cou
ld w
ant t
o co
nvey
.
Ah,
“D
isru
pts
the
clas
s w
ith p
oor b
ehav
ior”
I ha
ve to
put
bec
ause
I re
ally
wan
ted
that
to b
e w
hat I
was
com
mun
icat
ing
to a
lot o
f par
ents
that
thei
r kid
s w
ere
doin
gth
at. I
thin
k if
I ha
d m
y dr
uthe
rs I’
d be
abl
e to
exp
lain
mor
e ab
out i
t.
Her
e, M
s. M
artin
sha
res
that
she
has
“ex
tra-
text
ual”
info
rmat
ion,
diff
eren
t dis
cour
ses,
she
cou
ld u
se in
talk
ing
abou
t her
stu
dent
s, b
ut s
he fe
els
boxe
d in
by
the
repo
rt c
ard
disc
ours
e.E
ight
y po
tent
ial c
omm
ents
wer
e pr
ovid
ed to
the
teac
her f
or in
sert
ion
into
the
com
men
t box
. O
ut o
f the
80
poss
ible
com
men
ts M
s. M
artin
sel
ecte
d 14
diff
eren
tco
mm
ents
for u
se w
ith 1
9 st
uden
ts.
Mos
t of t
hese
pre
wri
tten
com
men
ts w
ere
brie
f. T
henu
mbe
r of w
ords
per
com
men
t ran
ged
from
thre
e to
eig
ht.
The
re w
ere
six
diff
eren
tco
mm
ents
with
thre
e w
ords
, thr
ee d
iffer
ent c
omm
ents
with
four
wor
ds, a
nd o
ne o
r tw
oco
mm
ents
with
five
to e
ight
wor
ds.
The
focu
s of
the
verb
s w
as o
n st
ate
of b
eing
suc
h as
“is
doi
ng”
or “
can
do. “
The
othe
r foc
us w
as o
n be
havi
or. “
Dis
rupt
s” a
ppea
red
thre
e tim
es. A
s an
ear
ly c
aree
r tea
cher
she
was
par
ticul
arly
con
cern
ed w
ith c
lass
room
man
agem
ent,
Ms.
Mar
tin in
dica
ted
that
itw
as im
port
ant t
o “s
end
a m
essa
ge to
par
ents
.” T
he a
djec
tives
wer
e gr
oupe
d as
pos
itive
eval
uativ
e te
rms;
thes
e in
clud
ed w
ord
such
as
satis
fact
ory,
goo
d, e
xcel
lent
, pos
itive
,gr
eat,
or p
oor.
Beh
avio
r was
the
focu
s of
the
noun
s w
ith—
in a
dditi
on to
the
wor
dbe
havi
or—
wor
ds s
uch
as h
abits
, effo
rt, a
nd in
itiat
ive.
Thr
ee o
f the
14
stat
emen
ts d
id n
otco
ntai
n ve
rbs
but w
ere
desc
ript
ors,
suc
h as
“E
xcel
lent
wor
k ha
bits
.” T
hese
com
men
tsfo
cuse
d on
the
beha
vior
or w
ork
habi
ts o
f the
stu
dent
s. T
hey
did
not e
xten
d th
e ev
alua
-tio
n of
the
stud
ents
’ aca
dem
ic w
ork.
Ms.
Mar
tin a
dded
her
com
men
ts a
fter
she
had
com
plet
ed th
e re
port
car
d w
ith th
enu
mer
ic in
dica
tors
. S
he a
ttend
ed to
the
line
in th
e m
iddl
e of
the
com
men
t box
that
stat
ed, “
Sug
gest
ions
for
par
ents
to s
uppo
rt s
tude
nt’s
ach
ieve
men
t” b
y w
riti
ng th
eco
mm
ent b
enea
th th
e lin
e. F
or th
e 19
repo
rt c
ards
ana
lyze
d, s
he w
rote
16
one-
sent
ence
com
men
ts a
nd th
ree
two-
sent
ence
com
men
ts.
All
19 s
tate
men
ts in
clud
ed th
e st
uden
t’sna
me,
mak
ing
it th
e on
ly p
lace
on
the
repo
rt c
ard
that
dir
ectly
link
ed a
n in
divi
dual
stud
ent w
ith a
par
ticul
ar c
omm
ent o
r ass
essm
ent.
The
ave
rage
leng
th o
f the
sen
tenc
ew
as te
n w
ords
. Tw
elve
of t
he n
inet
een
sent
ence
s be
gan
with
the
stud
ent’s
nam
e fo
l-lo
wed
by
shou
ld; f
or e
xam
ple,
“Su
san
shou
ld p
artic
ipat
e m
ore
in c
lass
dis
cuss
ions
.”
38W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
The
lexi
cal t
erm
s fo
r the
teac
her’
s co
mm
ents
sho
wed
the
verb
s cl
uste
red
arou
nd th
ew
ord
shou
ld a
nd th
en th
e ac
tivity
that
sho
uld
be d
one:
pra
ctic
e, w
ork,
com
plet
e, a
ndpa
rtic
ipat
e. T
he a
ctiv
ities
, the
n, c
ente
red
on b
ehav
ior.
Thi
s em
phas
is o
n sh
ould
shi
fted
resp
onsi
bilit
y fr
om th
e te
ache
r to
the
fam
ilies
and
stu
dent
s. T
he n
ouns
reve
aled
a fo
cus
on th
e pr
oduc
ts in
sch
ool,
such
as
book
s, jo
urna
ls, c
lass
wor
k, a
nd m
ost c
omm
only
,sc
hool
wor
k an
d ho
mew
ork.
The
adj
ectiv
es s
tres
sed
qual
ities
of t
hat w
ork,
wor
ds s
uch
asne
at, o
rgan
ized
, ext
ensi
ve, a
nd e
xcel
lent
.O
nly
one
sent
ence
out
of t
he 2
2 se
nten
ces
foun
d in
the
com
men
t box
add
ed a
nad
ditio
nal a
cade
mic
ass
essm
ent o
f the
stu
dent
; “X
had
exc
elle
nt re
adin
g co
mpr
ehen
sion
skill
s.” M
any
of th
e co
mm
ents
use
d th
e la
ngua
ge o
f the
repo
rt c
ard
text
and
the
teac
her
adde
d sh
ould
to it
(Tab
le 2
). In
two
case
s fa
mili
es w
ere
spec
ific
ally
ask
ed to
read
with
and
to th
eir c
hild
. Fo
r the
rem
aind
er o
f the
com
men
ts, t
he s
ugge
stio
ns “
to s
uppo
rtst
uden
t’s a
chie
vem
ent”
took
the
form
of e
xten
ding
the
teac
her’
s ro
le a
nd a
ctin
g as
a k
ind
of s
urve
illan
ce.
The
teac
her’
s se
lect
ion
of w
ords
and
syn
tax
was
ver
y cl
osel
y al
igne
dw
ith th
e pr
ewri
tten
com
men
ts.
As
Schy
er (1
993)
and
Sm
ith (1
997)
foun
d in
thei
r stu
dies
of g
enre
, Ms.
Mar
tin’s
gen
re k
now
ledg
e in
form
ed d
isco
urse
on
thes
e re
port
car
ds in
term
s of
syn
tax
and
lexi
cal s
elec
tion.
The
lang
uage
of t
he fo
rm d
icta
ted
her d
isco
urse
.M
s. M
artin
dir
ecte
d at
tent
ion
tow
ard
area
s th
at n
eede
d im
prov
emen
t with
out
expl
icitl
y la
belin
g or
cri
ticiz
ing
the
beha
vior
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, a
sta
tem
ent s
uch
as “
Plea
sere
min
d [n
ame
of s
tude
nt] t
o fin
ish
all c
lass
wor
k an
d ho
mew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
” im
plie
d,bu
t did
n’t s
tate
, tha
t the
stu
dent
doe
s no
t suf
ficie
ntly
fini
sh c
lass
wor
k an
d ho
mew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
.B
oth
the
prew
ritte
n co
mm
ents
and
the
teac
her-
gene
rate
d co
mm
ents
focu
sed
upon
the
disc
ours
e of
beh
avio
r. T
he c
ultu
ral m
odel
s th
ese
lexi
cal c
hoic
es ta
pped
wer
e of
aco
mpl
iant
, wel
l-be
have
d st
uden
t. T
his
idea
l stu
dent
follo
ws
rule
s, in
wri
ting
and
inso
cial
set
tings
, and
is p
repa
red
and
prod
uctiv
e.T
he c
omm
ent s
ectio
n, th
en, b
ecam
e a
plac
e w
here
a s
ingl
e m
essa
ge w
as c
onve
yed.
As
prev
ious
ly d
escr
ibed
in th
e lin
guis
tic s
ectio
n of
this
ana
lysi
s, th
e m
essa
ges
the
teac
her
sele
cted
con
cern
ed b
ehav
iora
l iss
ues.
Thi
s ex
cerp
t als
o sh
ows
the
teac
her’
s co
ncer
n fo
rth
e po
tent
ial f
amily
and
stu
dent
read
ers
of th
e re
port
car
d, a
s sh
e st
ated
, “I d
idn’
t wan
t to
leav
e th
e im
pres
sion
….”
Con
cern
abo
ut th
e re
adin
g of
the
repo
rt c
ard
was
dem
on-
stra
ted,
too,
by
the
scho
ol p
olic
y th
at c
ontr
olle
d th
e di
stri
butio
n of
repo
rt c
ards
. At
Was
hing
ton
Scho
ol re
port
car
ds w
ere
dist
ribu
ted,
read
, and
col
lect
ed a
t the
fam
ily-
teac
her c
onfe
renc
e ev
enin
g:
Wha
t she
[the
pri
ncip
al] k
eeps
say
ing
over
and
ove
r aga
in is
hav
e th
em s
ign
it on
the
spot
and
leav
e th
e re
port
car
d th
ere
beca
use
it’s
alw
ays
so h
ard
to g
et th
e re
port
car
dsto
com
e ba
ck in
. The
y ca
n’t s
ign
it an
d m
ake
a ph
otoc
opy
so it
’s a
big
pro
blem
for t
hem
.
The
con
fere
nce
setti
ng, t
hen,
bec
ame
the
cont
ext f
or th
e fa
mili
es’ r
eadi
ng o
f the
repo
rt c
ard.
Ms.
Mar
tin re
port
ed th
at s
tude
nts
had
not m
entio
ned
the
repo
rt c
ards
at a
ll in
clas
s.
From
her
per
spec
tive,
the
repo
rt c
ards
see
med
to h
ave
little
impa
ct o
n th
em.
The
re m
ay b
e se
vera
l rea
sons
for t
his.
It m
ay b
e th
e lim
ited
feed
back
the
repo
rt c
ards
prov
ided
stu
dent
s. B
ecau
se th
e fa
mily
was
not
abl
e to
take
the
repo
rt c
ards
hom
e, o
nly
stud
ents
who
acc
ompa
nied
thei
r fam
ily a
ctua
lly s
aw th
e re
port
car
ds.
Stud
ents
may
resi
st o
r dis
mis
s th
e re
port
car
d di
scou
rse.
Fin
ally
, the
four
th g
rade
was
a c
ritic
al te
stin
gye
ar. G
reat
er e
mph
asis
was
pla
ced
on th
e sc
ores
of a
Jan
uary
Eng
lish
Lan
guag
e A
rts
test
and
an A
pril
Mat
h te
st, w
hich
wer
e to
be
the
dete
rmin
ants
of p
rom
otio
n to
the
fifth
gra
de.
39W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
Tab
le 2
Com
pari
son o
f R
eport
Card
Tex
t and T
each
er-G
ener
ate
d C
om
men
ts
Rep
ort c
ard
phra
ses
Teac
her-
gene
rate
d co
mm
ents
Rea
d to
you
r chi
ld (p
.1)
Rea
d to
___
for a
t lea
st 3
0 m
inut
es d
aily
in a
dditi
on to
hom
ewor
k.C
ontin
ue re
adin
g w
ith _
__ d
aily
.
Use
s co
rrec
t gra
mm
ar a
nd s
pelli
ng (p
.2)
___
shou
ld p
ract
ice
follo
win
g gr
amm
aran
d sp
ellin
g ru
les
whi
le w
ritin
g.
Wri
tes
inde
pend
ently
on
a va
riet
y of
topi
cs (p
.2)
___
shou
ld p
ract
ice
wri
ting
abou
t var
ious
topi
cs.
___
shou
ld p
ract
ice
wri
ting
abou
t ava
riet
y of
topi
cs.
Shar
es in
form
atio
n an
d op
inio
ns in
cla
ssdi
scus
sion
s. (p
.2)
___
shou
ld c
ontr
ibut
e m
ore
to c
lass
disc
ussi
ons.
___
shou
ld p
artic
ipat
e m
ore
in c
lass
disc
ussi
ons.
Solv
es p
robl
ems
and
expl
ains
sol
utio
nsan
d st
rate
gies
(p.2
)__
_ sh
ould
wor
k on
mat
hem
atic
alpr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
nd d
iscu
ssio
n of
stra
tegi
es.
Dem
onst
rate
s ef
fort
and
com
plet
es h
omew
ork
(p.3
)R
emin
d __
_ to
com
plet
e al
l hom
ewor
kas
sign
men
ts.
Plea
se re
min
d __
_ to
be
prep
ared
for
scho
ol w
ith c
ompl
ete
hom
ewor
k.
Res
pect
s cl
ass
and
scho
ol ru
les
(p.3
)Pl
ease
rem
ind
___
to fo
llow
sch
ool r
ules
.
Seve
ral c
ultu
ral m
odel
s (G
ee, 1
999)
em
erge
thro
ugh
the
prec
edin
g ex
cerp
ts a
nd th
eco
re o
f the
teac
her i
nter
view
as
she
expl
ains
her
exp
erie
nce
and
proc
esse
s w
ritin
g re
port
card
s. O
ne m
odel
refe
rs to
the
lack
of a
uton
omy
as s
he p
ositi
ons
hers
elf i
n re
latio
n to
the
scho
ol. A
noth
er m
odel
add
ress
es h
er p
rofe
ssio
nal c
once
rns
and
ques
tions
, and
the
thir
dis
her
ow
n po
sitio
n of
pro
fess
iona
l con
fiden
ce. T
hese
thre
e ov
erla
p at
tim
es, i
n “c
ruce
s”or
“m
omen
ts o
f con
flic
t in
the
data
” (R
oger
s, 2
002,
p.2
57).
In a
dditi
on, t
his
lang
uage
recr
uits
a d
iffer
ent d
isco
urse
than
is p
rese
nted
in h
er w
ritte
n co
mm
ents
in th
e re
port
car
dte
xts. T
hrou
ghou
t her
dis
cuss
ion,
Ms.
Mar
tin p
ositi
ons
hers
elf a
s th
e su
bjec
t of t
hesc
hool
’s re
quir
emen
ts re
gard
ing
the
repo
rt c
ards
. Thi
s is
evi
dent
in th
e gr
amm
atic
alco
nstr
uctio
n of
her
sen
tenc
es a
bout
this
pro
cess
. Sev
eral
sta
tem
ents
beg
in w
ith th
ey,
whi
le s
he is
pos
ition
ed w
ith th
e us
. Fo
r exa
mpl
e, “
They
gav
e us
com
men
ts th
at w
ere
acce
ptab
le,”
“Th
ey to
ld u
s,” a
nd “
They
wan
us
to p
ut in
a g
rade
.” T
he p
rono
un “
they
” is
Con
flic
t, C
once
rn, a
nd C
onfi
denc
e: T
he I
nter
sect
ion
of a
Tea
cher
’s D
isco
urse
used
repe
ated
ly to
enc
ompa
ss th
e pr
inci
pal a
nd m
ore
wid
ely
the
scho
ol s
yste
m. S
heal
igns
her
self
with
oth
er te
ache
rs, t
he “
us.”
Inte
rest
ingl
y th
e pr
inci
pal’s
nam
e is
onl
ym
entio
ned
once
, “I c
an te
ll by
the
way
Ms
Wal
sh ta
lks
abou
t it t
hat r
epor
t car
ds a
re k
ind
of a
hea
dach
e to
her
.” M
s W
alsh
, the
indi
vidu
al, i
s m
ore
freq
uent
ly s
een
as p
art o
f the
larg
er, i
nstit
utio
nal “
they
.” In
deed
, Ms.
Mar
tin re
cogn
izes
that
Ms
Wal
sh, i
n tu
rn, a
lso
ispo
sitio
ned
by th
e a
larg
er e
ntity
, the
dis
tric
t, “S
he [M
s W
alsh
] jus
t wan
ts it
to b
e ve
ryea
sy, y
ou k
now
, no
one
goin
g to
the
dist
rict
.” M
s M
artin
als
o hy
poth
esiz
ed a
pos
sibl
era
tiona
le b
ehin
d th
e co
ntro
l of t
he n
umer
ical
indi
cato
rs, s
tatin
g th
at th
e nu
mbe
rs w
ere
cont
rolle
d to
dem
onst
rate
pro
gres
s du
ring
the
year
:
You
sta
rt w
ith th
e 1s
and
2s.
You
go
to th
e 3.
The
re’s
a re
ason
why
the
kids
are
pass
ing.
The
y ca
n’t r
eally
que
stio
n w
hy th
ese
kids
are
pas
sing
in th
e fo
urth
grad
e…T
hey
[sch
ool a
dmin
istr
atio
n] d
on’t
real
ly s
ay th
at e
xplic
itly
alth
ough
they
do
day
that
, no,
the
dist
rict
will
get
ups
et is
we
do th
at a
nd th
ere’
s an
obv
ious
acc
ount
abili
ty to
the
dist
rict
.
The
re a
re s
ever
al la
yers
of “
they
.” T
hey
is th
e di
stri
ct; t
hey
is th
e ad
min
istr
atio
n. T
heac
coun
tabi
lity
chai
n re
ache
s ev
en fu
rthe
r to
the
fede
ral l
evel
. The
No
Chi
ld L
eft B
ehin
d(2
001)
legi
slat
ion
focu
s on
usi
ng te
st s
core
s to
mea
sure
aca
dem
ic p
rogr
ess
is th
e fin
al“t
hey”
that
impa
cts
the
teac
her.
“The
kid
s ar
e re
ally
com
ing
in a
nd th
e sc
hool
and
the
child
is g
ivin
g an
eff
ort e
very
day
, you
kno
w. B
ut th
en y
ou ta
lk a
bout
No
Chi
ld L
eft
Beh
ind
and
they
don
’t w
ant t
o he
ar th
at.”
In th
is s
tate
men
t, sh
e ex
plic
itly
links
the
loca
lan
d th
e gl
obal
con
text
s fo
r the
repo
rt c
ard
asse
ssm
ent.
The
eff
orts
of t
each
ers,
stu
dent
s,an
d sc
hool
s en
gage
d in
lear
ning
are
not
the
test
sco
res
that
the
coun
t in
No
Chi
ld L
eft
Beh
ind.
With
the
mul
tiple
leve
ls o
f “t
hey”
ther
e is
a d
ehum
aniz
ing
effe
ct.
Num
bers
mat
ter,
not i
ndiv
idua
l chi
ldre
n.T
he fo
rmat
of t
he re
port
car
d cr
eate
s co
nstr
aint
s. In
a p
revi
ousl
y qu
oted
seg
men
t,M
s. M
artin
ask
ed a
t a s
taff
mee
ting
if s
he c
an “
fit in
” as
man
y co
mm
ents
as
she
can
byw
ritin
g sm
all b
ecau
se s
o lit
tle ro
om o
n th
e re
port
car
d w
as a
lloca
ted
for c
omm
ents
. She
was
con
stra
ined
by
the
narr
ow ra
nge
of n
umer
ical
indi
cato
rs th
at w
ere
“allo
wed
” as
wel
las
by
the
requ
irem
ents
of o
ne p
rew
ritte
n co
mm
ent.
The
lim
ited
num
ber o
f the
lear
ning
beha
vior
s co
nstr
icte
d he
r abi
lity
to fu
lly a
ddre
ss th
e cu
rric
ulum
. One
exa
mpl
e is
the
indi
cato
r “Sh
ows
evid
ence
of u
nder
stan
ding
text
.” S
he s
tate
d, “
Tha
t’s a
ll th
ey’r
e sa
ying
abou
t rea
ding
com
preh
ensi
on a
nd th
at’s
suc
h a
huge
blo
ck o
f our
day
.” A
dditi
onal
ly th
ead
ding
toge
ther
of t
wo
inde
pend
ent c
laus
es in
sev
eral
of t
he le
arni
ng in
dica
tors
mad
e it
diff
icul
t for
her
to a
ccur
atel
y co
mm
unic
ate
her e
valu
atio
n. A
s di
scus
sed
earl
ier,
linki
ng“D
emon
stra
tes
effo
rt a
nd c
ompe
ting
hom
ewor
k” p
rese
nted
her
with
diff
icul
ty in
com
mu-
nica
ting
her k
now
ledg
e of
her
stu
dent
s. T
hus
the
lang
uage
of t
he re
port
car
d cr
eate
spr
oble
ms;
it d
oesn
’t fa
cilit
ate
a m
ore
nuan
ced
or d
escr
iptiv
e ev
alua
tion.
Whi
le s
he w
ould
have
like
d to
inte
grat
e he
r und
erst
andi
ng o
f a c
onte
xt w
ider
than
the
scho
ol, t
hat o
f the
fam
ily, t
he d
isco
urse
lim
ited
her.
Ano
ther
cul
tura
l mod
el a
ddre
ssed
is p
rofe
ssio
nal q
uest
ioni
ng a
nd c
once
rns.
Thi
s is
,in
par
t, th
e re
sult
of b
eing
ask
ed b
y th
e re
sear
cher
to re
flec
t upo
n he
r ow
n ex
peri
ence
s,bu
t the
lang
uage
her
e fu
lly e
xpre
sses
the
conc
ern
felt
abou
t thi
s pr
oces
s. A
s sh
e is
aw
are
of th
e co
nstr
aint
s, s
he a
lso
ques
tione
d th
e co
nstr
aint
s an
d pr
obes
und
erly
ing
reas
ons
for
them
. She
theo
rize
d ab
out t
he s
choo
l cul
ture
and
the
emph
asis
on
redu
ctio
n of
con
flic
t,fi
rst b
etw
een
fam
ilies
and
sch
ool,
and
to a
deg
ree,
sch
ool a
nd d
istr
ict:
40W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
41W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
I thi
nk a
t Was
hing
ton
Scho
ol th
ey re
ally
don
’t w
ant a
lot o
f dra
ma
goin
g on
bec
ause
ther
e te
nds
to b
e a
lot o
f con
flic
t whe
n pa
rent
s ge
t ups
et. T
here
isn’
t rea
lly a
sys
tem
atic
way
of d
ealin
g w
ith p
robl
ems
ther
e ot
her t
han
peop
le ju
st y
ellin
g in
the
mai
nof
fice.
So
I thi
nk s
he [t
he p
rinc
ipal
] jus
t wan
ts to
avo
id c
onfl
ict b
y th
ings
that
—ea
syin
, eas
y ou
t.. …
No
one
goin
g to
the
dist
rict
.
I thi
nk it
’s re
late
d to
the
fact
that
they
don
’t w
ant c
onfl
ict.
I rea
lly d
o. T
here
’s a
prob
lem
at o
ur s
choo
l with
par
ents
/adm
inis
trat
ion
rela
tions
hip.
And
ther
e ar
e a
lot o
ffir
es th
at a
re b
eing
put
out
.
The
y [t
he s
choo
l adm
inis
trat
ion]
wan
t us
to k
eep
them
[fam
ily m
embe
rs] c
onte
nt to
som
e de
gree
.
As
an e
arly
car
eer t
each
er, M
s. M
artin
was
par
ticul
arly
sen
sitiv
e to
this
not
ion
ofco
nflic
t. H
er re
peat
ed u
se o
f the
pro
noun
“th
ey”
dist
ance
d he
r fro
m th
e sc
hool
as
anin
stitu
tion.
Her
und
erst
andi
ng o
f the
nat
ure
of c
onfl
ict i
n th
e sc
hool
impa
cted
her
disc
ours
e. It
mea
sure
d he
r aw
aren
ess
of th
e po
tent
ial f
or h
er to
be
invo
lved
in c
onfl
ict.
The
re is
the
mes
sage
, too
, tha
t inf
orm
ed fa
mily
mem
bers
may
be
equa
ted
with
con
flic
t.A
cru
ce (R
oger
s, 2
002)
or c
onfl
ict i
n th
e di
scou
rse
is fo
und
in M
s. M
artin
’s re
latio
n-sh
ip to
inst
itutio
nal c
onfl
ict.
Upo
n re
flec
tion,
pro
fess
iona
l qua
ndar
ies
and
conf
licts
emer
ged
as s
he fi
lled
in th
e re
port
car
ds a
nd ta
lked
to fa
mily
mem
bers
. One
cha
lleng
ein
volv
ed b
alan
cing
her
des
ire
to c
omm
unic
ate
wha
t is
impo
rtan
t to
her a
bout
stu
dent
ssh
e kn
ows
in m
any
dim
ensi
ons,
and
her
des
ire
not t
o fu
el o
r con
trib
ute
to a
ny c
onfl
ict
betw
een
fam
ilies
and
her
self
, and
fam
ilies
and
the
scho
ol. I
ndee
d, th
is w
as a
dile
mm
ash
e re
coun
ted
in h
er fi
rst t
each
ing
posi
tion
the
prev
ious
yea
r, th
e an
ecdo
te th
at o
pene
dth
is a
rtic
le.
The
“ro
ck a
nd a
har
d pl
ace”
met
apho
r exe
mpl
ifie
s th
e te
ache
r’s
cultu
ral m
odel
.In
here
nt in
her
pos
ition
as
a te
ache
r is
the
role
of a
n in
term
edia
ry b
etw
een
fam
ily a
ndst
uden
t, fa
mily
and
pri
ncip
al. H
er s
uper
iors
hav
e th
e po
tent
ial t
o m
edia
te a
nd c
hang
e he
rpr
ofes
sion
al ju
dgm
ent.
Her
lang
uage
con
stru
cts
her e
quiv
ocat
ion
of th
e si
tuat
ion,
her
allia
nces
with
all
the
part
icip
ants
. For
exa
mpl
e, s
he s
tate
s th
at th
e st
uden
t’s g
rade
s “r
eally
wen
t dow
n si
gnifi
cant
ly”
but q
ualif
ies
her a
sses
smen
t in
the
sam
e se
nten
ce “
not s
o m
uch
that
he
was
in fa
iling
sta
tus.”
The
mot
her w
as “
kind
of u
pset
.” S
he “
kind
of m
ade
aco
mm
itmen
t to
mys
elf”
abo
ut n
ot “
owni
ng”
the
deci
sion
yet
did
not
act
ivel
y op
pose
it.
Sim
ilar d
ilem
mas
app
ear i
n he
r dis
cuss
ion
of c
ompl
etin
g th
e re
port
car
ds in
vest
i-ga
ted
in th
is s
tudy
. Whe
n as
ked
to ta
lk a
bout
repo
rt c
ards
she
had
diff
icul
ty c
ompl
etin
gsh
e re
late
d se
vera
l sto
ries
:
Her
e’s
an is
sue
that
’s h
ard
for m
e ‘c
ause
[Aar
on] d
oes
his
hom
ewor
k ev
ery
nigh
tw
ith h
is m
om b
ut h
e de
mon
stra
tes
no e
ffor
t in
clas
s. S
o I h
ad to
put
som
etim
es.
Alth
ough
I w
ould
like
to b
e m
ore
clea
r her
e. H
e ha
s lik
e al
mos
t a p
hobi
c th
ing
incl
ass
abou
t not
get
ting
star
ted
and
then
he
gets
dis
rupt
ive.
But
he
does
his
hom
ewor
kev
ery
nigh
t. S
o I
know
that
his
mom
doe
s en
gage
in c
onfl
ict s
o I
wan
ted
toco
mm
unic
ate
to h
er th
at I
know
he
does
his
hom
ewor
k. S
o th
is w
as h
ard
for m
e.
She
gave
him
the
com
men
t “D
isru
pts
with
poo
r beh
avio
r.” A
s pr
evio
usly
men
tione
d it
was
impo
rtan
t for
the
teac
her t
o co
nvey
a m
essa
ge a
nd s
o sh
e se
lect
ed o
nly
one.
Cla
ssm
anag
emen
t, sh
e di
sclo
sed
in th
e in
terv
iew
, was
a p
ress
ing
prof
essi
onal
issu
e th
atco
ncer
ned
her g
reat
ly. H
er d
isco
urse
her
e pr
esen
ts c
ausa
l rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n A
aron
’s
diff
icul
ty in
get
ting
star
ted
with
the
wor
k an
d hi
s be
havi
or. T
he s
ituat
ion
is d
iffic
ult f
orth
e te
ache
r, as
her
pro
fess
iona
l und
erst
andi
ng is
mor
e co
mpl
ex th
an th
e re
port
car
ddi
scou
rse.
It is
impo
rtan
t for
her
to a
lso
dem
onst
rate
to th
e fa
mily
her
pro
fess
iona
lun
ders
tand
ing
of th
e si
tuat
ion.
The
com
men
ts M
s. M
artin
add
ed to
the
prew
ritte
n co
mm
ents
, as
prev
ious
ly d
is-
cuss
ed, w
ere
auth
orita
tive.
The
y w
ere
inte
rtex
tual
ly li
nked
to b
oth
the
stru
ctur
e an
dco
nten
t to
the
esta
blis
hed
repo
rt c
ard
lang
uage
and
pre
wri
tten
com
men
ts. I
n th
at c
onte
xt,
the
teac
her’
s di
scou
rse
spea
ks w
ith th
e in
stitu
tiona
l dis
cour
se. I
n th
e in
terv
iew
con
text
Ms.
Mar
tin’s
con
fiden
ce in
her
pro
fess
iona
l jud
gmen
ts e
mer
ged
as w
ell a
s he
r con
cern
s.Fo
r exa
mpl
e, s
he d
id n
ot c
heck
the
prom
otio
n st
atus
in th
e qu
estio
n bo
x fo
r all
stud
ents
as w
as s
ugge
sted
, “I j
ust e
nded
up
not d
oing
it b
ecau
se I
didn
’t th
ink
it w
as w
hat I
wan
ted
to s
ay.”
Con
fide
nce
was
exp
ress
ed in
her
abi
lity
to a
sses
s st
uden
ts in
spe
cifi
car
eas
such
as
liter
acy
and
mat
h: “
I thi
nk th
e lit
erac
y on
es w
ere
easy
for m
e. I
knew
wha
tth
ey w
ere
tryi
ng to
say
and
I kn
ew h
ow to
ass
ess
it” a
nd “
Bec
ause
it’s
[mat
h] v
ery
hand
s-on
I’m
aw
are
of w
hat t
hey
can
do.”
Yet
, the
pro
cess
left
her
with
man
y qu
estio
ns. W
hen
desc
ribi
ng h
er p
roce
ss o
fco
mpl
etin
g th
e re
port
car
ds, s
he h
ad s
tate
d th
at th
e 4,
3, 2
, 1 s
yste
m w
as “
pret
ty c
lear
tom
e.”
Whe
n sh
e re
flec
ted
upon
the
mea
ning
of t
he s
yste
m, s
he h
ad q
uest
ions
: “D
o yo
uth
ink
that
’s a
n ac
adem
ic p
robl
em [g
ettin
g a
2 or
1]?
I m
ean,
I do
n’t k
now
. But
if y
ou s
ayit’
s N
ovem
ber a
nd th
ey’r
e fa
r bel
ow th
e st
anda
rd b
ut th
ey’l
l pro
babl
y m
eet t
he s
tand
ards
by J
une,
doe
s th
at m
ean
ther
e’s
an a
cade
mic
pro
blem
?” H
ere
she
wre
stle
s w
ith te
nsio
nsbe
twee
n sc
hool
pol
icy
and
prof
essi
onal
resp
onsi
bilit
y as
she
did
with
the
issu
e w
heth
erto
info
rm a
ll fa
mili
es (a
s su
gges
ted
by h
er a
dmin
istr
atio
n) th
at th
e pr
omot
ion
stat
us o
fth
eir c
hild
ren
may
be
in d
oubt
. W
hat d
oes
a 1
or 2
in N
ovem
ber m
ean?
Alth
ough
in h
erpu
blic
dis
cour
se, t
he w
ritte
n re
port
car
ds a
nd h
er c
onve
rsat
ions
with
fam
ilies
, she
evid
ence
d au
thor
ity a
nd c
onfid
ence
, her
refl
ectio
ns re
veal
ed c
onfu
sion
s an
d co
ncer
nab
out t
he m
eani
ngs
she
co-c
onst
ruct
ed in
the
repo
rt c
ards
.
Fur
ther
Dis
cuss
ion
The
repo
rt c
ard
text
inve
stig
ated
in th
is s
tudy
fram
ed M
s. M
artin
’s d
isco
urse
inse
vera
l way
s. T
he id
eal s
tude
nt c
onst
ruct
ed b
y th
e te
xt w
as a
n in
depe
nden
t, co
mpl
iant
stud
ent w
ho m
aste
red
gene
rally
des
crib
ed a
cade
mic
ski
lls. T
he te
ache
r was
giv
en a
limite
d nu
mbe
r and
rang
e of
per
form
ance
indi
cato
rs, w
hich
freq
uent
ly c
onta
ined
mor
eth
an o
ne a
ttrib
ute,
mak
ing
it di
ffic
ult t
o ex
actly
des
crib
e a
stud
ent’s
pro
gres
s. T
hete
ache
r als
o re
port
ed th
at s
he w
as a
lso
told
to u
se p
re-w
ritte
n co
mm
ents
in th
e co
mm
ent
boxe
s, ra
ther
than
con
stru
ct h
er o
wn.
Whi
le s
he d
id a
dd a
n ad
ditio
nal s
ente
nce
of h
erow
n, th
ese
sent
ence
s m
atch
ed th
e pr
ewri
tten
com
men
ts a
nd th
e re
port
car
d re
fere
nts
insy
ntax
and
lexi
cal c
hoic
es.
The
per
form
ance
indi
cato
rs d
id n
ot m
atch
, in
Ms.
Mar
tin’s
vie
w, t
he d
etai
ls o
f the
curr
icul
um s
he ta
ught
. M
ore
impo
rtan
tly, t
he c
onte
xt w
ithin
whi
ch s
he c
ompl
eted
the
repo
rt c
ards
als
o co
nstr
aine
d an
d lim
ited
her d
isco
urse
and
her
vie
w o
f wha
t con
trol
she
had
over
her
ow
n di
scou
rse.
She
was
exp
licitl
y to
ld to
onl
y us
e tw
o ou
t of t
he fo
urav
aila
ble
num
eric
indi
cato
rs, t
he lo
wes
t tw
o in
dica
tors
. T
his
limite
d he
r abi
lity
toac
coun
t for
her
stu
dent
s’ s
tren
gths
. T
he c
omm
ent s
ectio
ns o
f the
repo
rt c
ards
reve
aled
an
emph
asis
on
beha
vior
, as
evid
ence
d by
the
use
of th
e w
ord
“sho
uld
“with
exp
ecta
tions
that
the
stud
ent a
nd fa
mily
nee
ded
to w
ork
to c
hang
e th
at b
ehav
ior.
Whi
le in
inte
rvie
ws
Ms.
Mar
tin p
ositi
oned
her
self
as
resi
stin
g th
e co
ntro
lling
disc
ours
e of
sch
ool,
on p
aper
she
acq
uies
ced.
She
follo
wed
the
adm
inis
trat
ion’
s re
ques
tan
d se
lect
ed p
rew
ritte
n co
mm
ents
. W
hile
she
inde
pend
ently
add
ed o
ne a
dditi
onal
42W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
orig
inal
com
men
t to
the
com
men
t box
, her
dis
cour
se w
as fo
und
to b
e re
stri
cted
to th
esa
me
lexi
cal c
hoic
es a
nd g
ram
mat
ical
con
stru
ctio
ns a
s th
e pr
ewri
tten
rep
ort c
ard
disc
ours
e. N
o ne
w in
form
atio
n w
as a
dded
. A
s an
ear
ly c
aree
r tea
cher
she
may
hav
ebe
en p
artic
ular
ly v
ulne
rabl
e to
the
dile
mm
as o
f res
ista
nce
vers
us s
ubm
issi
on. T
he w
ider
scho
ol d
isco
urse
, art
icul
ated
by
Ms.
Mar
tin, w
as th
e av
oida
nce
of c
onfl
ict b
etw
een
scho
ol a
nd fa
mili
es.
Thi
s w
as th
e m
essa
ge s
he h
eard
whe
n in
stru
cted
to li
mit
the
com
men
ts to
pre
-wri
tten
com
men
ts.
Her
per
cept
ion
of th
is d
isco
urse
had
the
effe
ct o
fsi
lenc
ing
her.
The
lim
itatio
ns o
f the
repo
rt c
ard
disc
ours
e an
d th
e pr
oced
ures
by
whi
chsh
e co
mpl
eted
and
dis
trib
uted
them
impo
sed
rest
rict
ions
on
her d
isco
urse
that
she
was
unab
le to
resi
st.
As
stat
ed in
the
open
ing
sect
ion,
Nod
ding
s (1
984)
wro
te th
at th
egr
adin
g pr
oces
s el
icits
in te
ache
rs fe
elin
g “t
orn
betw
een
the
oblig
atio
n to
the
empl
oyin
gco
mm
unity
and
faith
fuln
ess
to th
e st
uden
t” (p
. 194
). W
hile
Ms.
Mar
tin s
poke
with
spec
ific
ity
and
insi
ght a
bout
her
stu
dent
s in
an
inte
rvie
w c
onte
xt, s
he o
blig
ed h
er“e
mpl
oyin
g co
mm
unity
” w
ith th
e re
stri
cted
dis
cour
se o
n th
e re
port
car
d fo
rm.
Impl
icat
ions
for
Teac
her
Edu
catio
n an
d F
urth
er R
esea
rch
From
the
teac
her’
s pe
rspe
ctiv
e, th
e m
ultip
le c
onst
rain
ts p
lace
d up
on h
er c
reat
edpr
ofes
sion
al c
onfl
icts
as
she
nego
tiate
d th
e re
port
-car
d w
ritin
g pr
oces
s. M
s. M
artin
foun
d th
e ge
nera
l lan
guag
e of
the
card
did
not
hel
p he
r to
repo
rt h
er a
sses
smen
t of h
erst
uden
ts. I
t als
o w
as e
vide
nt th
e ad
min
istr
atio
n ex
erte
d a
high
deg
ree
of c
ontr
ol o
ver t
hete
ache
r’s
repo
rt-c
ard
wri
ting
proc
ess
to th
e ex
tent
of d
elin
eatin
g th
e ra
nge
of g
rade
s as
wel
l pre
-wri
tten
com
men
ts. S
he fe
lt “b
etw
een
a ro
ck a
nd a
har
d pl
ace.
”H
ow c
an w
e, a
s te
ache
r edu
cato
rs, h
elp
teac
hers
neg
otia
te th
ese
hard
pla
ces?
Fir
st,
grea
ter a
ttent
ion
to c
urre
nt a
sses
smen
t the
orie
s an
d pr
actic
es th
roug
hout
teac
her e
duca
-tio
n co
urse
s is
war
rant
ed. S
tigge
ns, F
risb
ie, a
nd G
irsw
old
(198
9) a
rgue
d th
at te
ache
red
ucat
ion
prog
ram
s in
cons
iste
ntly
pre
pare
teac
hers
for a
sses
sing
stu
dent
s. S
urve
ys o
fte
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
(Sch
afer
& L
issi
tz, 1
987)
and
teac
hers
(Jet
t & S
chaf
er,
1992
) ind
icat
e in
suff
icie
nt a
ttent
ion
to a
sses
smen
t. Y
et, s
impl
y ad
ding
mor
e as
sess
men
tin
form
atio
n is
not
eno
ugh.
Cha
nges
in a
sses
smen
t pra
ctic
es fr
om N
CL
B (2
001)
hav
eal
so c
reat
ed d
isso
nanc
e be
twee
n as
sess
men
t pra
ctic
es le
arne
d in
teac
her e
duca
tion
and
thos
e in
pra
ctic
e in
sch
ools
(Cam
pbel
l & E
vans
, 200
1; M
aylo
ne, 2
004)
. A
s te
ache
red
ucat
ors,
we
need
to c
ontin
ually
upd
ate
our k
now
ledg
e of
the
asse
ssm
ent a
nd re
port
ing
prac
tices
use
d in
the
scho
ols
in o
ur a
reas
. In
clud
ing
real
exa
mpl
es o
f ass
essm
ents
,es
peci
ally
repo
rt c
ards
in o
ur c
ours
es w
ould
giv
e pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
an
oppo
rtun
ity to
initi
ally
bec
ome
fam
iliar
with
the
form
s in
use
. As
field
sup
ervi
sors
we
can
faci
litat
eco
nver
satio
ns w
ith c
oope
ratin
g te
ache
rs a
bout
repo
rt c
ards
and
enc
oura
ge w
ays
for
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs to
app
rent
ice
this
asp
ect o
f tea
chin
g. E
ven
mor
e, c
ritic
ally
exa
min
ing
repo
rt c
ards
in th
e co
ntex
t of t
each
er e
duca
tion
cour
ses
wou
ld e
nabl
e pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
to p
ose
ques
tions
and
ant
icip
ate
prob
lem
s w
ithou
t the
imm
edia
cy o
f the
pre
ssur
esex
peri
ence
d by
Ms.
Mar
tin. C
ours
e ac
tiviti
es c
ould
als
o in
clud
e us
ing
case
stu
dies
, with
stud
ent d
ata,
to e
nabl
e pr
eser
vice
to tr
y co
mpl
etin
g re
port
car
ds a
nd e
xplo
re th
eir
lang
uage
cho
ices
. B
y ex
amin
ing
repo
rt c
ards
and
the
asse
ssm
ent p
roce
ss w
ith th
eir
peer
s, in
a s
uppo
rtiv
e co
ntex
t, no
vice
teac
hers
can
als
o se
e th
e va
lue
of b
uild
ing
supp
ortiv
e re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith s
choo
l bas
ed m
ento
rs a
nd c
olle
ague
s an
d be
enc
oura
ged
todr
aw u
pon
thos
e su
ppor
ts a
s th
ey n
egot
iate
the
hard
pla
ces
duri
ng th
eir p
rofe
ssio
nal
care
ers
(Gra
ham
, 200
5).
43W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
44W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
Ms.
Mar
tin’s
sto
ry a
lso
high
light
s a
need
for g
reat
er d
ialo
gue
in te
ache
r edu
catio
nco
urse
s ab
out t
he c
halle
nges
pre
sent
ed b
y th
e di
ffer
ent a
udie
nces
for r
epor
t car
ds.
We
need
to a
ddre
ss th
e ro
les
of a
dmin
istr
ator
s an
d di
stri
ct o
r city
pol
icy
play
in th
e da
y-to
-da
y liv
es o
f tea
cher
s (G
ross
man
& T
hom
pson
, 200
4; Y
oung
s, 2
007)
. Si
mila
rly,
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs b
enef
it fr
om g
reat
er a
ttent
ion
tow
ard
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
e co
mpl
exity
of th
e pe
rspe
ctiv
es o
f the
fam
ilies
with
who
m th
ey w
ill w
ork
(Law
renc
e-L
ight
foot
,20
03).
Hea
ring
firs
t han
d fr
om fa
mili
es a
bout
thei
r exp
ecta
tions
for t
heir
chi
ldre
n, e
ither
as g
uest
s in
teac
her e
duca
tion
cour
ses
or th
roug
h pl
anne
d ac
tiviti
es a
t stu
dent
teac
hing
site
s co
uld
be a
pow
erfu
l exp
erie
nce
for n
ew te
ache
rs a
nd re
info
rce
the
need
to b
egin
, as
Law
renc
e-L
ight
foot
term
s, th
e “e
ssen
tial c
onve
rsat
ion”
that
is th
e br
idge
bet
wee
n ho
me
and
scho
ol.
As
repo
rt c
ards
rem
ain
a fix
ture
in s
choo
ls, f
utur
e re
sear
ch c
ould
furt
her d
ocum
ent
and
inve
stig
ate
the
repo
rt-c
ard
wri
ting
proc
esse
s fo
r tea
cher
s w
ith a
n ad
ditio
nal f
ocus
on
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f str
ateg
ies
to e
nabl
e te
ache
rs to
art
icul
ate
and
addr
ess
thei
r con
cern
s.Fu
ture
rese
arch
sho
uld
inve
stig
ate
the
met
hods
and
kin
ds o
f tra
inin
g pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
rece
ive
conc
erni
ng a
sses
smen
t str
ateg
ies,
incl
udin
g re
port
car
ds, a
nd th
e ch
alle
nges
they
face
as
they
put
this
kno
wle
dge
into
pra
ctic
e.T
he n
umer
ical
indi
cato
rs u
sed
on th
e re
port
car
d w
ere
the
sam
e nu
mer
ical
indi
cato
rsus
ed o
n th
e st
ate
stan
dard
ized
test
s. W
ith th
e di
scou
rse
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
that
has
resu
lted
in in
crea
sed
stan
dard
ized
test
ing,
its
impa
ct o
n th
e pr
ofes
sion
al li
ves
of te
ache
rsan
d ed
ucat
iona
l exp
erie
nces
of c
hild
ren
need
s to
be
mor
e fu
lly re
sear
ched
. Joh
nson
(200
1) fo
und
a co
rrel
atio
n be
twee
n re
port
car
d gr
ades
and
sta
te a
sses
smen
ts in
Was
hing
-to
n St
ate.
Acc
ordi
ng to
Ms.
Mar
tin, t
he n
umer
ical
gra
des
wer
e ca
refu
lly c
ontr
olle
d by
the
adm
inis
trat
ion
so th
at p
rogr
ess
wou
ld b
e sh
own
thro
ugho
ut th
e ye
ar a
nd m
atch
the
num
eric
sco
res
on th
e st
ate
asse
ssm
ent.
As
stat
e an
d fe
dera
l sta
ndar
ds a
nd m
anda
tes
exer
t mor
e an
d m
ore
cont
rol i
n se
tting
and
impl
emen
ting
spec
ific
educ
atio
nal p
olic
y, it
isim
pera
tive
to d
ocum
ent a
nd c
ritiq
ue th
e re
latio
nshi
ps th
at e
mer
ge a
nd it
s im
pact
on
teac
hers
’ pra
ctic
e an
d st
uden
ts’ l
earn
ing.
Cri
tical
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis,
as
Rog
ers
(200
4)ar
gues
, is
a po
wer
ful r
esea
rch
tool
in in
vest
igat
ing
the
com
plex
, oft
en c
ontr
adic
tory
disc
ours
es c
onst
ruct
ed in
the
inte
rsec
tions
of p
olic
y, e
duca
tion,
and
ped
agog
y. A
lling
ton
(200
2) a
nd S
hann
on (2
004)
hav
e de
scri
bed
the
pres
sure
s ex
erte
d on
sch
ools
, tea
cher
s,an
d ch
ildre
n th
roug
h th
e in
crea
sed
leve
ls o
f gov
ernm
ent i
nvol
vem
ent i
n cu
rric
ulum
and
asse
ssm
ent p
olic
ies.
The
inte
rsec
tions
and
impo
sitio
ns o
f the
se d
isco
urse
s, lo
cate
d in
the
repo
rt c
ard
disc
ours
e, p
lace
s te
ache
rs b
etw
een
a ro
ck a
nd a
har
d pl
ace.
Fut
ure
rese
arch
is w
arra
nted
in in
vest
igat
ing
thes
e “h
ard
plac
es.”
Refe
ren
ces
Affl
erba
ch, P
. P.,
& Jo
hnst
on, P
. H. (
1993
). W
ritin
g la
ngua
ge a
rts re
port
card
s: E
leve
n te
ache
rs’
conf
licts
of k
now
ing
and
com
mun
icat
ing.
Ele
men
tary
Sch
ool J
ourn
al, 9
4(1)
, 73-
86.
Alli
ngto
n, R
. L. (
2002
). B
ig b
roth
er a
nd th
e na
tiona
l rea
ding
cur
ricu
lum
: H
ow id
eolo
gytr
umpe
d ev
iden
ce. P
orts
mou
th, N
H: H
eine
man
n.A
zwel
l, T.
, & S
chm
ar, E
. (19
95).
Rep
ort c
ard
on r
epor
t car
ds: A
ltern
ativ
es to
cons
ider
. Por
tsm
outh
, NH
: Hei
nem
ann.
Cam
pbel
l, C
., &
Eva
ns, J
. (20
01).
Inve
stig
atio
n of
pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
’ ass
essm
ent
prac
tices
dur
ing
stud
ent t
each
ing.
Jou
rnal
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h, 9
3(6)
, 350
-355
.C
ombe
r, B
. (19
96).
The
disc
ursi
ve c
onst
ruct
ion
of li
tera
cy in
a d
isad
vant
aged
scho
ol. U
npub
lishe
d do
ctor
al d
isse
rtat
ion,
Jam
es C
ook
Uni
vers
ity o
f Nor
thQ
ueen
slan
d, A
ustr
alia
.
45W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
Fair
clou
gh, N
. (19
89).
Lang
uage
and
pow
er. H
arlo
w, E
ngla
nd: L
ongm
an.
Fair
clou
gh, N
. (19
92).
Inte
rtex
tual
ity in
cri
tical
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis.
Lin
guis
tics
and
Edu
catio
n, 4
, 269
-293
.G
ee, J
. P. (
1999
). A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis:
The
ory
and
met
hod.
New
Yor
k: R
outle
dge.
Gra
ham
, P. (
2005
). C
lass
room
-bas
ed a
sses
smen
t: C
hang
ing
know
ledg
e an
d pr
actic
eth
roug
h pr
eser
vice
edu
catio
n. T
each
ing
and
Teac
her
Edu
catio
n: A
n In
tern
a-tio
nal J
ourn
al o
f Res
earc
h an
d St
udie
s, 2
1(6)
, 607
-621
.G
ross
man
, P.,
& T
hom
pson
, C. (
2004
). D
istr
ict p
olic
y an
d be
ginn
ing
teac
hers
: A le
ns o
nte
ache
r lea
rnin
g. E
duca
tiona
l Eva
luat
ion
and
Polic
y, 2
6(2)
, 281
-301
.G
ursk
ey, T
.R. (
1996
). R
epor
ting
on s
tude
nt le
arni
ng: L
esso
ns fr
om th
e pa
st—
pres
crip
-tio
ns fo
r the
futu
re. I
n T.
Gur
skey
(Ed.
), A
SCD
yea
rboo
k 19
98: C
omm
unic
atin
gst
uden
t lea
rnin
g (p
p.15
-25)
. Ale
xand
ria,
VA
: Ass
ocia
tion
for S
uper
visi
on a
ndC
urri
culu
m D
evel
opm
ent.
Jett,
D. L
., &
Sha
fer,
W. D
. (19
92, A
pril)
. Cla
ssro
om te
ache
rs m
ove
to c
ente
r sta
ge in
the
asse
ssm
ent a
rena
—re
ady
or n
ot! P
aper
pre
sent
ed a
t the
ann
ual m
eetin
g of
the
Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n, S
an F
ranc
isco
.Jo
hnso
n, J
. K. S
. (20
01).
The
gra
ding
of e
lem
enta
ry s
tude
nt p
erfo
rman
ce o
n a
stan
dard
s-ba
sed
repo
rt c
ard
(Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of W
ashi
ngto
n, 2
001)
.D
isse
rtat
ion
Abs
trac
ts In
tern
atio
nal,
62, 1
726.
Keo
gh, J
. (19
96).
Gov
ernm
enta
lity
in p
aren
t-te
ache
r com
mun
icat
ions
. Lan
guag
e an
dE
duca
tion,
10(
2-3)
, 119
-131
. Las
ka, J
. A.,
& J
uare
z, T
. (E
ds.).
(199
2). G
radi
ngan
d m
arki
ng in
Am
eric
an s
choo
ls: T
wo
cent
urie
s of
deb
ate.
Spr
ingf
ield
, IL
:C
harl
es C
. Tho
mas
.L
awre
nce-
Lig
htfo
ot, S
. (20
03).
The
esse
ntia
l con
vers
atio
n: W
hat p
aren
ts a
nd te
ache
rsca
n le
arn
from
eac
h ot
her.
New
Yor
k: B
alla
ntin
e.L
omax
, R. (
1996
). O
n be
com
ing
asse
ssm
ent l
itera
te: A
n in
itial
look
at p
rese
rvic
ete
ache
rs’ b
elie
fs a
nd p
ract
ices
. Tea
cher
Edu
cato
r, 31
(2),
292-
303.
Luk
e, A
. (19
95).
Text
and
dis
cour
se in
edu
catio
n: A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
cri
tical
dis
cour
se.
In M
.W. A
pple
(Ed.
), R
evie
w o
f edu
catio
nal r
esea
rch:
Vol
. 21
(pp.
20-
46),
Was
hing
ton,
DC
: Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n.L
uke,
A. (
2001
). In
trod
uctio
n: T
heor
y an
d pr
actic
e in
cri
tical
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis.
Ret
rieve
dN
ovem
ber 9
, 200
1, fr
om h
ttp://
ww
w.g
seis
.ucl
a.ed
u/co
urse
s/ed
253a
/Luk
e/SA
HA
6.ht
ml
Luke,
C., &
Luke,
A. (1
995).
Just
nam
ing?:
Educa
tional
dis
cours
e an
d the
poli
tics
of
iden
tity
. In
G.
Nob
litt
, W.
Pin
k, &
P. W
exle
r (E
ds.)
Con
tinu
ity
and
cont
radi
ctio
n:
The
futu
re o
f th
e so
ciolo
gy
of ed
uca
tion (
pp. 357-3
80).
Cre
sskil
l, N
J:
Ham
pto
n P
ress
.
Lyons,
N. (1
990).
Dil
emm
as o
f know
ing: E
thic
al a
nd e
pis
tem
olo
gic
al d
imen
sions
of
teac
her
s’ w
ork
and d
evel
opm
ent. H
arv
ard
Educa
tional R
evie
w, 60(1
), 1
59-1
90.
May
lone
, N. (
2004
). W
hy te
ache
r edu
cato
rs s
houl
d ca
re a
bout
the
no c
hild
left
beh
ind
act.
Teac
her
Edu
catio
n an
d P
ract
ice,
17(
2), 1
99-2
10.
Nak
agaw
a, K
. (20
00).
Unt
hrea
ding
the
ties
that
bin
d: Q
uest
ioni
ng th
e di
scou
rse
of p
aren
tin
volv
emen
t. E
duca
tiona
l Pol
icy,
14(
4), 4
43-4
72N
o C
hild
Lef
t Beh
ind
Act
of 2
001,
Pub
. L.,
No.
107
-110
, 115
Sta
t. 14
25.
Nod
ding
s, N
. (19
84).
Car
ing:
A fe
min
ine
appr
oach
to e
thic
s an
d m
oral
edu
catio
n.B
erke
ley,
CA
: Uni
vers
ity o
f Cal
ifor
nia
Pres
s.
46W
ritin
g R
ep
ort
Ca
rds
Rog
ers,
R. (
2002
). B
etw
een
cont
exts
: A c
ritic
al d
isco
urse
ana
lysi
s of
fam
ily li
tera
cy,
disc
ursi
ve p
ract
ices
, and
lite
rate
sub
ject
iviti
es. R
eadi
ng R
esea
rch
Qua
rter
ly,
37(3
), 24
8-27
7.R
oger
s, R
. (20
04).
An
intr
oduc
tion
to c
ritic
al d
isco
urse
ana
lysi
s in
edu
catio
n. In
R.
Rog
ers
(Ed.
), A
n in
trod
uctio
n to
cri
tical
dis
cour
se a
naly
sis
in e
duca
tion.
(pp.
1-18
). M
ahw
ah, N
J: L
awre
nce
Erl
baum
.Sc
hafe
r, W
. D.,
& L
issi
stz,
R. W
. (19
87).
Mea
sure
men
t tra
inin
g fo
r sch
ool p
erso
nnel
.R
ecom
men
datio
ns a
nd re
ality
. Jou
rnal
of T
each
er E
duca
tion,
38(
3), 5
7-63
.Sc
hrye
r,C. (
1993
). R
ecor
ds a
s ge
nre.
Wri
tten
Com
mun
icat
ion,
10(
2),2
00-2
34.
Shan
non,
P. (
2004
). T
he p
ract
ice
of d
emoc
racy
and
Dew
ey’s
cha
lleng
e. L
angu
age
Art
s,82
(1),
16-2
5.Sm
ith, S
. (19
97).
The
gen
re o
f the
end
com
men
t: C
onve
ntio
ns in
teac
her r
espo
nses
tost
uden
t wri
ting.
Col
lege
Com
posi
tion
and
Com
mun
icat
ion,
48(
2), 2
49-2
68.
Stig
gins
,R. J
., Fr
isbi
e, D
. A.,
& G
risw
old,
P. A
. (19
89).
Insi
de h
igh
scho
ol g
radi
ngpr
actic
es: b
uild
ing
a re
sear
ch a
gend
a. E
duca
tiona
l Mea
sure
men
t: Is
sues
and
Pra
ctic
e, 8
(2),
5-14
.Y
oung
s, P
. (20
07).
How
ele
men
tary
pri
ncip
als’
bel
iefs
and
act
ions
infl
uenc
e ne
wte
ache
rs’ e
xper
ienc
es. E
duca
tiona
l Adm
inis
trat
ion
Qua
rter
ly, 4
3(1)
, 101
-137
.
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Jenn
ifer
Tut
en, P
h.D
., is
Ass
ista
nt P
rofe
ssor
of
Edu
cati
on a
t Hun
ter
Col
lege
in N
ew Y
ork
Cit
y, N
ew Y
ork.
Her
res
earc
h in
tere
sts
incl
ude
teac
her-
pare
ntco
mm
unic
atio
n an
d th
e as
sess
men
t and
inst
ruct
ion
of s
trug
glin
g re
ader
s.E
mai
l: jt
uten
@hu
nter
.cun
y.ed
u.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
4
7
Sh
ari
ng
Pers
pecti
ves, P
racti
ces, an
d A
pp
roach
es
Lea
rnin
g A
nyti
me
an
d A
nyw
her
e W
ith
Ad
van
ced
Dis
trib
ute
d L
earn
ing:
Som
e O
pp
ort
un
itie
s an
d C
hall
enges
for
Ed
uca
tors
an
d E
du
cati
on
J. D
. Fle
tche
rIn
stitu
te fo
r Def
ense
Ana
lyse
s
Sigm
und
Tobi
asIn
stitu
te fo
r Urb
an a
nd M
inor
ity E
duca
tion
Teac
hers
Col
lege
, Col
umbi
a U
nive
rsity
Rob
ert A
. Wis
her
Dep
artm
ent o
f Def
ense
Abs
trac
t
The
impl
icat
ions
for e
duca
tors
and
edu
catio
nal i
nstit
utio
ns o
f uni
vers
ally
acc
essi
ble
inst
ruct
iona
l res
ourc
es th
at a
re a
vaila
ble
anyt
ime
and
anyw
here
app
ear t
o be
ext
ensi
vean
d su
bsta
ntia
l. S
ome
impl
icat
ions
can
be
seen
in th
e im
plem
enta
tion
of th
e A
dvan
ced
Dis
trib
uted
Lea
rnin
g in
itiat
ive
and
the
likel
y cu
lmin
atio
n of
tech
nolo
gy a
nd le
arni
ngtr
ends
in in
stru
ctio
n de
liver
ed a
s an
ytim
e-an
ywhe
re tu
tori
al c
onve
rsat
ions
.O
ppor
tuni
ties
for e
duca
tion
incl
ude
mor
e ac
cess
ible
lear
ning
, mor
e in
divi
dual
ized
lear
ning
, and
con
tinuo
us, u
nobt
rusi
ve a
sses
smen
t. C
halle
nges
incl
ude
need
s to
re-a
sses
sth
e ro
les
and
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
of fo
rmal
edu
catio
n, th
e bu
dget
ary
and
othe
r adm
inis
trat
ive
prac
tices
of s
choo
ls, a
nd th
e pr
oced
ures
and
sta
ndar
ds fo
r the
pre
para
tion
of te
ache
rs.
Not
es: T
his
arti
cle
is b
ased
on
a pa
per
deliv
ered
at t
he a
nnua
l con
vent
ion
of th
eA
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion,
Apr
il 2
007.
The
find
ings
, vie
ws,
and
conc
lusi
ons
expr
esse
d in
this
pap
er a
re s
tric
tly th
ose
of th
e au
thor
s an
d do
not
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l pos
ition
s of
the
U.S
. gov
ernm
ent o
r the
Dep
artm
ent o
f Def
ense
.
48A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
The
tim
e m
ay b
e co
min
g, if
it is
not
alr
eady
her
e, w
hen
any
stud
ent c
an a
cces
sav
aila
ble
teac
hing
-lea
rnin
g re
sour
ces
at a
nytim
e an
d fr
om a
nyw
here
, inc
ludi
ng s
choo
ls.
Are
we
read
y fo
r thi
s? D
o w
e kn
ow h
ow to
pre
pare
teac
hers
and
oth
er K
-12
pers
onne
lfo
r suc
h a
futu
re?
For
tuna
tely
for i
ts a
utho
rs, t
his
artic
le a
void
s an
swer
ing
thes
e qu
es-
tions
. In
stea
d w
e ho
pe to
enc
oura
ge o
ther
s, b
ette
r inf
orm
ed a
bout
the
prob
lem
s an
dpr
oces
ses
of K
-12
educ
atio
n th
an a
re w
e, to
see
k an
d de
velo
p th
e ca
pabi
litie
s ne
eded
toen
sure
aff
irm
ativ
e an
swer
s to
thes
e qu
estio
ns.
Our
app
roac
h he
re is
to s
hare
wha
t we
have
lear
ned
from
the
Adv
ance
d D
istr
ibut
ed L
earn
ing
(AD
L) i
nitia
tive
and
disc
uss
the
chal
leng
es a
nd c
apab
ilitie
s th
at m
ay b
e pr
esen
ted
by a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng to
educ
ator
s an
d ed
ucat
iona
l ins
titut
ions
.
The
Adv
ance
d D
istr
ibut
ed L
earn
ing
Initi
ativ
e
The
AD
L in
itiat
ive
was
und
erta
ken
by th
e D
epar
tmen
t of D
efen
se (D
oD) a
t the
requ
est o
f the
Whi
te H
ouse
Off
ice
of S
cien
ce a
nd T
echn
olog
y Po
licy
and
in c
oope
ratio
nw
ith th
e ot
her F
eder
al A
genc
ies.
It i
s in
tend
ed to
lead
all
the
Fede
ral A
genc
ies
inm
akin
g ed
ucat
ion,
trai
ning
, and
job
perf
orm
ance
aid
ing
avai
labl
e an
ytim
e an
d an
ywhe
re.
It is
sup
port
ed b
y co
rres
pond
ence
bet
wee
n th
e O
ffic
e of
Sci
ence
and
Tec
hnol
ogy
Polic
yan
d D
oD a
nd b
y Pr
esid
entia
l Exe
cutiv
e O
rder
s is
sued
by
both
the
prev
ious
and
cur
rent
Adm
inis
trat
ions
.T
he c
entr
al ro
le fo
r DoD
may
sur
pris
e ed
ucat
ors,
but
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch D
oD is
invo
lved
in a
ll le
vels
of i
nstr
uctio
n is
bot
h la
rge
and
com
preh
ensi
ve.
DoD
trai
ning
and
educ
atio
n is
not
lim
ited
to p
eopl
e in
uni
form
. In
add
ition
to 1
.3 m
illio
n m
ilita
ry p
erso
n-ne
l, ab
out 8
00,0
00 c
ivili
an e
mpl
oyee
s re
ceiv
e D
oD-s
uppl
ied
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ng.
Abo
ut 8
5 pe
rcen
t of t
his
inst
ruct
ion
invo
lves
pre
para
tion
for t
asks
, job
s, a
nd o
ccup
atio
nal
skill
s w
ith d
irec
t civ
ilian
cou
nter
part
s (F
letc
her &
Cha
telie
r, 20
00).
The
DoD
als
opr
ovid
es K
-12
scho
olin
g fo
r abo
ut 9
0,00
0 m
ilita
ry d
epen
dent
s bo
th o
vers
eas
and
in th
eU
nite
d St
ates
. T
hese
sch
ools
are
not
ed fo
r the
ir a
bilit
y to
est
ablis
h an
d m
aint
ain
high
leve
ls o
f ach
ieve
men
t am
ong
a di
vers
e an
d m
obile
pop
ulat
ion
of s
tude
nts.
Giv
en th
esc
ope
and
inte
nsity
of t
his
activ
ity, i
t doe
s no
t see
m u
nrea
sona
ble
to e
xpec
t the
Def
ense
com
mun
ity to
exe
rcis
e le
ader
ship
in d
evel
opin
g A
DL
.Le
arni
ng in
AD
L re
fers
equ
ally
to e
duca
tion—
prep
arin
g pe
ople
for l
ife—
and
totr
aini
ng—
prep
arin
g pe
ople
for s
peci
fic ta
sks,
jobs
, and
car
eers
. Dis
trib
uted
refe
rs to
deliv
ery
anyt
ime
and
anyw
here
, inc
ludi
ng fo
rmal
set
tings
suc
h as
cla
ssro
oms
and
scho
ols
but a
lso
info
rmal
ven
ues
such
as
hom
es, w
orkp
lace
s, m
useu
ms,
libr
arie
s,co
mm
unity
cen
ters
, or a
ny p
lace
whe
re s
omeo
ne m
ight
see
k as
sist
ance
in le
arni
ng.
Dis
trib
uted
lear
ning
, in
cont
rast
to d
ista
nce
lear
ning
, is
inte
nded
for u
se e
ither
with
or
with
out t
he p
hysi
cal p
rese
nce
of a
(hum
an) t
each
er.
Adv
ance
d is
mea
nt to
em
phas
ize
lear
ning
that
is p
rese
nted
inte
ract
ivel
y an
d ad
aptiv
ely,
cap
italiz
ing
on th
e ca
pabi
litie
s of
com
pute
r tec
hnol
ogy
to a
djus
t qui
ckly
to th
e ne
eds
of in
divi
dual
lear
ners
. A
dvan
ced
Dis
trib
uted
Lea
rnin
g is
, the
n, im
plem
ente
d vi
a co
mpu
ters
—in
som
e ca
ses
by th
e W
orld
Wid
e W
eb.
AD
L h
as d
evel
oped
spe
cific
atio
ns a
nd te
chni
ques
for p
orta
ble,
sha
rabl
e, a
ndre
usab
le in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts (d
igita
l lea
rnin
g m
ater
ials
that
are
del
iver
able
ove
r the
Inte
rnet
and
can
be
acce
ssed
by
mul
tiple
use
rs).
Its
spec
ifica
tions
are
bei
ng a
dopt
ed b
ygo
vern
men
ts, b
usin
esse
s, a
nd s
choo
ls a
roun
d th
e w
orld
. T
hrou
gh th
e us
e of
thes
eob
ject
s, A
DL
can
pro
vide
sig
nifi
cant
eco
nom
ies
in th
e pr
epar
atio
n of
mat
eria
ls fo
rtr
aini
ng. S
tout
, Slo
sser
, and
Hay
es (2
003)
foun
d th
at a
bout
hal
f of t
he d
evel
opm
ent c
osts
for i
nstr
uctio
nal m
ater
ials
can
be
save
d th
roug
h th
e us
e of
sha
rabl
e in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts.
We
estim
ated
(Fle
tche
r, To
bias
, & W
ishe
r, 20
07) t
hat a
ppro
xim
atel
y si
x m
illio
nsh
arab
le in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed b
y go
vern
men
t, in
dust
ry, a
nd a
ca-
dem
ic in
stitu
tions
for A
DL
. T
he o
bjec
ts c
an b
e de
liver
ed o
ver t
he In
tern
et a
nd/o
r the
Wor
ld W
ide
Web
to m
ultip
le u
sers
who
can
acc
ess
and
use
them
sep
arat
ely
orco
llabo
rativ
ely.
Mos
t of t
hese
obj
ects
are
app
licab
le to
bot
h ed
ucat
ion
and
trai
ning
.T
hey
can
be d
ownl
oade
d, u
sed,
and
reus
ed b
y th
emse
lves
or i
n co
mbi
natio
n w
ith o
ther
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls a
nd b
y as
man
y di
ffer
ent l
earn
ers
for a
s m
any
diff
eren
t pur
pose
sin
as
man
y le
arni
ng c
onte
xts
as n
eede
d.A
DL
is p
rese
ntly
focu
sed
on g
over
nmen
t and
bus
ines
s ap
plic
atio
ns, b
ut it
has
sign
ifica
nt im
plic
atio
ns fo
r the
cla
ssro
om s
truc
ture
s, p
roce
sses
, and
act
iviti
es o
f K-1
2ed
ucat
ion
as w
ell (
Flet
cher
et a
l, 20
07; F
letc
her &
Tob
ias,
200
3).
Dev
elop
men
t of A
DL
has
invo
lved
sof
twar
e en
gine
ers,
inst
ruct
iona
l des
igne
rs, a
nd e
duca
tors
from
gov
ern-
men
t, in
dust
ry, a
nd a
cade
mia
. Fo
r a c
ontin
uing
dis
cuss
ion
of a
ll A
DL
mat
ters
per
tain
ing
to e
duca
tion,
ple
ase
subs
crib
e an
d co
ntri
bute
you
r com
men
ts, i
deas
, and
sug
gest
ions
toth
e co
mpl
imen
tary
AD
L N
ewsl
ette
r fo
r E
duca
tors
and
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rche
rs a
t h
ttp://
ww
w.a
cade
mic
cola
b.or
g/ne
wsl
ette
r/A
DL
new
slet
ter.h
tml.
Why
Tec
hnol
ogy?
It is
diff
icul
t to
conc
eive
of p
ract
ical
way
s to
mak
e A
DL
mat
eria
ls a
vaila
ble
anyt
ime
and
anyw
here
, to
anyo
ne w
ho n
eeds
them
with
out t
he u
se o
f tec
hnol
ogy.
Oth
er re
ason
sto
use
tech
nolo
gy s
tem
from
two
pere
nnia
l cha
lleng
es to
cla
ssro
om in
stru
ctio
n: p
ace
ofle
arni
ng a
nd a
ctiv
e en
gage
men
t.
Lea
rnin
g Pa
ce a
nd C
lass
room
Ins
truc
tion
Man
y te
ache
rs h
ave
been
str
uck
by th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
the
pace
with
whi
ch th
eir
stud
ents
lear
n. H
ere
are
som
e fi
ndin
gs a
bout
the
ratio
s of
tim
e ne
eded
for d
iffer
ent
stud
ents
in d
iffer
ent d
omai
ns to
reac
h th
e sa
me
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
e:
• 13
:1 b
y ki
nder
gart
en s
tude
nts
to b
uild
wor
ds fr
om le
tters
(Sup
pes,
196
4).
• 4:
1 fo
r stu
dent
s w
ith h
eari
ng im
pair
men
ts a
nd N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
stu
dent
s to
reac
h
mat
hem
atic
s ob
ject
ives
(Sup
pes,
Fle
tche
r, &
Zan
otti,
197
5).
•5:
1 fo
r ind
ivid
ual s
tude
nts
lear
ning
in g
rade
s K
-8 (G
ettin
ger,
1984
).•
7:1
by u
nder
grad
uate
s to
lear
n fe
atur
es o
f the
Lis
t Pro
cess
ing
(LIS
P) p
rogr
amm
ing
la
ngua
ge (P
rivat
e co
mm
unic
atio
n, C
orbe
tt, 1
998)
.
The
mag
nitu
des
of th
e di
ffer
ence
s in
pac
e ar
e re
mar
kabl
e. A
s G
ettin
ger’
s re
view
sugg
ests
, a ty
pica
l cla
ssro
om w
ill h
ave
stud
ents
who
are
pre
pare
d to
lear
n in
one
day
wha
t it w
ill ta
ke o
ther
s in
the
sam
e cl
assr
oom
five
day
s to
lear
n.T
his
dive
rsity
pre
sent
s da
untin
g ch
alle
nges
to te
ache
rs.
How
can
they
ens
ure
that
ever
y st
uden
t has
eno
ugh
time
to re
ach
give
n in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
? O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, how
can
they
ena
ble
stud
ents
who
mas
tere
d th
e co
nten
t to
mov
e ah
ead?
Des
pite
hero
ic e
ffor
ts b
y te
ache
rs to
reso
lve
thes
e is
sues
, stu
dent
div
ersi
ty re
mai
ns a
ser
ious
chal
leng
e in
our
cla
ssro
oms
of 2
0 to
30
stud
ents
. M
any
clas
ses
cont
ain
stud
ents
who
, at
one
end
of th
e sp
ectr
um, a
re b
ored
and
, at t
he o
ther
, are
ove
rwhe
lmed
and
lost
.
49A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
50A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
Act
ive
Eng
agem
ent a
nd C
lass
room
Ins
truc
tion
Gra
esse
r and
Per
son
(199
4) c
ompa
red
inst
ruct
ion
usin
g on
e-on
-one
tuto
ring
with
clas
sroo
m p
ract
ice
in tw
o cu
rric
ulum
are
as: r
esea
rch
met
hods
for c
olle
ge u
nder
grad
uate
san
d al
gebr
a fo
r se
vent
h-gr
ader
s. T
utor
s fo
r th
e re
sear
ch m
etho
ds c
ours
e w
ere
psyc
holo
gy g
radu
ate
stud
ents
and
alg
ebra
tuto
rs w
ere
high
-sch
ool s
tude
nts.
Gra
esse
ran
d Pe
rson
repo
rt th
e fo
llow
ing
data
rega
rdin
g th
e av
erag
e nu
mbe
r of q
uest
ions
in a
clas
sroo
m h
our a
sked
by
• a
teac
her:
3.00
• a
stu
dent
:0.
11
Her
e ar
e da
ta o
n th
e av
erag
e nu
mbe
r of q
uest
ions
in a
tuto
ring
hou
r ask
ed b
y
• a
stu
dent
and
ans
wer
ed b
y a
tuto
r in
rese
arch
met
hods
: 2
1.1
• a
stu
dent
and
ans
wer
ed b
y a
tuto
r in
alge
bra:
32.
2•
a tu
tor a
nd a
nsw
ered
by
a st
uden
t in
rese
arch
met
hods
:11
7.2
• a
tuto
r and
ans
wer
ed b
y a
stud
ent i
n al
gebr
a:14
6.4
The
se fi
ndin
gs s
ugge
st s
tude
nts
bein
g tu
tore
d on
e-on
-one
are
mor
e ac
tivel
y en
gage
din
thei
r lea
rnin
g th
an th
ose
in o
ne-o
n-m
any
clas
sroo
ms.
The
se d
iffe
renc
es in
inte
ract
ivity
app
ear t
o be
link
ed to
ach
ieve
men
t. B
loom
(198
4) c
ompa
red
one-
on-o
netu
tori
ng w
ith
clas
sroo
m in
stru
ctio
n an
d fo
und
an im
prov
emen
t in
achi
evem
ent
appr
oxim
atin
g an
incr
ease
from
the
50th
to 9
8th
perc
entil
e. B
loom
’s fi
ndin
gs, a
nd th
ose
of o
ther
s, s
ugge
st th
at, l
ike
the
data
abo
ut in
tera
ctiv
ity, d
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n th
e re
sults
of
one-
on-o
ne tu
tori
ng a
nd c
lass
room
inst
ruct
ion
are
very
larg
e. W
hy, t
hen,
don
’t w
epr
ovid
e th
ese
bene
fits
to a
ll st
uden
ts?
The
ans
wer
is o
bvio
us:
We
can’
t aff
ord
it.
Tech
nolo
gy in
Edu
catio
n
Ent
er te
chno
logy
. C
ompu
ters
can
pro
vide
inst
ruct
ion
that
pro
ceed
s as
qui
ckly
as
stud
ents
wis
h or
as
slow
ly a
s th
ey n
eed.
The
y ca
n pr
esen
t que
stio
ns ta
ilore
d to
max
imiz
eth
e st
uden
t’s ra
te o
f lea
rnin
g (F
letc
her e
t al.,
200
7), a
nd th
ey c
an a
llow
eith
er th
e st
uden
tor
the
mac
hine
to ta
ke th
e in
itiat
ive
in a
skin
g qu
estio
ns in
a m
ixed
-ini
tiativ
e le
arni
ngdi
alog
ue (C
arbo
nell,
197
0).
As
a bo
nus,
Moo
re’s
Law
con
tinue
s to
ope
rate
. In
196
5G
ordo
n M
oore
, a fo
unde
r of I
ntel
, not
ed th
at e
ngin
eers
wer
e do
ublin
g th
e nu
mbe
r of
elec
tron
ic d
evic
es (b
asic
ally
tran
sist
ors)
on
chip
s ev
ery
year
. In
197
5, M
oore
revi
sed
his
stat
emen
t to
say
that
the
doub
ling
was
occ
urri
ng e
very
two
year
s in
stea
d of
one
. If
we
split
the
diff
eren
ce a
nd p
redi
ct th
at it
will
occ
ur e
very
18
mon
ths,
our
exp
ecta
tions
fit
real
ity q
uite
clo
sely
(Ser
vice
, 199
6).
One
eff
ect o
f Moo
re’s
Law
is th
at c
ompu
ters
initi
ally
sel
ling
for,
say,
$1,
000
will
cos
t abo
ut h
alf t
hat i
n 18
mon
ths
with
littl
e, if
any
,lo
ss o
f cap
abili
ty.
In e
ffec
t, co
mpu
ters
are
mak
ing
indi
vidu
aliz
ed in
stru
ctio
n af
ford
able
.R
esul
ts fr
om th
e us
e of
com
pute
rs in
inst
ruct
ion
are
prom
isin
g. R
evie
ws
acro
ssm
any
asse
ssm
ents
of
com
pute
r-ba
sed
inst
ruct
ion
have
sug
gest
ed in
crea
ses
that
appr
oxim
ate
rais
ing
stud
ent a
chie
vem
ent f
rom
the
50th
per
cent
ile to
any
whe
re fr
om65
th to
the
85th
per
cent
ile (F
letc
her,
2003
). T
hese
are
sta
tistic
al s
umm
arie
s; th
ey d
o no
tsp
ecif
y ca
use
and
effe
ct. H
owev
er, i
t see
ms
reas
onab
le to
exp
ect t
hat a
djus
tmen
ts fo
rpa
ce a
nd in
crea
sed
inte
ract
ivity
con
trib
ute
to th
e re
sults
. O
vera
ll, th
e da
ta s
ugge
st th
at
com
pute
rs c
an b
e us
ed s
ucce
ssfu
lly fo
r ins
truc
tion
in a
var
iety
of a
reas
. T
he p
rope
rba
lanc
e be
twee
n hu
man
tuto
rs, c
lass
room
teac
hers
, and
com
pute
rs c
lear
ly re
quir
es m
ore
rese
arch
.W
e ca
n no
w e
nvis
ion
a w
orld
in w
hich
all
hum
an k
now
ledg
e is
ava
ilabl
e an
ytim
ean
d an
ywhe
re to
any
stu
dent
via
the
Wor
ld W
ide
Web
. T
he e
mer
genc
e of
wik
is, b
logs
,in
stan
t mes
sagi
ng, a
nd c
hat r
oom
s en
able
stu
dent
s to
col
lect
info
rmat
ion
and
colla
bora
tew
ith o
ne a
noth
er to
sol
ve p
robl
ems,
form
opi
nion
s, a
nd d
iscu
ss a
ll m
atte
rs g
reat
and
smal
l. L
esso
ns, s
imul
atio
ns, a
nd te
sts
can
be d
ownl
oade
d. I
nstr
uctio
nal o
ne-o
n-on
edi
alog
ues
betw
een
stud
ents
and
indi
vidu
al in
stru
ctor
s, c
ompu
ter
and
hum
an, a
rebe
com
ing
incr
easi
ngly
rout
ine.
All
this
act
ivity
sug
gest
s th
at w
e ar
e ra
cing
into
an
anyt
ime-
anyw
here
dis
trib
uted
lear
ning
futu
re.
So, W
here
Are
We
Hea
ded?
In th
e fu
ture
lear
ning
any
time
and
anyw
here
may
be
deliv
ered
by
Pers
onal
Lea
rnin
gA
ssoc
iate
s (P
LA
s), w
hich
cou
ld b
ecom
e as
pre
vale
nt a
nd w
idel
y us
ed a
s to
day’
s PD
As,
iPO
Ds,
and
cel
l tel
epho
nes.
PL
As
will
be
smal
l eno
ugh
to b
e ca
rrie
d in
a p
ocke
t or e
ven
wor
n as
clo
thin
g. (T
hey
coul
d ev
en b
e im
plan
ted,
but
let’s
set
that
pos
sibi
lity
asid
e fo
rth
e m
omen
t.) T
hey
wil
l be
used
by
indi
vidu
als
lear
ning
alo
ne, i
n w
eb-b
ased
col
-la
bora
tive
lear
ning
, or i
n cl
assr
oom
s. P
LA
s w
ill c
ombi
ne w
irel
ess
com
mun
icat
ion
from
the
Web
with
dat
a fr
om th
eir o
wn
mem
orie
s to
ass
embl
e ob
ject
s, in
tera
ctio
ns, a
ndpr
esen
tatio
ns in
to in
stru
ctio
nal i
nter
actio
ns o
n de
man
d an
d in
real
-tim
e—an
ytim
e an
dan
ywhe
re—
to m
eet t
he in
divi
dual
nee
ds o
f stu
dent
s. M
ost o
f the
har
dwar
e te
chno
logy
need
ed fo
r PL
As
exis
ts n
ow.
A s
igni
fican
t por
tion
of th
e so
ftw
are
tech
nolo
gy a
lso
exis
ts—
incl
udin
g th
e ne
cess
ary
obje
ct-o
rien
ted
prog
ram
min
g te
chni
ques
for
ma-
nipu
latin
g an
d m
anag
ing
the
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
nee
ded
to re
aliz
e PL
A c
apab
ilitie
s.T
he in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts d
eliv
ered
to P
LA
s w
ill b
e re
trie
ved
from
the
Web
. To
be
usef
ul, t
hey
mus
t be
(a) a
cces
sibl
e, s
o a
serv
er (c
ompu
ter)
can
find
them
; (b)
por
tabl
e,so
they
func
tion
succ
essf
ully
on
wha
teve
r dev
ice
the
serv
er s
ends
them
to; (
c) d
urab
le,
so th
ey w
ill fu
nctio
n re
gard
less
of u
pdat
es in
ser
vers
or s
uppo
rtin
g so
ftw
are;
and
(d)
reus
able
, so
they
find
wid
e us
e ac
ross
man
y ap
plic
atio
ns.
The
se q
ualit
ies
are
prec
isel
yth
e cr
iteri
a fo
r Sha
rabl
e C
onte
nt O
bjec
ts d
evel
oped
for A
DL
. Sp
ecifi
catio
ns fo
r the
seob
ject
s ar
e fo
und
in th
e Sh
arab
le C
onte
nt O
bjec
t Ref
eren
ce M
odel
(SC
OR
M).
SCO
RM
SCO
RM
spe
cifie
s st
anda
rdiz
ed p
roce
dure
s fo
r com
mun
icat
ing
betw
een
shar
able
cont
ent o
bjec
ts; i
t is
unde
r con
tinua
l dev
elop
men
t and
its
curr
ent v
ersi
on c
an b
e fo
und
atw
ww
.adl
net.o
rg.
Succ
essi
ve v
ersi
ons
are
able
to a
ccom
mod
ate
an in
crea
sing
var
iety
of
inst
ruct
iona
l app
roac
hes.
AD
L h
as fo
cuse
d on
the
deve
lopm
ent,
impl
emen
tatio
n, a
ndus
e of
sha
reab
le c
onte
nt o
bjec
ts.
Such
obj
ects
cou
ld b
e en
tire
cour
ses;
less
ons
with
inco
urse
s; m
odul
es w
ithin
less
ons;
or m
ater
ial n
ot s
een
by s
tude
nts
but u
sed
to re
gist
erth
em, r
epor
t on
thei
r pro
gres
s, a
ggre
gate
them
into
cla
sses
, or s
tore
dat
a ne
eded
to ta
ilor
inst
ruct
ion
to th
eir n
eeds
(Dod
ds &
Fle
tche
r, 20
04).
The
obj
ects
cou
ld a
lso
be a
lgo-
rith
ms
that
agg
rega
te, i
nteg
rate
, and
seq
uenc
e ot
her o
bjec
ts n
eede
d to
man
age
stud
ent
prog
ress
. G
ibbo
ns, N
elso
n, a
nd R
icha
rds
(200
0) e
mph
asiz
e th
at th
e ob
ject
s w
ill b
e m
ost
usef
ul if
they
are
sm
all e
noug
h to
be
used
with
out m
ajor
mod
ifica
tions
acr
oss
a va
riet
yof
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls.
51A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
52A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
SCO
RM
-con
form
ant i
nstr
uctio
nal o
bjec
ts d
o no
t req
uire
a s
tand
ard
com
pute
rco
nfig
urat
ion,
ope
ratin
g sy
stem
, bro
wse
r, au
thor
ing
tool
, or p
rogr
amm
ing
lang
uage
.In
stea
d, d
evel
oper
s m
ay d
o w
hate
ver i
s ne
eded
with
in e
ach
obje
ct w
hile
SC
OR
Msp
ecifi
catio
ns e
nsur
e re
liabl
e co
mm
unic
atio
n am
ong
obje
cts
and
betw
een
obje
cts
and
othe
r ins
truc
tiona
l res
ourc
es.
Exa
mpl
es o
f ins
truc
tiona
l obj
ects
for e
duca
tiona
l pur
pose
s,an
d ho
w th
ey m
ay b
e ac
cess
ed, a
re g
iven
in th
e la
st is
sue
(No.
5) o
f the
AD
L N
ewsl
ette
rfo
r E
duca
tors
and
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rche
rs p
revi
ousl
y de
scri
bed.
An
impo
rtan
t nex
t ste
p in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ins
truc
tiona
l obj
ects
is to
enh
ance
thei
rca
pabi
litie
s fo
r res
pond
ing
to le
arne
r ach
ieve
men
t, pr
ogre
ss, a
s w
ell a
s ne
eds
and
bodi
esof
kno
wle
dge
by in
crea
sing
the
pote
ntia
l for
reco
gniz
ing
sem
antic
link
ages
am
ong
them
.T
his
poin
t bri
ngs
us to
the
Sem
antic
Web
.
Sem
antic
Web
The
Sem
anti
c W
eb (
Ber
ners
-Lee
, Hen
dler
, & L
assi
la, 2
001)
, whi
ch is
bei
ngde
velo
ped
unde
r the
aus
pice
s of
the
Wor
ld W
ide
Web
Con
sort
ium
, is
also
incl
uded
inA
DL
pla
nnin
g. I
ts g
oal i
s to
impr
ove
coop
erat
ion
betw
een
com
pute
rs a
nd h
uman
bei
ngs
by im
buin
g W
eb in
form
atio
n w
ith m
eani
ng.
It is
inte
nded
to id
entif
y an
d ex
pose
sem
antic
link
ages
bet
wee
n bo
dies
of k
now
ledg
e re
gard
less
of h
ow d
ispa
rate
they
may
appe
ar to
be
(e.g
., C
hand
rase
kara
n, J
osep
hson
, & B
enja
min
s, 1
999)
. If
ther
e ar
ese
man
tic li
nkag
es b
etw
een
thir
d-gr
ade
geog
raph
y an
d qu
antu
m m
echa
nics
, to
cite
an
extr
eme
exam
ple,
the
Sem
antic
Web
will
find
them
.B
y no
ting
sem
antic
link
ages
, the
Sem
antic
Web
will
allo
w in
stru
ctio
nal p
rogr
ams
tocr
eate
mod
els
of s
ubje
ct m
atte
r dom
ains
as
wel
l as
lear
ners
’ lev
els
of m
aste
ry.
It w
illhe
lp d
iffer
ent a
pplic
atio
ns ru
nnin
g on
diff
eren
t ope
ratin
g sy
stem
s, d
evel
oped
with
diff
eren
t obj
ect m
odel
s us
ing
diff
eren
t pro
gram
min
g la
ngua
ges
to c
oope
rate
and
bec
ome
incr
easi
ngly
cap
able
edu
catio
nal a
pplic
atio
ns.
The
Sem
antic
Web
will
sig
nific
antly
expa
nd o
ur c
apab
ilitie
s fo
r mod
elin
g st
uden
t kno
wle
dge
and
achi
evem
ent.
It w
ill e
nabl
em
ajor
adv
ance
s ov
er th
e cu
rren
t tex
t-cr
awlin
g pr
oced
ures
use
d by
Web
sea
rch
engi
nes,
and
it w
ill d
o m
uch
to e
nhan
ce th
e ca
pabi
litie
s of
any
time-
anyw
here
lear
ning
.
Inst
ruct
iona
l Dia
logu
e an
d In
stru
ctio
n as
Con
vers
atio
n
In th
e an
ytim
e-an
ywhe
re f
utur
e en
visi
oned
by
AD
L, i
nstr
ucti
on m
ay s
tres
sco
nver
satio
ns b
etw
een
stud
ents
and
the
inst
ruct
iona
l del
iver
y sy
stem
, rat
her t
han
dida
ctic
pre
sent
atio
ns o
f mat
eria
l. A
DL
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
can
bui
ld a
nd in
corp
orat
em
odel
s of
stu
dent
com
pete
nce
and
achi
evem
ent d
eriv
ed fr
om th
ese
conv
ersa
tions
, jus
t as
othe
r tec
hnol
ogy-
base
d ap
proa
ches
to e
duca
tion
have
don
e fo
r som
e tim
e (e
.g.,
Flet
cher
,19
75).
The
se m
odel
s ar
e es
sent
ial i
n ad
aptin
g in
stru
ctio
n to
the
need
s, a
bilit
ies,
and
back
grou
nds
of le
arne
rs.
Com
pute
r-ba
sed
tuto
ring
sys
tem
s de
velo
ped
from
the
1970
s (e
.g.,
Bro
wn,
Bur
ton,
& d
eKle
er, 1
982)
unt
il to
day
(e.g
., G
raes
ser,
Ger
nsba
cher
, & G
oldm
an, 2
003)
hav
e us
edm
ixed
-ini
tiativ
e di
alog
ues,
whi
ch a
llow
eith
er s
tude
nts
or th
e tu
tori
ng s
yste
m to
initi
ate
inte
ract
ions
. T
hese
sys
tem
s ha
ve d
emon
stra
ted
both
the
feas
ibili
ty a
nd u
tility
of n
atur
alla
ngua
ge in
tera
ctio
ns in
tech
nolo
gy-b
ased
inst
ruct
ion.
An
illus
trat
ive
exam
ple
of s
uch
a co
nver
satio
n ad
apte
d fr
om a
n in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
na
stud
ent a
nd S
OPH
IE, a
n el
ectr
onic
trou
bles
hoot
ing
tuto
ring
sys
tem
(Bro
wn,
Bur
ton,
& D
eKle
er,
1982
), fo
llow
s. I
n th
is e
xam
ple,
the
stud
ent i
s le
arni
ng to
find
a fa
ult i
ntro
duce
d in
to a
pow
er s
uppl
y by
the
SOPH
IE in
stru
ctio
nal m
ater
ials
.
Stud
ent:
Wha
t is
the
base
em
itter
vol
tage
of t
he v
olta
ge li
miti
ng tr
ansi
stor
?SO
PHIE
:T
he b
ase
emitt
er v
olta
ge o
f Q5
is -0
.037
vol
t.
The
stu
dent
-SO
PHIE
inte
ract
ion
in th
is e
xam
ple
is a
str
aigh
tfor
war
d qu
estio
n an
dan
swer
. SO
PHIE
has
intr
oduc
ed a
faul
t int
o th
e si
mul
ated
pow
er s
uppl
y, a
nd th
e st
uden
tis
tryi
ng to
loca
te a
nd re
pair
it.
Stud
ent:
Wha
t abo
ut th
e vo
ltage
for t
he c
urre
nt li
miti
ng tr
ansi
stor
?SO
PHIE
:T
he b
ase
emitt
er v
olta
ge o
f Q8
is 0
.349
vol
t.
The
sec
ond
inte
ract
ion
is le
ss s
trai
ghtf
orw
ard.
In
addi
tion
to s
imul
atin
g th
e fa
ulte
dpo
wer
sup
ply,
SO
PHIE
mus
t par
se th
e di
alog
ue s
uffic
ient
ly to
kno
w th
at th
e st
uden
t is
aski
ng fo
r the
bas
e em
itter
vol
tage
of t
rans
isto
r Q8.
Stud
ent:
Wha
t sho
uld
it be
?SO
PHIE
:In
a w
orki
ng c
ircu
it, th
e ba
se e
mitt
er v
olta
ge o
f Q8
is 0
.593
vol
t.
The
thir
d in
tera
ctio
n co
ntin
ues
its d
epen
denc
e on
SO
PHIE
’s u
nder
stan
ding
of
cont
ext a
nd d
ialo
gue.
Not
ably
the
dial
ogue
requ
ires
SO
PHIE
to e
xtra
ct a
nsw
ers
bysi
mul
atin
g bo
th th
e fa
ulte
d po
wer
sup
ply
and
one
that
is o
pera
ting
corr
ectly
.
Stud
ent:
Rep
lace
Q8.
SOPH
IE:
I am
goi
ng to
ask
you
som
e qu
estio
ns a
bout
how
Q8
is fa
ulte
d. A
re a
nyju
nctio
ns s
hort
ed?
The
four
th in
tera
ctio
n go
es a
ste
p be
yond
wha
t Bro
wn
et a
l. (1
982)
des
crib
ed a
skn
owle
dgea
ble
beha
vior
by
SOPH
IE to
wha
t the
y co
nsid
ered
to b
e in
telli
gent
beh
avio
r.In
it S
OPH
IE h
as c
ontin
ued
to e
xerc
ise
its c
apab
ility
to p
arse
stu
dent
que
stio
ns, s
imul
ate
vari
ous
stat
es o
f the
pow
er s
uppl
y, a
nd th
en p
rovi
de a
nsw
ers,
but
it a
lso
appe
ars
to h
ave
exer
cise
d w
hat m
ight
be
calle
d tu
tori
al in
telli
genc
e. N
ote
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f hav
ing
deve
lope
d a
mod
el o
f stu
dent
pro
gres
s to
man
age
the
conv
ersa
tion.
SO
PHIE
has
shad
owed
the
stud
ent’s
sol
utio
n pa
ths,
mod
eled
his
/her
trou
bles
hoot
ing
hypo
thes
es,
dete
rmin
ed th
at th
ey w
ere
inco
rrec
t, an
d th
en to
ok o
ver t
he d
ialo
gue
initi
ativ
e in
ord
er to
purs
ue a
ser
ies
of tu
tori
al in
tera
ctio
ns in
tend
ed to
gui
de th
e st
uden
t to
a co
rrec
t sol
utio
n.SO
PHIE
pro
vide
s an
exa
mpl
e of
bot
h in
divi
dual
izat
ion
and
goal
-ori
ente
d, tu
tori
al,
prob
lem
-sol
ving
con
vers
atio
ns b
etw
een
lear
ners
and
a c
ompu
ter-
tuto
r. S
uch
conv
ersa
-tio
ns c
ould
als
o po
int l
earn
ers
to p
re-s
tore
d di
dact
ic le
sson
s, te
sts,
sim
ulat
ions
, and
oth
erpr
esen
tatio
ns o
r lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
ts.
The
ada
ptat
ion
of in
stru
ctio
n in
this
con
vers
atio
nar
ises
from
a m
odel
of t
he s
tude
nt g
ener
ated
by
the
syst
em d
urin
g th
e di
alog
ue a
nd a
mod
el d
escr
ibin
g th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
the
cont
ent.
53A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
54A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
AD
L c
apab
ilitie
s ca
n be
use
d in
cla
ssro
oms
and
anyw
here
els
e. A
pplie
d ap
prop
ri-
atel
y, th
ey c
an b
e m
inim
ally
dis
rupt
ive
to th
e or
gani
zatio
n an
d cu
lture
of a
ny s
choo
l. In
addi
tion
to b
eing
rela
tivel
y un
cons
trai
ned
by th
e co
mpu
ter s
yste
ms
used
, the
y ca
n be
used
acr
oss
a va
riet
y of
sch
ool o
rgan
izat
ions
and
cla
ssro
om a
ppro
ache
s ra
ngin
g fr
omin
quir
y-or
ient
ed c
lass
es to
rela
tivel
y tr
aditi
onal
one
s.In
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts c
an b
e us
ed to
sup
port
app
roac
hes
such
as
situ
ated
lear
ning
(Paa
vola
, Lip
pone
n, &
Hak
kara
inen
, 200
4), f
acili
tate
d co
mm
uniti
es o
f lea
rner
s (B
row
n&
Cam
pion
e, 1
994)
, anc
hore
d in
stru
ctio
n, (C
ogni
tion
& T
echn
olog
y G
roup
at
Van
derb
ilt, 1
997)
, and
cas
e-ba
sed
lear
ning
(Alle
n, O
tto, &
Hof
fman
, 200
0).
Teac
hers
have
bee
n ur
ged
to c
onsi
der c
hang
ing
thei
r ins
truc
tiona
l pra
ctic
e “F
rom
sag
e on
the
stag
eto
gui
de o
n th
e si
de.”
In
this
vie
w, i
nstr
ucto
rs d
eem
phas
ize
the
deliv
ery
of in
stru
ctio
nal
cont
ent a
nd s
tres
s pr
ovid
ing
guid
ance
to s
tude
nts
in lo
catin
g an
d us
ing
appr
opri
ate
inst
ruct
iona
l res
ourc
es, m
uch
the
way
a c
oach
or i
ndiv
idua
l tut
or m
ight
. T
he a
vaila
bilit
yof
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
can
faci
litat
e su
ch a
tran
sitio
n by
hel
ping
stu
dent
s le
arn
toex
plor
e, a
naly
ze, a
nd s
ynth
esiz
e in
form
atio
n fr
om a
var
iety
of s
ourc
es w
hile
rece
ivin
ggu
idan
ce fr
om th
eir t
each
ers.
The
obj
ects
cou
ld b
e us
ed in
trad
ition
al te
ache
r-le
d cl
asse
s by
ass
igni
ng th
em to
one
stud
ent,
a cl
ass
sub-
grou
p, o
r the
who
le c
lass
. St
uden
ts c
ould
wor
k on
obj
ects
in s
choo
lor
as
hom
ewor
k, w
orki
ng a
lone
, in
smal
l gro
ups,
or i
n ph
ysic
ally
sep
arat
e bu
t net
wor
ked
loca
tions
. Sim
ilarl
y, in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts c
ould
be
refe
renc
ed in
cur
ricu
lum
gui
des,
wor
kboo
ks, a
nd te
ache
rs’ e
ditio
ns o
f tex
tboo
ks.
We
hope
that
teac
her e
duca
tors
will
aler
t tom
orro
w’s
teac
hers
to th
e av
aila
bilit
y of
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
and
way
s to
use
them
to a
chie
ve e
duca
tiona
l goa
ls.
Man
y te
ache
rs a
nd te
ache
r edu
cato
rs h
ave
an u
nder
stan
dabl
e sk
eptic
ism
abo
ut h
owhe
lpfu
l tec
hnol
ogy
can
be.
Such
dou
bts
may
ste
m fr
om th
e en
thus
iasm
that
sup
port
ers
of te
chno
logy
oft
en b
ring
to e
duca
tion
whe
re p
rom
ises
hav
e ou
tstr
ippe
d w
hat t
echn
olog
yha
s de
liver
ed.
The
adv
ent o
f any
time-
anyw
here
inst
ruct
ion
and
adva
nces
in b
oth
inst
ruct
iona
l psy
chol
ogy
and
educ
atio
nal t
echn
olog
y su
gges
t tha
t we
may
be
at a
poi
ntw
hen
tech
nolo
gy c
an d
eliv
er o
n its
pro
mis
es to
sup
port
edu
catio
n.In
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts c
an b
e us
ed w
hile
we
are
still
lear
ning
the
best
way
s to
app
lyth
em.
Com
pute
r-ba
sed
educ
atio
n w
as u
sed
in s
choo
ls b
efor
e de
finiti
ve e
vide
nce
of it
sva
lue
accu
mul
ated
(Tob
ias,
198
5).
Nov
el in
stru
ctio
nal a
rran
gem
ents
are
bei
ng im
ple-
men
ted
whi
le e
vide
nce
of th
eir e
ffec
tiven
ess
is s
till b
eing
col
lect
ed (e
.g.,
Duf
fy &
Kir
kley
, 200
3; P
aavo
la e
t al.,
200
4).
Whe
n an
ytim
e-an
ywhe
re in
stru
ctio
n an
d in
stru
c-tio
nal o
bjec
ts b
ecom
e ub
iqui
tous
in b
usin
ess,
indu
stry
, the
gov
ernm
ent,
and
the
mili
tary
,it
seem
s lik
ely
that
they
will
be
used
in s
choo
ls e
ven
as re
sear
ch d
ealin
g w
ith th
eir
effe
ctiv
enes
s an
d ap
plic
abili
ty c
ontin
ues.
Fina
lly, a
n at
trac
tive
aspe
ct o
f ins
truc
tiona
l obj
ects
is th
at o
nce
stud
ents
hav
e le
arne
dto
retr
ieve
them
they
can
do
so w
hene
ver t
heir
cur
iosi
ty h
as b
een
arou
sed.
The
read
yac
cess
ibili
ty o
f AD
L o
bjec
ts c
an h
elp
educ
ator
s an
d st
uden
ts ta
ke b
est a
dvan
tage
of
“tea
chab
le m
omen
ts,”
whi
ch w
e ha
ve d
iscu
ssed
els
ewhe
re (F
letc
her e
t al.,
200
7).
The
avai
labi
lity
of in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts to
aro
use
and/
or s
atis
fy c
urio
sity
, hel
p st
uden
ts s
olve
prob
lem
s of
imm
edia
te in
tere
st to
them
, or s
impl
y to
com
plet
e as
sign
ed s
choo
lwor
kan
ytim
e an
d an
ywhe
re, m
ay m
ake
the
obje
cts
as v
alua
ble
and
ubiq
uito
us in
edu
catio
nal
setti
ngs
as th
ey a
lrea
dy a
re in
trai
ning
con
text
s.
Impl
icat
ions
for
Edu
catio
n
At l
east
thre
e ge
nera
l ben
efits
, and
som
e ch
alle
nges
can
ari
se fr
om A
DL
teac
hing
-lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
ts:
Ben
efits
and
Cha
lleng
es
55A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
Mor
e in
divi
dual
izat
ion.
The
se e
nvir
onm
ents
can
take
wha
teve
r dir
ectio
n an
d pa
cem
ight
be
need
ed.
Inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
all
ow a
ffor
dabl
e on
-dem
and,
rea
l-ti
me,
resp
onsi
ve in
tera
ctiv
ity to
be
mor
e ne
arly
real
ized
(Gib
bons
et a
l., 2
000)
. In
con
tras
t to
trai
ning
, doi
ng s
o se
ems
espe
cial
ly im
port
ant i
n ed
ucat
ion
whe
re o
bjec
tives
may
be
nego
tiabl
e as
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s w
ork
to id
entif
y an
d de
velo
p th
eir a
bilit
ies,
inte
rest
s,an
d va
lues
.C
ontin
uous
ass
essm
ent.
Ass
essm
ent i
n in
stru
ctio
nal c
onve
rsat
ions
can
bec
ome
cont
inuo
us a
nd le
ss in
trus
ive
as c
apab
ilitie
s fo
r gen
erat
ing
mod
els
of in
divi
dual
lear
ners
from
thei
r ins
truc
tiona
l int
erac
tions
evo
lve.
Suc
h as
sess
men
t may
occ
ur b
y no
ting
the
lear
ner’
s vo
cabu
lary
, use
of t
echn
ical
info
rmat
ion,
leve
l of a
bstr
actio
n, c
lust
erin
g(c
hunk
ing)
of c
once
pts,
hyp
othe
sis
form
atio
n, a
nd th
e lik
e. T
hese
cap
abili
ties
have
yet
to b
e fu
lly e
xplo
red
and
veri
fied,
but
eno
ugh
rese
arch
has
bee
n co
mpl
eted
to s
ugge
stth
eir p
rom
ise
for t
he a
dapt
ive
asse
ssm
ent o
f kno
wle
dge
and
abili
ties
need
ed to
tailo
rin
stru
ctio
n to
lear
ners
’ nee
ds (F
letc
her,
2002
). E
xplic
it te
stin
g an
d pr
obin
g m
ay s
till b
ene
eded
to a
sses
s le
arne
r pro
gres
s ef
ficie
ntly
. T
he o
ptim
al d
esig
n an
d de
velo
pmen
t of
asse
ssm
ents
cap
italiz
ing
on a
ll ex
istin
g an
d em
ergi
ng c
apab
ilitie
s is
a c
halle
nge
for
educ
ator
s, in
stru
ctio
nal d
esig
ners
, and
the
test
ing
com
mun
ity to
inte
grat
e ev
alua
tion
with
inst
ruct
ion
as B
aker
(200
3), a
mon
g ot
hers
, hav
e st
rong
ly re
com
men
ded.
Mor
e le
arni
ng.
Incr
easi
ng th
e ac
cess
ibili
ty o
f lea
rnin
g re
sour
ces
is a
wor
thy
goal
for b
oth
educ
ator
s an
d in
stru
ctio
nal d
evel
oper
s. R
esul
ts fr
om re
sear
ch o
n tu
tori
ng,
indi
vidu
aliz
atio
n of
inst
ruct
ion,
and
com
pute
r bas
ed in
stru
ctio
n su
gges
t tha
t stu
dent
lear
ning
can
be
enha
nced
by
the
incr
ease
d ac
cess
ibili
ty p
rovi
ded
by in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
ts.
The
act
ive
part
icip
atio
n of
edu
cato
rs in
the
proc
ess
is im
port
ant t
o as
sure
that
the
obje
cts
are
max
imal
ly u
sefu
l for
edu
catio
n.
Som
e C
halle
nges
Teac
her
prep
arat
ion.
Onc
e an
ytim
e-an
ywhe
re in
stru
ctio
nal r
esou
rces
, as
impl
emen
ted
by A
DL
, are
incr
easi
ngly
use
d by
stu
dent
s, a
num
ber o
f iss
ues
will
hav
e to
be a
ddre
ssed
. In
-ser
vice
teac
her e
duca
tion
will
hav
e to
be
prov
ided
so
that
teac
hers
can
inte
grat
e th
ose
reso
urce
s w
ith th
eir i
nstr
uctio
nal p
ract
ices
. In
the
abse
nce
of s
uch
educ
atio
n, w
hate
ver a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng is
ava
ilabl
e is
like
ly to
be
igno
red
byte
ache
rs a
nd u
ltim
atel
y by
stu
dent
s, d
espi
te th
e ra
pidl
y gr
owin
g us
e by
bot
h gr
oups
of
out-
of-s
choo
l Web
obj
ects
and
reso
urce
s. T
each
er e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s w
ill n
eed
topr
epar
e fu
ture
teac
hers
to u
se a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng re
sour
ces
effe
ctiv
ely
and
appr
opri
atel
y.T
he a
dven
t of a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng c
an in
crea
sing
ly g
ive
rise
to s
ituat
ions
inw
hich
stu
dent
s be
com
e m
ore
expe
rt th
an th
eir
teac
hers
. H
ow s
houl
d te
ache
rs b
epr
epar
ed to
dea
l with
suc
h si
tuat
ions
that
may
bec
ome
incr
easi
ngly
pre
vale
nt w
hen
stud
ents
hav
e re
ady
acce
ss to
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
mak
ing
mos
t hum
an k
now
ledg
e,in
form
atio
n, a
nd, n
otab
ly, m
isin
form
atio
n re
adily
ava
ilabl
e to
them
?E
valu
atio
n an
d cr
eden
tialin
g. H
ow w
ill a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng b
e ev
alua
ted?
How
will
suc
h le
arni
ng b
e ar
ticul
ated
with
exi
stin
g cu
rric
ular
obj
ectiv
es?
If s
tude
nts
dete
rmin
e th
at le
arni
ng f
rom
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
is n
ot e
valu
ated
as
part
of
the
curr
icul
um, t
hey
are
likel
y to
ass
ign
little
impo
rtan
ce to
it.
The
re a
re a
lso
issu
es d
ealin
g w
ith c
rede
ntia
ling.
How
ill a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ngbe
reco
gniz
ed fo
r cre
dent
ialin
g pu
rpos
es?
Man
y pr
ofes
sion
s an
d oc
cupa
tions
hav
e a
pres
crib
ed c
urri
culu
m, a
nd q
uest
ions
will
ari
se a
bout
how
obj
ectiv
es m
aste
red
with
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ects
will
then
be
accr
edite
d.
56A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
Bud
getin
g. F
ull-
tim
e te
achi
ng e
quiv
alen
ts a
nd in
stru
ctor
con
tact
hou
rs a
reco
mm
only
use
d to
est
ablis
h bu
dget
s fo
r edu
catio
n an
d tr
aini
ng.
The
se p
roce
dure
s of
ten
wor
k w
ell f
or s
tand
ard
clas
sroo
m p
ract
ice.
We
may
kno
w h
ow m
any
teac
hers
to a
ssig
nfo
r cla
ssro
oms
of v
ario
us s
izes
. B
ut w
hat m
ight
hap
pen
in a
n an
ytim
e-an
ywhe
re s
ettin
gw
hen
the
num
ber o
f stu
dent
s a
teac
her c
an s
erve
incr
ease
s dr
amat
ical
ly a
nd m
ay w
ell b
eun
know
n? S
houl
d w
e re
duce
the
budg
et p
ropo
rtio
nally
? In
crea
se it
? W
hat p
roce
dure
ssh
ould
be
used
to d
eal w
ith th
ese
ques
tions
?R
oles
and
res
pons
ibili
ties
of s
choo
ls.
We
are
seei
ng m
any
disc
ussi
ons
abou
t the
role
of t
each
ers.
The
se d
iscu
ssio
ns s
houl
d al
so c
onsi
der t
he ro
les
and
resp
onsi
bilit
ies
ofth
e in
stitu
tions
that
teac
hers
ser
ve.
In a
wor
ld w
here
inst
ruct
iona
l res
ourc
es a
re a
vaila
ble
anyt
ime
and
anyw
here
, wha
t are
the
role
s an
d re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
sch
ools
? H
ow s
houl
dth
e ac
tiviti
es a
nd c
apab
ilitie
s of
form
al e
duca
tion
be ‘
blen
ded’
with
any
time-
anyw
here
reso
urce
s?P
riva
cy.
Con
cern
s ha
ve e
mer
ged
rega
rdin
g pr
ivac
y fo
r use
rs o
f the
Inte
rnet
. If
PLA
s ar
e ca
pabl
e of
mod
elin
g st
uden
t pro
gres
s, in
tere
sts,
and
abi
litie
s w
ho s
houl
d be
able
to a
cces
s th
is in
form
atio
n? T
o w
hat e
xten
t sho
uld
teac
hers
and
sch
ools
use
this
info
rmat
ion?
Equ
ity.
It is
wel
l kno
wn
that
chi
ldre
n fr
om p
oor a
nd m
inor
ity b
ackg
roun
ds, i
n ur
ban
or ru
ral a
reas
, hav
e le
ss a
cces
s to
tech
nolo
gica
l dev
ices
sup
port
ing
inst
ruct
ion
than
thei
rw
ealth
ier p
eers
(U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Com
mer
ce, 1
999)
. T
here
is a
lack
of e
quity
eve
n in
the
cont
ent a
vaila
ble
for a
cces
s by
tech
nolo
gy (L
azar
us &
Mor
a, 2
000)
. T
his
“dig
ital
divi
de”
is li
kely
to m
ake
it ea
sier
for m
ore
affl
uent
chi
ldre
n to
acc
ess A
DL
inst
ruct
iona
lob
ject
s th
an fo
r the
ir le
ss a
fflu
ent p
eers
, and
wea
lthie
r stu
dent
s ar
e m
ore
likel
y to
hav
eea
sier
acc
ess
to P
LA
s th
an th
eir l
ess
affl
uent
cou
nter
part
s. C
lear
ly s
ome
thou
ght w
illha
ve to
be
give
n to
take
ste
ps to
redu
ce th
e di
gita
l div
ide.
Inte
llect
ual p
rope
rty.
If e
duca
tors
dev
elop
mat
eria
ls th
at c
an b
e m
ade
glob
ally
avai
labl
e an
ytim
e an
d an
ywhe
re, w
hat p
rote
ctio
ns s
houl
d be
pro
vide
d fo
r the
ir p
rodu
cts?
How
sho
uld
teac
hers
be
com
pens
ated
, fin
anci
ally
or
in r
elea
sed
tim
e, f
or th
eir
deve
lopm
ent o
f ins
truc
tiona
l obj
ects
? W
hat p
rote
ctio
ns s
houl
d be
pro
vide
d fo
r the
prod
ucts
of s
tude
nts,
and
sho
uld
they
be
com
pens
ated
? If
they
sho
uld
be c
ompe
nsat
ed,
shou
ld th
at b
e fi
nanc
ial,
or in
term
s of
pro
vidi
ng th
em w
ith
rele
ase
from
oth
erin
stru
ctio
nal r
equi
rem
ents
?Su
mm
ary.
The
con
cern
s su
mm
ariz
ed h
ere
are
only
a s
ampl
e of
the
issu
esco
nfro
ntin
g ed
ucat
ion
in a
wor
ld w
here
stu
dent
s ca
n av
ail t
hem
selv
es o
f ins
truc
tiona
lre
sour
ces
anyt
ime
and
anyw
here
to m
aste
r cur
ricu
lar o
bjec
tives
. W
e ho
pe to
stim
ulat
ese
riou
s at
tent
ion
to b
oth
the
oppo
rtun
ities
and
cha
lleng
es p
rese
nted
by
initi
ativ
es s
uch
asA
DL
and
by
anyt
ime-
anyw
here
edu
catio
n in
gen
eral
. T
he is
sues
rais
ed a
re fa
r mor
eex
tens
ive
than
thos
e lis
ted
here
. It
is h
oped
that
edu
catio
nal a
dmin
istr
ator
s an
d te
ache
red
ucat
ors
can
begi
n to
thin
k ab
out t
hese
issu
es s
o th
ey m
ay b
e re
ady
to a
ddre
ss th
emw
hen
anyt
ime-
anyw
here
edu
catio
n be
com
es a
s ub
iqui
tous
as
cell
phon
es, I
POD
s, a
ndPD
As
are
toda
y.
Fin
al W
ord
We
have
dis
cuss
ed th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
lear
ning
any
time
and
anyw
here
for e
duca
tion
and
desc
ribe
d its
pre
sent
impl
emen
tatio
n in
AD
L.
Mos
t pro
babl
y th
e ad
vent
of A
DL
,an
d le
arni
ng a
nytim
e an
d an
ywhe
re m
ore
gene
rally
, will
pro
duce
man
y ch
alle
nges
that
we
wer
e un
able
to li
st o
r eve
n fo
rese
e. C
olum
bus
did
not e
xpec
t wha
t he
foun
d w
hen
heem
bark
ed o
n hi
s ep
ocha
l jou
rney
. A
“C
olum
bus
Eff
ect”
was
evi
dent
whe
n w
irel
ess
tele
grap
hs, h
orse
less
car
riag
es, a
nd a
hos
t of o
ther
tech
nolo
gica
l inn
ovat
ions
wer
e
deve
lope
d th
at le
d us
into
terr
itory
not
env
isio
ned
in th
e or
igin
al, p
reci
pita
ting
met
apho
r.W
e an
ticip
ate
a si
mila
r eff
ect w
ith th
e ad
vent
of a
nytim
e-an
ywhe
re le
arni
ng.
Une
x-pe
cted
ben
efits
and
cha
lleng
es a
re li
kely
to a
rise
and
will
hav
e to
be
addr
esse
d as
the
futu
re w
e ha
ve o
utlin
ed, o
r som
e va
rian
t of i
t tha
t we
have
not
exp
ecte
d, b
ecom
e re
ali-
ties.
We
hope
that
edu
cato
rs w
ill c
ontr
ibut
e to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f any
time-
anyw
here
capa
bilit
ies
for l
earn
ing,
suc
h as
AD
L, s
o th
at th
ey w
ill u
se th
eir e
duca
tiona
l exp
erie
nce
and
wis
dom
to d
eal a
nd p
rofit
from
thes
e ev
ents
.
Refe
ren
ces
Alle
n, B
. S.,
Otto
, R. G
., &
Hof
fman
, B. (
2000
). C
ase-
base
d le
arni
ng: c
onte
xts
and
com
mun
ities
of p
ract
ice.
In S
. Tob
ias
& J
. D. F
letc
her (
Eds
.), T
rain
ing
and
retr
aini
ng:
A h
andb
ook
for
busi
ness
, ind
ustr
y, g
over
nmen
t, an
d th
e m
ilita
ry(p
p. 4
43-4
71).
New
Yor
k: M
acm
illan
Lib
rary
Ref
eren
ce.
Bak
er, E
. L. (
2003
). F
rom
use
able
to u
sefu
l ass
essm
ent k
now
ledg
e: A
des
ign
prob
lem
(CSE
Rep
ort 6
12).
Los
Ang
eles
, CA
: Uni
vers
ity o
f Cal
ifor
nia
at L
os A
ngel
es,
Cen
ter f
or th
e St
udy
of E
valu
atio
n.B
erne
rs-L
ee, T
., H
endl
er, J
., &
Las
sila
, O.
(200
1). T
he s
eman
tic w
eb.
Scie
ntifi
c A
mer
ican
, 284
, 34-
43.
Blo
om, B
. S. (
1984
). T
he 2
sig
ma
prob
lem
: The
sea
rch
for m
etho
ds o
f gro
up in
stru
ctio
nas
eff
ectiv
e as
one
-to-
one
tuto
ring
. E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
her,
13, 4
-16.
Bro
wn,
A. L
., &
Cam
pion
e, J
. C. (
1990
). C
omm
uniti
es o
f lea
rnin
g an
d th
inki
ngor
a c
onte
xt b
y an
y ot
her n
ame.
Hum
an D
evel
opm
ent,
21, 1
08–1
26.
Bro
wn,
A. L
., &
Cam
pion
e, J
. C. (
1994
). G
uide
d di
scov
ery
in a
com
mun
ity o
f lea
rner
s.In
K. M
cGill
y (E
d.),
Cla
ssro
om le
sson
s: In
tegr
atin
g co
gniti
ve th
eory
and
clas
sroo
m p
ract
ice
(pp.
229
–272
). C
ambr
idge
, MA
: MIT
Pre
ss.
Bro
wn,
J. S
., B
urto
n, R
. R.,
& D
eKle
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Peda
gogi
cal,
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ral l
angu
age
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ledg
e en
gine
erin
g in
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PHIE
I, II
, and
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. Sle
eman
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. S. B
row
n(E
ds.),
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llige
nt tu
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ng s
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ms
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arbo
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I in
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n ar
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ntel
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ce a
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ach
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ompu
ter-
assi
sted
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ruct
ion.
IE
EE
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nsac
tions
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-Mac
hine
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tem
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ran,
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n, J
. R.,
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enja
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s V. R
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t are
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hy d
o w
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IEE
E In
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d Th
eir
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licat
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Cog
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chno
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e Ja
sper
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onal
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illsd
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rlba
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ssoc
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letc
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. Opp
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nitie
s fo
r new
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iron
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ents
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next
gen
erat
ion
web
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ties.
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rnal
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duca
tion
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timed
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e le
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n. J
ourn
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.Fl
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t, an
d th
e m
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., &
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plic
atio
ns o
f adv
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d di
stri
bute
d le
arni
ng fo
red
ucat
ion
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an D
iver
sity
Ser
ies)
. New
Yor
k: E
RIC
Cle
arin
ghou
se o
n U
rban
Edu
catio
n, T
each
ers
Col
lege
, Col
umbi
a U
nive
rsity
. Onl
ine
at:
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me.
tc.c
olum
bia.
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eric
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o/U
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dfFl
etch
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. D.,
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as, S
., &
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her,
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. (2
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. L
earn
ing
anyt
ime-
anyw
here
:A
dvan
ced
dist
ribu
ted
lear
ning
and
the
chan
ging
face
of e
duca
tion.
Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
her,
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.G
ettin
ger,
M. (
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). In
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
in ti
me
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ed fo
r lea
rnin
g: A
revi
ew o
f the
liter
atur
e. E
duca
tiona
l Psy
chol
ogis
t, 19
, 15-
29.
Gra
esse
r, A
. C.,
& P
erso
n, N
. K.
(199
4).
Que
stio
n as
king
dur
ing
tuto
ring
. A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Jour
nal,
31, 1
04-1
37.
Gra
esse
r, A
. C.,
Ger
nsba
cher
, M. A
., &
Gol
dman
, S. (
Eds
.) (2
003)
. Han
dboo
k of
disc
ours
e pr
oces
ses.
Mah
wah
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Erl
baum
.G
ibbo
ns, A
. S.,
Nel
son,
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& R
icha
rds,
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he n
atur
e an
d or
igin
of i
nstr
uctio
nal
obje
cts.
In
D. W
iley
(Ed.
), Th
e in
stru
ctio
nal u
se o
f lea
rnin
g ob
ject
s. O
nlin
e at
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ww
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abili
ty.o
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Laz
arus
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a, F
. (20
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Onl
ine
Con
tent
for
low
-inc
ome
and
unde
rser
ved
Am
eric
ans:
The
dig
ital d
ivid
e’s
new
fron
tier.
A s
trat
egic
aud
it of
act
iviti
es a
ndop
port
uniti
es. (
ED
440
190
) O
nlin
e at
:ht
tp://
ww
w.c
hild
rens
part
ners
hip.
org/
pub/
low
_inc
ome_
inco
me.
Moo
re, G
. E. (
1965
) Cra
mm
ing
mor
e co
mpo
nent
s on
to in
tegr
ated
cir
cuits
. E
lect
roni
cs,
38, 1
14-1
17.
Paav
ola,
S.,
Lip
pone
n, L
., &
Hak
kara
inen
, K. (
2004
). M
odel
s of
inno
vativ
e kn
owle
dge
com
mun
ities
and
thre
e m
etap
hors
of l
earn
ing.
Rev
iew
of E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h,74
, 557
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.Se
rvic
e, R
. E. (
1996
). C
an c
hip
devi
ces
keep
shr
inki
ng?
Sci
ence
, 274
, 183
4-18
36.
Stou
t, R
. J.,
Slos
ser,
S. J
., H
ays,
R. T
. (2
003)
. Sa
mpl
e L
esso
ns L
earn
ed fr
om A
dvan
ced
Dis
trib
uted
Lea
rnin
g E
ffor
ts.
In P
roce
edin
gs o
f the
25t
h In
ters
ervi
ce/I
ndus
try
Trai
ning
, Sim
ulat
ion,
and
Edu
catio
n C
onfe
renc
e. A
rlin
gton
, VA
: Nat
iona
lD
efen
se In
dust
rial
Ass
ocia
tion.
Supp
es, P
. (1
964)
. M
oder
n le
arni
ng th
eory
and
the
elem
enta
ry-s
choo
l cur
ricu
lum
.A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Jour
nal,
1, 7
9-93
.Su
ppes
, P.,
Flet
cher
, J.D
., &
Zan
otti,
M. (
1975
) Per
form
ance
mod
els
of A
mer
ican
Indi
anst
uden
ts o
n co
mpu
ter-
assi
sted
inst
ruct
ion
in e
lem
enta
ry m
athe
mat
ics.
Inst
ruct
iona
l Sci
ence
, 4, 3
03-3
13.
Tobi
as, S
. (1
985)
. C
ompu
ter a
ssis
ted
inst
ruct
ion.
In
M. C
. Wan
g &
H. J
. Wal
berg
(Eds
.), A
dapt
ing
inst
ruct
ion
to in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
(pp.
135
-154
). N
atio
nal
Soci
ety
for t
he S
tudy
of E
duca
tion.
Ber
kele
y, C
A:
McC
utch
an.
U.S
. Dep
artm
ent o
f Com
mer
ce. (
1999
). Fa
lling
thro
ugh
the
net:
Def
inin
g th
e di
gita
ldi
vide
. A re
port
on
the
tele
com
mun
icat
ions
and
info
rmat
ion
tech
nolo
gy g
ap in
Am
eric
a. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
C: A
utho
r. (E
D 4
40 2
00)
59A
dva
nce
d D
istr
ibu
ted
Le
arn
ing
Aut
hor
Bio
grap
hies
J. D
. Fle
tche
r, Ph
.D.,
is a
Sen
ior R
esea
rch
Staf
f Mem
ber a
t the
Inst
itute
for
Def
ense
Ana
lyse
s in
Ale
xand
ria,
Virg
inia
. H
is re
sear
ch in
tere
sts
incl
ude
mili
tary
and
indu
stri
al tr
aini
ng, d
esig
n an
d ev
alua
tion
of in
stru
ctio
nal t
echn
olog
y, a
ndco
st-e
ffec
tiven
ess
anal
ysis
of h
uman
per
form
ance
.E
mai
l: fl
etch
er@
ida.
org.
Sigm
und
Tobi
as, P
h.D
., is
Dis
tingu
ishe
d R
esea
rch
Scie
ntis
t at t
he In
stitu
te fo
rU
rban
and
Min
ority
Edu
catio
n, T
each
ers
Col
lege
, Col
umbi
a U
nive
rsity
. H
isre
sear
ch in
tere
sts
incl
ude
met
acog
niti
on, a
dapt
ing
inst
ruct
ion
to s
tude
ntch
arac
teri
stic
s, a
nd le
arni
ng w
ith te
chno
logy
. Em
ail:
stob
i@ao
l.com
.
Rob
ert A
. Wis
her,
Ph.D
., is
Dir
ecto
r of t
he A
dvan
ced
Dis
trib
uted
Lea
rnin
gIn
itiat
ive
in th
e O
ffic
e of
the
Secr
etar
y of
Def
ense
, OU
SD(P
&R
), W
ashi
ngto
n,D
C.
His
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clud
e de
sign
and
eff
ectiv
enes
s of
tech
nolo
gy-b
ased
lear
ning
, acq
uisi
tion
and
rete
ntio
n of
ski
lled
perf
orm
ance
, and
inte
rnat
iona
lap
plic
atio
ns o
f tra
inin
g te
chno
logy
.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
6
1
Mak
ing
the
Jour
ney
Into
Tea
chin
g: A
Diff
eren
t App
roac
hto
Stu
dent
Tea
chin
g at
the
Seco
ndar
y L
evel
Jam
es J
. Car
pent
erB
ingh
amto
n U
nive
rsity
Abs
trac
t
In th
e fa
ll of
200
2, th
e A
dole
scen
t Edu
catio
n Pr
ogra
m a
t Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity,
resp
ondi
ng to
New
Yor
k St
ate
requ
irem
ents
incr
easi
ng th
e nu
mbe
r of d
ays
need
ed fo
rst
uden
t tea
chin
g, in
itiat
ed a
new
app
roac
h to
pla
cing
and
sup
ervi
sing
stu
dent
teac
hers
inth
eir g
radu
ate
pres
ervi
ce p
rogr
ams.
In
plac
e of
the
trad
ition
al s
ingl
e pl
acem
ents
for s
ixto
eig
ht w
eeks
eac
h, th
e pr
ogra
m p
lace
s st
uden
ts s
imul
tane
ousl
y in
bot
h hi
gh s
choo
l and
mid
dle
scho
ol s
ettin
gs fo
r wha
t am
ount
s to
a fu
ll da
y’s
expe
rien
ce.
Thi
s ar
ticle
dis
cuss
esth
e ad
vant
ages
stu
dent
s an
d fa
culty
hav
e ex
peri
ence
d us
ing
this
app
roac
h as
wel
l as
cont
inui
ng p
robl
emat
ic is
sues
. To
dat
e, th
e ex
peri
ence
s of
our
stu
dent
s su
gges
ts th
ead
vant
ages
, am
ong
them
impr
oved
pla
nnin
g, g
reat
er u
nder
stan
ding
of s
tude
nt le
arni
ngst
yles
, and
dev
elop
ing
clas
sroo
m m
anag
emen
t ski
lls, o
utw
eigh
per
sist
ent c
ompl
aint
s or
diff
icul
ties.
62M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
The
mos
t cri
tical
ele
men
t in
the
prep
arat
ion
of p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs is
the
prac
ticum
or s
tude
nt te
achi
ng e
xper
ienc
e. I
t is
duri
ng th
is e
xper
ienc
e th
at w
ould
-be
teac
hers
get
topr
actic
e th
e th
eory
and
met
hods
they
hav
e be
en ta
ught
. It
is w
here
they
beg
in to
def
ine
thei
r te
achi
ng p
erso
nas.
It i
s w
here
they
fir
st a
ttem
pt to
man
age
a cl
assr
oom
and
impl
emen
t the
teac
hing
str
ateg
ies
they
hop
e w
ill re
sult
in m
eani
ngfu
l les
sons
for t
heir
stud
ents
. It
is, i
n ot
her w
ords
, whe
re th
e “r
ubbe
r mee
ts th
e ro
ad.”
As
a so
cial
stu
dies
educ
ator
, I s
ee m
y pr
eser
vice
teac
hing
stu
dent
s lo
ok fo
rwar
d to
thei
r stu
dent
teac
hing
assi
gnm
ents
with
a m
ix o
f fee
lings
rang
ing
from
exc
item
ent t
o te
rror
.In
so
man
y w
ays,
stu
dent
teac
hing
is a
n ar
tific
ial e
xper
ienc
e th
at fa
ils to
ade
quat
ely
prep
are
our f
utur
e te
ache
rs fo
r wha
t aw
aits
them
in th
eir f
irst
teac
hing
pos
ition
s. S
tude
ntte
ache
rs o
ften
feel
mor
e lik
e gu
ests
in s
omeo
ne e
lse’
s cl
assr
oom
. O
ften
they
may
lack
auth
ority
or s
tand
ing,
and
they
may
be
trea
ted
mor
e as
an
aide
than
as
prof
essi
onal
sbe
ginn
ing
thei
r jo
urne
ys to
lice
nsur
e. B
ritz
man
(20
03)
desc
ribe
s th
is p
oten
tial
lysc
hizo
phre
nic
wor
ld o
f the
pra
ctic
um: “
Mar
gina
lly s
ituat
ed in
two
wor
lds,
the
stud
ent
teac
her a
s pa
rt s
tude
nt a
nd p
art t
each
er h
as th
e du
al s
trug
gle
of e
duca
ting
othe
rs w
hile
bein
g ed
ucat
ed”
(p. 3
6).
McG
uire
(199
6) a
llege
s th
at “
whi
le u
nive
rsity
stu
dent
s ge
ner-
ally
rate
thei
r stu
dent
teac
hing
as
the
mos
t val
uabl
e ex
peri
ence
in th
eir p
repa
ratio
n fo
rte
achi
ng,”
ther
e is
oft
en a
dis
conn
ect b
etw
een
prog
ram
exp
ecta
tions
and
pra
ctic
umex
peri
ence
s ow
ing
to “
a la
ck o
f co
hesi
vene
ss”
(p. 7
5).
Fro
m c
ompl
aini
ng a
bout
coop
erat
ing
teac
hers
to lo
okin
g fo
rwar
d to
the
end
of th
e ex
peri
ence
, stu
dent
teac
hing
isa
rite
of p
assa
ge fo
r the
teac
hing
pro
fess
ion.
In m
y po
sitio
n as
soc
ial s
tudi
es e
duca
tor i
n th
e Sc
hool
of E
duca
tion,
I ha
ve s
een
the
look
of f
ear o
n th
e fa
ces
of s
ome
of m
y se
cond
ary
stud
ent t
each
ers.
I w
ork
with
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs fo
r tw
o se
mes
ters
. M
y in
itial
exp
erie
nce
with
them
is th
e fir
st o
f tw
odi
scip
line-
base
d m
etho
ds s
emin
ars.
Thi
s se
min
ar is
off
ered
in th
e sp
ring
pri
or to
thei
rpr
actic
a. T
he s
econ
d m
etho
ds s
emin
ar c
ompl
emen
ts th
eir s
tude
nt te
achi
ng d
urin
g th
efa
ll te
rm.
To s
ay th
at s
ome
of m
y st
uden
ts h
ave
view
ed th
e ap
proa
ch o
f Lab
or D
ay w
ithdi
ffer
ing
degr
ees
of a
nxie
ty w
ould
be
an u
nder
stat
emen
t.In
this
pap
er, I
will
des
crib
e a
diff
eren
t con
figur
atio
n to
stu
dent
teac
hing
bei
ng e
mpl
oyed
by th
e ad
oles
cent
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m a
t Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity.
I will
exp
lain
why
the
facu
lty o
pted
for t
his
diff
eren
t app
roac
h an
d al
so id
entif
y w
hat w
e be
lieve
are
bot
h th
est
reng
ths
and
prob
lem
s in
here
nt in
it.
In d
oing
so
I will
mak
e ex
plic
it th
e re
ason
s w
hyw
e be
lieve
this
to b
e a
bette
r exp
erie
nce
than
the
trad
ition
al p
ract
icum
for o
ur s
tude
nts.
In c
oncl
usio
n, I
will
off
er s
ome
sugg
estio
ns d
eriv
ed fr
om th
is p
rogr
amm
atic
cha
nge
for
cons
ider
atio
n fo
r the
futu
re o
f stu
dent
teac
hing
for p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs.
The
Way
We
Wer
e: T
he F
orm
er S
tude
nt T
each
ing
Exp
erie
nce
The
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m a
t Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity is
exc
lusi
vely
a g
radu
ate
degr
eepr
ogra
m.
The
Sch
ool o
f Edu
catio
n of
fers
mas
ters
deg
rees
in e
arly
chi
ldho
od e
duca
tion,
incl
usiv
e ch
ildho
od e
duca
tion,
spe
cial
edu
catio
n, li
tera
cy e
duca
tion,
and
ado
lesc
ence
educ
atio
n. O
ur p
rogr
ams
are
desi
gned
for p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs a
nd in
-ser
vice
teac
hers
.O
ur p
rese
rvic
e ad
oles
cent
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m is
als
o a
smal
l one
with
our
stu
dent
sty
pica
lly to
talin
g 40
to 4
8 st
uden
ts, w
ith 1
0 to
12
stud
ents
eac
h in
the
cont
ent a
reas
of
Eng
lish,
mat
h, s
cien
ce, a
nd s
ocia
l stu
dies
(As
of J
uly
1, 2
006,
the
form
er S
choo
l of
Edu
catio
n an
d H
uman
Dev
elop
men
t as
divi
ded
into
two
with
one
bei
ng a
free
sta
ndin
gSc
hool
of E
duca
tion.
The
new
Sch
ool i
s co
mm
itted
to c
ontr
olle
d gr
owth
63M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
over
the
next
five
yea
rs.
The
ove
rall
num
bers
will
, how
ever
, con
tinue
to re
pres
ent a
smal
l gra
duat
e pr
ogra
m).
Prio
r to
2002
, the
stu
dent
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce
for s
tude
nts
in a
dole
scen
ce e
duca
tion
was
ess
entia
lly o
ne p
lace
men
t at e
ither
the
mid
dle-
or h
igh-
scho
ol le
vel.
Stu
dent
teac
hing
last
ed 1
6 w
eeks
from
the
first
day
of s
choo
l in
Sept
embe
r unt
il th
e da
y sc
hool
scl
osed
for w
inte
r bre
ak in
Dec
embe
r. A
s a
smal
l pro
gram
, we
offe
r stu
dent
teac
hing
only
in th
e fa
ll se
mes
ter.
Dur
ing
this
tim
e, s
tude
nts
wou
ld h
ave
a br
ief a
dditi
onal
expe
rien
ce a
t the
oth
er le
vel—
perh
aps
team
teac
hing
with
a c
lass
mat
e or
ass
istin
g a
teac
her i
n th
at s
ettin
g (F
igur
e 1)
. T
he s
tude
nt-t
each
ing
expe
rien
ce w
as a
hal
f-da
y w
ithth
e re
st o
f the
day
dev
oted
to k
eepi
ng u
p w
ith c
lass
wor
k fo
r the
uni
vers
ity.
Figu
re 1
. Dia
gram
of f
orm
er p
ract
icum
exp
erie
nce
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs w
ith s
ome
of it
sad
vant
ages
.
typi
call
y ei
ght c
redi
t hou
rs in
add
itio
n to
stu
dent
teac
hing
(ex
cept
for
the
scie
nce
stud
ents
who
wer
e re
quir
ed to
spe
nd th
e en
tire
day
at th
eir p
lace
men
ts).
Thi
s co
nfig
urat
ion
for s
tude
nt te
achi
ng e
nabl
ed o
ur s
tude
nts
to d
evel
op a
sm
all s
ense
of w
hat w
as in
volv
ed fo
r pla
nnin
g se
vera
l uni
ts a
nd a
lso
for d
irec
ting
stud
ents
thro
ugh
the
first
mar
king
per
iod
for g
radi
ng p
urpo
ses.
The
y es
tabl
ishe
d th
eir c
lass
room
env
iron
-m
ent f
rom
ear
ly in
the
scho
ol y
ear,
if n
ot fr
om th
e ve
ry fi
rst d
ay.
Rel
atio
nshi
ps w
ith
Full-
Sem
este
r Stu
dent
Tea
chin
g, H
alf D
ay in
One
Pla
cem
ent
Stud
ent T
each
ers
Get
“E
xper
ienc
e”A
t Oth
er S
econ
dary
Lev
el fo
rTw
o to
Thr
ee W
eeks
• St
uden
ts d
evel
op n
earl
y a
sem
este
r’s
wor
th o
f les
son
plan
s•
Stud
ents
exp
erie
nce
asse
ssin
g st
uden
t wor
k an
d as
sign
ing
grad
es fo
r a q
uart
er a
ndre
port
car
gra
ding
• St
uden
ts c
an p
rogr
ess
in d
evel
opin
g th
eir c
lass
room
man
agem
ent
• St
uden
ts c
an s
ee d
evel
opm
ent a
nd p
rogr
ess
in th
eir s
tude
nts
• M
eets
the
lette
r of t
he la
w b
y pr
ovid
ing
“exp
erie
nce”
at b
oth
leve
ls
Wee
k 1
Wee
k 16
64M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
stud
ents
wer
e os
tere
d an
d th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
s co
uld
see
the
prog
ress
thei
r stu
dent
s w
ere
mak
ing.
Thi
s ar
rang
emen
t was
als
o co
nven
ient
for t
he u
nive
rsity
sup
ervi
sors
to s
ched
ule
thei
r site
vis
its to
obs
erve
thei
r stu
dent
teac
hers
and
to m
eet w
ith th
em to
dis
cuss
thei
rpr
ogre
ss.
The
Nee
d fo
r So
met
hing
Diff
eren
t
Eff
ectiv
e Fe
brua
ry 2
, 200
4, N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e im
plem
ente
d se
vera
l cha
nges
in th
ece
rtifi
catio
n pr
oces
s (s
ee h
ttp://
high
ered
.nys
ed.g
ov/c
ert/p
art5
2-21
.htm
). M
ost s
igni
fican
tfo
r our
mod
el o
f sup
ervi
sing
stu
dent
teac
hers
was
a d
ocum
ent p
ublis
hed
by th
e St
ate
Uni
vers
ity o
f New
Yor
k in
200
1. A
New
Vis
ion
in T
each
er E
duca
tion
stat
ed th
at e
ffec
-tiv
e w
ith th
e fa
ll 20
02 s
emes
ter,
“Stu
dent
teac
hing
will
con
sist
of a
min
imum
of 7
5 da
ysin
cla
ssro
oms
and
scho
ols
[with
90
days
bei
ng d
esir
able
] in
two
sepa
rate
exp
erie
nces
…”
(200
1, p
. 2).
As
a re
sult
of th
is c
hang
e, w
e co
uld
no lo
nger
con
tinue
this
pra
ctic
e th
atha
d se
rved
us
wel
l. T
he q
uest
ion
conf
ront
ing
us, t
here
fore
, was
wha
t wou
ld o
ur n
ewpr
actic
um lo
ok li
ke?
Giv
en th
e fa
ct th
at w
e ha
d to
cha
nge,
we
cons
ider
ed tw
o op
tions
. O
ne w
ould
be
tofo
llow
wha
t I w
ill c
all t
he tr
aditi
onal
str
uctu
re u
sed
for s
tude
nt te
achi
ng in
muc
h of
New
Yor
k St
ate.
Thi
s m
odel
div
ides
the
sem
este
r int
o tw
o di
stin
ct b
lock
s w
ith th
e pr
eser
vice
teac
hers
spe
ndin
g on
e bl
ock
in a
hig
h-sc
hool
set
ting
and
one
in a
mid
dle-
scho
ol s
ettin
g.To
mee
t the
requ
irem
ent o
f for
ty d
ays
in e
ach
setti
ng, t
hese
blo
cks
wou
ld e
ach
have
to b
eei
ght w
eeks
in d
urat
ion.
The
sec
ond
optio
n w
ould
be
to d
evel
op s
omet
hing
diff
eren
t.O
ur q
uest
ion
then
was
wou
ld w
e ad
opt t
he fa
mili
ar p
atte
rn c
omm
on to
oth
er in
stitu
tions
or w
ould
we
deve
lop
som
ethi
ng o
ut o
f the
ord
inar
y th
at w
ould
ena
ble
us to
pro
vide
wha
tth
e fa
culty
bel
ieve
d w
ould
be
a be
tter e
xper
ienc
e fo
r our
stu
dent
s.B
y tr
aditi
onal
mod
el, I
mea
n a
prac
ticum
in w
hich
stu
dent
teac
hers
wor
k fo
r a fu
llda
y in
one
sec
onda
ry s
ettin
g, e
ither
mid
dle
scho
ol o
r hig
h sc
hool
, for
a q
uart
er –
that
is,
eigh
t wee
ks o
r hal
f a c
olle
ge s
emes
ter –
and
then
cha
nge
leve
ls c
ompl
etel
y an
d w
ork
for
anot
her e
ight
wee
ks a
t the
oth
er le
vel (
Figu
re 2
). T
ypic
ally
, stu
dent
teac
hers
atte
nddi
stri
ct a
nd b
uild
ing
mee
tings
hel
d th
e Tu
esda
y af
ter L
abor
Day
and
repo
rt fo
r the
iras
sign
men
ts th
e fi
rst d
ay o
f sch
ool i
n th
e fa
ll. T
heir
pla
cem
ents
usu
ally
end
just
bef
ore
the
win
ter h
olid
ay b
reak
in D
ecem
ber.
By
divi
ding
the
assi
gnm
ent i
nto
eigh
t-w
eek
inte
rval
s, s
tude
nts
wou
ld a
ppar
ently
mee
t the
requ
irem
ent o
f for
ty d
ays
of te
achi
ng a
tea
ch le
vel t
houg
h ob
viou
sly
this
doe
s no
t tak
e in
to a
ccou
nt d
ays
lost
to h
olid
ays,
vac
a-tio
ns, a
nd w
eath
er.
The
re a
re a
t lea
st th
ree
adva
ntag
es to
this
arr
ange
men
t. F
or o
ne, s
tude
nts
get t
oex
peri
ence
a fu
ll da
y of
teac
hing
in th
e sa
me
setti
ng.
Typi
cally
, aft
er a
wee
k or
two,
they
are
give
n th
e fu
ll sc
hedu
le o
f the
ir c
oope
ratin
g te
ache
r, th
ereb
y, e
nabl
ing
them
to li
ve th
elif
e of
a te
ache
r, if
onl
y fo
r a b
rief
tim
e. S
econ
d, m
any,
if n
ot m
ost,
mid
dle
scho
ols
utili
ze te
amin
g, a
pra
ctic
e in
whi
ch th
e st
uden
t pop
ulat
ion
is d
ivid
ed a
nd th
e sa
me
stud
ents
are
ass
igne
d to
team
s of
teac
hers
repr
esen
ting
Eng
lish,
mat
h, s
cien
ce, a
nd s
ocia
lst
udie
s. O
ften
a s
peci
al e
duca
tion
teac
her i
s al
so p
art o
f the
team
. St
uden
t tea
cher
s ar
eth
en a
ble
to a
ttend
team
mee
tings
no
mat
ter w
hat p
erio
d in
the
day
they
may
be
sche
d-ul
ed.
Thi
s al
low
s th
em to
obs
erve
and
take
par
t in
com
mon
pla
nnin
g an
d to
dis
cuss
prob
lem
s re
leva
nt to
a c
omm
on te
am o
f stu
dent
s. T
hird
, the
re a
re n
o tr
avel
issu
esbe
twee
n bu
ildin
gs n
or is
ther
e a
disp
arity
in th
e am
ount
of t
ime
spen
t in
each
set
ting.
65M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
Figu
re 2
. Dia
gram
of a
trad
ition
al m
odel
for s
tude
nt te
achi
ng s
prea
d ov
er 1
6 w
eeks
and
som
e of
its
adva
ntag
es.
Reg
ardl
ess
of th
ese
bene
fits,
sho
rtco
min
gs to
this
trad
ition
al a
rran
gem
ent m
ust
be n
oted
. Fi
rst,
“the
sho
rt d
urat
ion
of th
e pr
eser
vice
per
iod
limits
its
impa
ct”
and
the
requ
isite
“cr
itica
l exa
min
atio
n of
one
’s id
eolo
gy a
nd it
s re
latio
nshi
p to
pra
ctic
e ta
kes
time”
(Pat
ters
on &
Luf
t, 20
04, p
. 140
). S
ix to
eig
ht w
eeks
, whi
le n
ot w
ithou
t val
ue, i
sno
t lon
g en
ough
for p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs to
“un
ders
tand
the
rela
tions
hip
of b
elie
fs a
ndpr
actic
es a
nd th
eir i
nter
actio
n” (P
atte
rson
& L
uft,
2004
, p. 1
41).
Sec
ond,
exp
erie
nce
sugg
ests
the
seco
nd b
lock
of t
ime
in th
is a
rran
gem
ent i
s le
ss s
atis
fyin
g fo
r bot
h st
uden
tte
ache
r and
cla
ssro
om te
ache
r. S
tude
nt te
ache
rs c
ompl
ain
they
hav
e no
ow
ners
hip
of th
ecl
ass;
they
are
sim
ply
enac
ting
the
less
ons
of th
e co
oper
atin
g te
ache
r (C
T) l
esso
ns.
“She
wan
ts m
e to
teac
h he
r cla
ss”
com
plai
ned
one
stud
ent t
each
er (q
uote
d in
Bul
loug
h et
al.,
2002
, p. 7
2).
For m
any
CT
s th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
s ap
pear
to o
nly
wan
t “to
par
rot”
wha
tth
ey o
bser
ve (S
chlo
sser
, Lile
s, &
DuP
re, 2
007)
.B
elie
ving
a lo
nger
exp
erie
nce
wou
ld p
rodu
ce g
reat
er b
enef
its fo
r pre
serv
ice
teac
hers
, the
ado
lesc
ent e
duca
tion
facu
lty (r
epre
sent
ing
Eng
lish,
mat
h, s
cien
ce a
nd s
ocia
lst
udie
s) a
t Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity d
ecid
ed to
do
som
ethi
ng d
iffer
ent.
Inst
ead
of d
ivid
ing
the
sem
este
r int
o ha
lves
for s
tude
nt te
achi
ng, w
e di
vide
d th
e da
y in
to h
alve
s fo
r tea
chin
gat
bot
h th
e m
iddl
e sc
hool
and
hig
h sc
hool
leve
ls.
Rec
ogni
zing
our
form
er c
onfig
urat
ion
was
now
inad
equa
te, w
e ex
plor
ed th
e po
ssib
ility
of a
full-
day
expe
rien
ce w
ith o
urst
uden
t tea
cher
s sp
endi
ng a
hal
f-da
y at
the
high
sch
ool l
evel
and
a h
alf-
day
at th
e m
iddl
esc
hool
leve
l (Fi
gure
3).
By
doin
g th
is, w
e co
uld
mai
ntai
n th
e ad
vant
ages
that
we
belie
ved
wer
e pr
esen
t in
our e
arlie
r mod
el, a
nd a
t the
sam
e tim
e w
e co
uld
ensu
re o
urco
mpl
ianc
e w
ith th
e ne
w s
tate
regu
latio
ns.
How
ever
, our
mot
ivat
ion
was
mor
e th
an
Wee
k 1
Wee
k 16
Eig
ht W
eeks
in th
e Fi
rst
Seco
ndar
y Pl
acem
ent
• Fu
ll-da
y ex
peri
ence
at b
oth
leve
ls• A
ble
to p
artic
ipat
e in
team
mee
tings
at m
iddl
e sc
hool
• Ava
ilabl
e al
l day
to h
elp
stud
ents
• B
ette
r abl
e to
par
ticip
ate
in s
choo
l act
iviti
es
Seco
nd E
ight
Wee
ks in
the
Nex
t Sec
onda
ry S
ettin
g
66M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
mer
e co
mpl
ianc
e w
ith s
tate
regu
latio
ns.
We
wan
ted
an e
xper
ienc
e th
at w
ould
be
mor
ebe
nefi
cial
for o
ur s
tude
nts
than
trad
ition
al e
ight
-wee
k pl
acem
ents
. W
e w
ante
d on
e th
atw
ould
min
imiz
e th
e ar
tific
ial n
atur
e of
an
adm
itted
ly a
rtif
icia
l exp
erie
nce,
one
that
wou
ldfa
cilit
ate
“the
gro
wth
of t
he p
rosp
ectiv
e te
ache
r thr
ough
exp
erie
nce,
refl
ectio
n, a
nd s
elf-
exam
inat
ion”
(McI
ntyr
e, B
oyd,
& F
oxx,
199
6, p
. 172
). A
t eac
h le
vel,
our s
tude
ntte
ache
rs w
ould
be
resp
onsi
ble
for a
t lea
st o
ne c
lass
. A
t the
dis
cret
ion
of th
e co
oper
atin
gte
ache
rs th
ey c
ould
teac
h ad
ditio
nal s
ectio
ns o
f the
sam
e co
urse
. T
hey
wou
ld a
lso
have
adu
ty a
t one
of t
he s
ites.
Our
stu
dent
s w
ould
thus
onl
y be
resp
onsi
ble
for t
wo
prep
ara-
tions
and
cou
ld, b
y th
e en
d of
thei
r pra
ctic
um, t
each
four
or f
ive
clas
ses
or th
e eq
uiva
lent
of a
full
teac
hing
load
.T
he g
oals
for t
his
diff
eren
t app
roac
h w
ere
to h
ave
our s
tude
nts
max
imiz
e th
epo
tent
ial b
enef
its o
f wor
king
in b
oth
setti
ngs
for t
hem
selv
es a
nd fo
r the
stu
dent
s th
eyw
ould
be
teac
hing
. T
his
new
par
adig
m fo
r stu
dent
teac
hing
see
med
to o
ffer
a g
reat
ernu
mbe
r of b
enef
its th
an d
id th
e tr
aditi
onal
con
figu
ratio
n. T
he p
robl
em th
en b
ecam
e ho
ww
e w
ere
to p
rese
nt th
is to
the
CT
s w
ho w
orke
d w
ith o
ur s
tude
nts.
Wee
k 1
Wee
k 16
Full-
Sem
este
r Stu
dent
Tea
chin
g at
Hig
h Sc
hool
Lev
el (H
alf D
ay)
• N
earl
y ha
lf y
ear o
f les
son
plan
s at
two
leve
ls
• C
an s
ee g
row
th o
f stu
dent
s ov
er a
qua
rter
and
a h
alf
• D
evel
opin
g lo
ng-t
erm
rela
tions
hips
with
thei
r stu
dent
s
• C
an s
ee a
nd b
e pa
rt o
f sta
rt o
f sch
ool y
ear a
t bot
h le
vels
• G
et a
bet
ter s
ense
of t
he s
choo
l cul
ture
in tw
o se
tting
s
• Will
be
resp
onsi
ble
for s
eein
g st
uden
ts c
ompl
ete
a m
arki
ng p
erio
d an
d be
re
spon
sibl
e fo
r com
putin
g gr
ades
• H
ave
a m
ore
real
istic
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce
at tw
o le
vels
• H
ave
mor
e tim
e to
dev
elop
ped
agog
ical
ski
lls a
t bot
h le
vels
Full-
Sem
este
Stu
dent
Tea
chin
g at
Mid
dle-
Scho
ol L
evel
(Hal
f Day
)
Fig
ure
3. D
iagr
am o
f cur
rent
Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity m
odel
for s
tude
nt te
achi
ng w
ithso
me
of it
s ad
vant
ages
.
67M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
Mak
ing
the
Cas
e fo
r C
hang
e
By
mak
ing
this
cha
nge,
we
knew
we
had
to p
ersu
ade
the
coop
erat
ing
teac
hers
of t
heva
lue
of d
oing
so.
Add
ition
ally
, by
doub
ling
the
teac
hing
ass
ignm
ents
, we
wer
e al
sodo
ublin
g ou
r nee
d fo
r CT
s. A
s a
facu
lty, w
e ne
eded
to m
ake
a co
nvin
cing
cas
e fo
rse
lect
ing
this
man
ner o
f fac
ilita
ting
stud
ent t
each
ing
inst
ead
of re
lyin
g on
the
mor
etr
aditi
onal
app
roac
h.T
he re
ason
s fo
r im
plem
entin
g th
is m
odel
wer
e se
vera
l. F
irst
, we
wan
ted
to m
aint
ain
the
adva
ntag
es o
f our
old
app
roac
h, e
spec
ially
stu
dent
teac
hers
dev
elop
ing
a ne
arly
sem
este
r-lo
ng re
latio
nshi
p w
ith th
eir s
tude
nts.
Add
ition
ally
, we
thou
ght i
t adv
anta
geou
sth
at th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
s be
gan
the
year
in b
oth
site
s to
witn
ess—
or p
artic
ipat
e in
—tw
odi
ffer
ent s
choo
l ope
ning
s. T
here
wou
ld b
e tw
o di
ffer
ent b
uild
ing
cultu
res,
two
diff
eren
tap
proa
ches
em
ploy
ed b
y th
e C
Ts
to o
pen
thei
r aca
dem
ic y
ears
, and
, of c
ours
e, tw
odi
ffer
ent c
lass
env
iron
men
ts.
Thi
s w
ould
ena
ble
the
stud
ent t
each
ers
to o
bser
ve th
est
reng
ths
and
adva
ntag
es to
the
diff
eren
t sty
les
used
that
wou
ld fa
cilit
ate
the
earl
yde
velo
pmen
t of t
heir
ow
n ap
proa
ches
. Fu
rthe
rmor
e, th
ey w
ould
be
part
of t
he c
lass
room
ecol
ogy
from
the
very
firs
t day
in b
oth
setti
ngs
rath
er th
an e
nter
ing
one
(the
sec
ond
plac
emen
t) in
mid
-sem
este
r. In
the
latte
r ins
tanc
e, th
e st
uden
ts w
ould
be
“run
ning
at f
ull
spee
d” a
fter
sev
en o
r eig
ht w
eeks
toge
ther
. T
he c
lass
room
cul
ture
wou
ld a
lrea
dy b
ees
tabl
ishe
d in
clud
ing
a cl
earl
y de
fined
sys
tem
for c
lass
room
man
agem
ent.
Mea
nwhi
le,
the
stud
ent t
each
ers
wou
ld b
e en
teri
ng th
e cl
ass
and
esse
ntia
lly b
e st
artin
g at
wee
k on
e in
term
s of
lear
ning
the
nam
es o
f stu
dent
s, a
cclim
atin
g to
the
lear
ning
env
iron
men
t, an
des
tabl
ishi
ng th
emse
lves
in th
eir r
oles
as
teac
hers
. A
s B
ullo
ugh
and
colle
ague
s (2
002)
put
it, th
e m
ajor
issu
e fo
r stu
dent
teac
hers
in th
is s
ituat
ion
is “
to fi
t int
o th
e es
tabl
ishe
dcu
rric
ulum
” (p
. 72)
. In
this
situ
atio
n, o
ur s
tude
nts
wou
ld c
lear
ly b
e pe
rcei
ved
as v
isito
rsw
ho w
ere
stud
ent t
each
ing
an e
stab
lishe
d cu
rric
ulum
rath
er th
an a
s te
ache
rs c
harg
edw
ith d
efin
ing
and
enac
ting
the
curr
icul
um.
A s
econ
d re
ason
for i
mpl
emen
ting
this
pro
gram
was
our
bel
ief t
hat o
ur m
odel
wou
lden
able
the
stud
ent t
each
ers
to b
ette
r est
ablis
h au
then
tic re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith th
eir s
tude
nts
and,
not
coi
ncid
enta
lly, w
ith th
eir C
Ts.
In
the
trad
ition
al m
odel
, jus
t as
they
are
gai
ning
acce
ptan
ce a
nd b
ecom
ing
conf
iden
t in
thei
r rol
e in
the
first
set
ting,
they
are
rem
oved
and
need
to s
tart
ove
r at t
he s
econ
d pl
acem
ent.
The
re is
no
sens
e of
con
tinui
ty.
Oft
enst
uden
t tea
cher
s fi
nd th
emse
lves
mer
ely
mir
rori
ng le
sson
s an
d st
rate
gies
em
ploy
ed b
yth
eir C
Ts.
Bey
er (1
987)
has
des
crib
ed h
ow “
stud
ent t
each
ers
tend
to a
ccep
t the
pra
ctic
esth
ey o
bser
ve in
thei
r fie
ld p
lace
men
ts…
as a
mod
el fo
r acc
epte
d pr
actic
e” (p
. 21)
. In
the
trad
ition
al m
odel
, stu
dent
teac
hers
oft
en fe
el p
ress
ured
to c
ontin
ue in
the
mod
e es
tab-
lishe
d by
the
CT
—to
per
petu
ate
this
sty
le o
f tea
chin
g—so
as
not t
o di
srup
t the
CT
’scl
assr
oom
. T
his
is a
less
edu
cativ
e ex
peri
ence
for s
tude
nt te
ache
rs a
s th
ey a
re le
ss li
kely
to tr
y to
impl
emen
t wha
t the
y ha
ve le
arne
d in
thei
r met
hods
cla
sses
. Fu
rthe
rmor
e, in
such
an
envi
ronm
ent,
it is
incr
easi
ngly
like
ly th
at “
a st
uden
t tea
cher
ass
umes
that
out
side
forc
es d
eter
min
e st
anda
rds,
that
peo
ple
conf
orm
to e
stab
lishe
d pr
actic
es, a
nd th
at p
eopl
efo
llow
man
date
s ha
nded
dow
n by
thos
e in
aut
hori
ty”
(McI
ntyr
e, B
oyd,
& F
oxx,
199
6, p
.17
2). T
his
beha
vior
of b
eing
a fo
llow
er m
ay, t
here
fore
, be
pass
ed o
n to
his
or h
erst
uden
ts.
The
mod
el w
e ad
opte
d en
able
s ou
r stu
dent
teac
hers
to s
ee g
reat
er c
ontin
uity
inth
e cu
rric
ulum
than
whe
n th
ey o
nly
wor
k w
ith s
even
or e
ight
wee
ks o
f it.
Thi
s lo
nger
expe
rien
ce a
lso
affo
rds
a gr
eate
r opp
ortu
nity
to o
bser
ve d
evel
opm
enta
l cha
nges
in th
eir
stud
ents
and
the
peda
gogi
cal r
esul
ts fr
om th
eir t
each
ing.
In
both
set
tings
they
will
hav
ebe
en re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
“re
al s
tuff
” of
teac
hing
(e.g
., at
tend
ance
, dis
cipl
ine,
cla
ssro
omm
anag
emen
t, an
d gr
adin
g) fo
r at l
east
one
qua
rter
. Thi
s af
ford
s th
em g
reat
er c
redi
bilit
yw
ith b
oth
stud
ents
and
par
ents
. In
som
e m
iddl
e sc
hool
s st
uden
ts re
ceiv
e re
port
car
ds
68M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
ever
y si
x w
eeks
. O
ur s
tude
nt te
ache
rs, t
here
fore
, will
hav
e th
e op
port
unity
to b
e w
ithth
eir c
lass
es th
roug
h tw
o gr
adin
g pe
riod
s. W
ilson
, Flo
den,
and
Fer
rini
-Mun
dy (2
002)
foun
d th
at p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs w
hose
pra
ctic
um e
xper
ienc
e la
sted
a fu
ll ye
ar “
wer
e m
ore
satis
fied
with
teac
hing
and
with
thei
r tea
cher
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m”
(p. 1
96).
Whi
le o
urco
nfig
urat
ion
is n
ot fo
r a fu
ll ye
ar, i
t off
ers
mor
e of
the
bene
fits
Wil
son
and
her
col-
leag
ues
desc
ribe
than
wou
ld a
sev
en-
or e
ight
-wee
k ex
peri
ence
.O
ur th
ird
reas
on fo
r im
plem
entin
g th
e pr
ogra
m w
as th
at o
ur s
tude
nt te
ache
rs b
enef
itfr
om te
achi
ng n
earl
y a
full
half
-yea
r of t
heir
resp
ectiv
e N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e E
duca
tion
Dep
artm
ent (
NY
SED
) cur
ricu
la a
t bot
h le
vels
. T
his
is fi
rst-
hand
exp
erie
ntia
l lea
rnin
gth
at m
eans
they
will
hav
e tw
o se
ts o
f les
son
plan
s—on
e at
eac
h le
vel—
that
may
be
usef
ul in
thei
r fut
ure
care
ers.
Whe
n co
mpa
red
to s
eein
g ap
prox
imat
ely
one
quar
ter o
fea
ch c
urri
culu
m u
nder
the
trad
ition
al m
odel
, our
app
roac
h of
fers
real
ben
efits
in th
isre
gard
. A
gain
, the
re is
incr
ease
d co
ntin
uity
of l
earn
ing
on th
eir p
art.
Thi
s lo
nger
expe
rien
ce a
lso
faci
litat
es o
ur p
ract
icum
stu
dent
s de
velo
ping
str
onge
r ped
agog
ical
ski
llsat
bot
h le
vels
and
allo
ws
for g
reat
er e
xper
imen
tatio
n w
ith te
achi
ng s
trat
egie
s th
ey h
ave
lear
ned
in th
eir m
etho
ds c
lass
es.
The
long
er te
nure
at b
oth
leve
ls in
crea
ses
oppo
rtun
ities
for i
mpr
oved
teac
hing
per
form
ance
, ref
lect
ion,
and
pro
fess
iona
l gro
wth
.Fo
urth
, our
stu
dent
s w
ill g
ain
a cl
eare
r pic
ture
of t
he d
iffer
ing
acad
emic
and
soc
ial
dem
ands
that
exi
st a
t the
mid
dle-
and
hig
h-sc
hool
leve
ls.
The
y w
ill g
ain
a be
tter
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
deve
lopm
enta
l diff
eren
ces,
of t
he d
iffer
ing
skill
s re
quir
ed, a
nd o
fth
e va
ried
ped
agog
ical
str
ateg
ies
requ
ired
in m
iddl
e- a
nd h
igh-
scho
ol c
lass
room
s.A
dditi
onal
ly, t
hey
may
ser
ve a
s po
tent
ial c
ondu
its o
f inf
orm
atio
n be
twee
n m
iddl
e- a
ndhi
gh-s
choo
l tea
cher
s an
d cu
rric
ula.
Pra
ctiti
oner
s fr
eque
ntly
com
plai
n th
ere
are
not
enou
gh o
ppor
tuni
ties
to d
iscu
ss c
urri
cula
r an
d/or
ped
agog
ical
issu
es w
ith
thei
rco
lleag
ues
in th
eir b
uild
ings
, let
alo
ne a
cros
s gr
ade
leve
ls (s
ee, f
or e
xam
ple,
Cor
cora
n,19
95).
Thi
s fa
ct is
als
o co
nfir
med
by
part
icip
ants
in s
umm
er w
orks
hops
for s
ocia
l stu
dies
teac
hers
spo
nsor
ed b
y th
e C
ente
r fo
r Te
achi
ng A
mer
ican
His
tory
at B
ingh
amto
nU
nive
rsity
from
200
2 to
200
6.
On
the
eval
uatio
n in
stru
men
t I a
dmin
iste
r at t
he c
lose
of
the
wee
k-lo
ng w
orks
hops
, the
teac
hers
freq
uent
ly c
omm
ent t
hat s
uch
oppo
rtun
ities
for
prof
essi
onal
dis
cuss
ions
are
rare
yet
ver
y pr
oduc
tive
whe
n th
ey d
o oc
cur.
Our
stu
dent
sca
n m
ake
bette
r con
nect
ions
bet
wee
n th
e gr
ade
leve
ls a
nd a
lso
beco
me
mor
e fa
mili
arw
ith tw
o di
stin
ct c
urri
cula
. W
e ex
pect
, the
refo
re, t
hat o
ur s
tude
nt te
ache
rs w
ill b
e ab
le to
bette
r ser
ve th
e st
uden
ts th
ey te
ach
at b
oth
leve
ls.
Fina
lly, t
his
exte
nded
exp
erie
nce
in b
oth
setti
ngs
will
faci
litat
e ou
r stu
dent
teac
hers
in a
cqui
ring
a s
ense
of t
wo
diff
eren
t sch
ool c
ultu
res
and
clim
ate.
Thi
s ca
n he
lp th
em g
eta
sens
e of
any
teac
hing
pre
fere
nce
they
may
hav
e fo
r tho
se p
artic
ular
gra
de le
vels
. A
lso,
the
two
prin
cipa
ls in
the
diff
eren
t set
tings
wou
ld h
ave
incr
ease
d op
port
uniti
es to
obs
erve
thei
r tea
chin
g an
d as
sess
thei
r per
form
ance
for p
ossi
ble
hiri
ng in
the
futu
re.
The
seob
serv
atio
ns w
ould
pro
vide
add
ition
al c
onst
ruct
ive
feed
back
for t
he s
tude
nt te
ache
rs to
use
in re
flec
ting
on th
eir w
ork.
Eac
h un
iver
sity
sup
ervi
sor
for
the
resp
ectiv
e di
scip
line
s ut
iliz
ed th
ese
argu
men
tsw
hen
cont
acti
ng th
e co
oper
atin
g te
ache
rs in
the
late
spr
ing
in a
ntic
ipat
ion
of th
eup
com
ing
fall
sem
este
r. T
ypic
ally
, len
gthy
lett
ers
wer
e se
nt d
escr
ibin
g th
e ex
pect
a-ti
ons
for
the
CT
s, th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
s, a
nd th
e un
iver
sity
sup
ervi
sors
. In
clud
ed in
this
lett
er w
as a
des
crip
tion
of
our
new
con
figu
rati
on a
nd a
lso
the
rati
onal
e ba
sed
onth
e pr
eced
ing
reas
ons.
Fee
dbac
k w
as m
ixed
, but
we
pres
sed
forw
ard.
A m
ajor
ity
ofth
e pl
acem
ents
wer
e m
ade
acco
rdin
g to
this
new
con
figu
rati
on.
69M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
Eva
luat
ing
Our
Pra
ctic
um to
Dat
e
Stre
ngth
s
At B
ingh
amto
n U
nive
rsity
we
have
use
d th
is c
onfig
urat
ion
for t
he p
ract
icum
for f
ive
cycl
es (a
gain
, fal
l sem
este
rs o
nly)
and
bel
ieve
our
pro
gram
has
bee
n ve
ry s
ucce
ssfu
l.T
his
is n
ot to
say
ther
e ar
e no
t pro
blem
s. O
vera
ll, w
e ar
e co
nvin
ced
this
des
ign
for
stud
ent t
each
ing
offe
rs m
ore
adva
ntag
es th
an th
e tr
aditi
onal
mod
el.
We
have
foun
d th
e ad
vant
ages
we
antic
ipat
ed a
s ou
tline
d in
the
prev
ious
sec
tion
have
, in
fact
, bee
n th
e ca
se.
Our
stu
dent
s in
thes
e ha
lf-d
ay a
rran
gem
ents
hav
eex
peri
ence
d a
full
15- o
r 16-
wee
k ex
peri
ence
in tw
o di
stin
ct s
ettin
gs in
whi
ch th
ey h
ave
deve
lope
d le
sson
pla
ns fo
r nea
rly
half
a s
choo
l yea
r for
two
leve
ls.
The
y ha
ve b
enef
ited
from
the
long
er e
xpos
ure
to tw
o di
ffer
ent c
lass
room
env
iron
men
ts.
“I li
ked
it. I
thin
k I
lear
ned
a lo
t. D
ave
and
Terr
y ha
ve v
ery
diff
eren
t sty
les
but I
thin
k I l
earn
ed fr
om e
ach
ofth
em”
a fo
rmer
stu
dent
told
me.
The
y ha
ve d
evel
oped
long
-ter
m re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith b
oth
facu
lty a
nd s
tude
nts
in tw
o se
tting
s an
d ha
ve b
een
resp
onsi
ble
for d
eter
min
ing
stud
ent
grad
es fo
r one
and
one
-hal
f qua
rter
s. S
tude
nts
in th
eir c
lass
es, t
here
fore
, hav
e co
me
tose
e th
em a
s “t
each
ers”
mor
e th
an a
s “s
tude
nt te
ache
rs.”
Thi
s al
igns
nic
ely
with
the
wor
kof
McI
ntyr
e, B
oyd,
and
Fox
(199
6) w
ho fo
und
that
long
er s
tude
nt te
achi
ng e
xper
ienc
es“h
elpe
d st
uden
ts d
evel
op c
onfid
ence
and
sel
f-es
teem
” as
wel
l as
“a b
ette
r und
erst
andi
ngof
teac
hers
’ act
ions
, cur
ricu
lum
, and
stu
dent
beh
avio
r.” (p
. 175
). O
ne o
f my
stud
ent
teac
hers
told
me
that
whi
le
…it
was
a p
ain
to ra
ce fr
om th
e hi
gh s
choo
l to
my
mid
dle
scho
ol p
lace
men
t, in
the
end
I was
bet
ter a
ble
to d
eal w
ith m
y hi
gh s
choo
lers
. I d
on’t
thin
k I w
ould
hav
ebe
en a
ble
to g
et th
em to
coo
pera
te a
nd w
ork
if I
was
ther
e fo
r onl
y ei
ght w
eeks
.
Stud
ent t
each
ers
also
hav
e es
sent
ially
four
mon
ths
to b
e ob
serv
ed b
y th
eir c
oope
ratin
gte
ache
rs, t
he u
nive
rsity
sup
ervi
sors
, and
sch
ool a
dmin
istr
ator
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
one
form
erst
uden
t tol
d m
e th
at “
in a
dditi
on to
Kir
k [t
he C
T] i
n a
thre
e-w
eek
span
I w
as o
bser
ved
byD
oug
[the
dep
artm
ent c
hair
] and
bot
h th
e hi
gh-s
choo
l and
mid
dle-
scho
ol p
rinc
ipal
s.”T
his
affo
rds
mul
tiple
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r con
stru
ctiv
e cr
itici
sm o
f the
ir w
ork
and
enha
nces
thei
r pro
spec
ts fo
r fut
ure
empl
oym
ent.
Fro
m th
e pe
rspe
ctiv
e of
the
univ
ersi
ty s
uper
viso
r, th
is a
rran
gem
ent w
orks
bet
ter
beca
use
ther
e is
a g
reat
er w
indo
w o
f op
port
unit
y to
obs
erve
the
stud
ent t
each
ers
than
in th
e tr
adit
iona
l mod
el.
Spe
akin
g fr
om p
erso
nal e
xper
ienc
e, d
ue to
hea
lth
conc
erns
, I w
as n
ot a
ble
to b
e ou
t in
the
field
for n
earl
y si
x w
eeks
in th
e fa
ll of
200
5. I
nth
ose
case
s in
whi
ch s
tude
nts
wer
e do
ing
bloc
ks o
f eig
ht w
eeks
eac
h, I
was
una
ble
to s
eeth
em in
thos
e se
tting
s an
d lo
st v
alua
ble
obse
rvat
ion
time.
Thi
s de
priv
ed th
e st
uden
tte
ache
rs o
f my
feed
back
on
thei
r pro
gres
s. I
n th
ose
setti
ngs
in w
hich
stu
dent
s w
ere
teac
hing
hal
f day
s fo
r the
ent
ire
sem
este
r (an
d re
ally
two
to th
ree
wee
ks m
ore)
, I d
id n
otha
ve th
is p
robl
em. I
cou
ld e
asily
sch
edul
e la
ter o
bser
vatio
ns a
t bot
h lo
catio
ns.
Fur
ther
evi
denc
e of
the
succ
ess
of th
is m
odel
com
es f
rom
the
stud
ents
them
-se
lves
. T
his
was
true
of
stud
ents
who
wor
ked
the
half
-day
arr
ange
men
t as
wel
l as
thos
e w
ho d
id n
ot.
One
of
my
stud
ent t
each
ers
put i
t wel
l whe
n sh
e to
ld m
e th
ator
igin
ally
she
was
thri
lled
to b
e w
orki
ng in
two
sett
ings
as
she
pref
erre
d ei
ght w
eeks
at a
tim
e in
eac
h pl
acem
ent.
How
ever
, at o
ur e
nd o
f th
e pr
acti
cum
deb
rief
ing,
she
told
me
she
“was
env
ious
” of
thos
e w
ho h
ad b
een
in th
e ha
lf-d
ay a
rran
gem
ent.
70M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
I was
just
get
ting
to k
now
the
kids
and
est
ablis
h m
ysel
f, w
hen
I had
to p
ick
upan
d le
ave.
The
n I h
ad to
sta
rt a
ll ov
er a
gain
and
by
the
time
I was
get
ting
to h
ave
a re
al ra
ppor
t with
them
, I w
as fi
nish
ed.
Thi
s st
uden
t was
not
the
only
one
to e
xpre
ss th
is fr
ustr
atio
n w
ith th
e tr
aditi
onal
stu
dent
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce.
To b
e ho
nest
, the
rush
ing
from
the
high
scho
ol to
the
mid
dle
scho
ol w
as a
prob
lem
.B
ut I
am g
lad
I had
the
half
day
plac
emen
ts b
ecau
se I
thin
k I g
ot a
bette
r fee
l for
the
two
leve
ls o
f tea
chin
g. I
thin
k it
help
ed m
e to
dec
ide
I pre
fer t
each
ing
high
scho
ol.
In s
um, m
y ex
peri
ence
has
bee
n th
at s
tude
nts
enjo
y a
broa
der e
xper
ienc
e th
at e
nhan
ces
thei
r pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t. T
hey
grow
in tw
o se
tting
s an
d ar
e re
spon
sibl
e fo
rst
artin
g ou
t a s
choo
l yea
r and
mai
ntai
ning
app
ropr
iate
cla
ssro
om m
anag
emen
t and
disc
iplin
e in
eac
h. I
n th
e tr
aditi
onal
con
figur
atio
n, th
e se
cond
of t
he tw
o bl
ocks
of t
ime
is e
spec
ially
art
ific
ial a
s th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
inhe
rits
a c
lass
room
env
iron
men
t tha
t has
alre
ady
been
est
ablis
hed.
He
or s
he is
real
ly “
play
ing”
teac
her r
athe
r tha
n te
achi
ng.
As
Bul
loug
h (1
989)
has
not
ed, i
n th
is e
nvir
onm
ent “
plan
ning
for m
anag
emen
t obv
ious
lyw
as n
ot re
quir
ed, s
ince
she
ent
ered
a c
lass
room
alr
eady
reas
onab
ly w
ell r
outin
ized
,pe
rhap
s ru
le b
ound
, whe
re s
tude
nt p
assi
vity
was
muc
h m
ore
of a
pro
blem
than
act
ing
out”
(p. 1
42).
McI
ntyr
e, B
oyd,
and
Fox
x (1
996)
foun
d th
at a
yea
r-lo
ng e
xten
ded
stud
ent
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce
“hel
ped
stud
ents
dev
elop
con
fiden
ce a
nd s
elf-
este
em”
and
“a b
ette
run
ders
tand
ing
of te
ache
rs a
ctio
ns, c
urri
culu
m, a
nd s
tude
nt b
ehav
ior”
(p. 1
75).
Whi
le th
eco
nfig
urat
ion
espo
used
by
Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity is
onl
y ha
lf th
at, w
e be
lieve
it is
cert
ainl
y be
tter t
han
a pr
actic
um th
at la
sts
only
eig
ht w
eeks
. St
uden
ts e
xper
ienc
ed th
e“g
row
ing
pain
s” o
f wor
king
and
lear
ning
on
a da
ily b
asis
in tw
o di
ffer
ent s
ettin
gs fo
rw
hich
they
wer
e re
spon
sibl
e.
Pro
blem
atic
Con
cern
s
Whi
le w
e be
lieve
this
new
mod
el to
be
bette
r tha
n th
e tr
aditi
onal
mod
el, t
hat i
s no
t to
say
ther
e ar
e no
t pro
blem
s w
ith it
. Fi
rst,
by d
ivid
ing
the
stud
ent t
each
er’s
day
into
two
part
s, th
e ne
w m
odel
rest
rict
s th
eir t
ime
to b
e av
aila
ble
to th
e st
uden
ts th
ey te
ach.
Obv
ious
ly, t
hey
are
only
ava
ilabl
e fo
r the
per
iods
of t
he d
ay th
ey a
re in
the
build
ing.
The
se m
ay n
ot c
oinc
ide
wel
l with
the
peri
ods
stud
ents
are
free
to c
ome
to th
em fo
r hel
por
to m
ake
up w
ork.
As
one
CT
put
it, “
the
prob
lem
is P
ete
is s
o de
dica
ted
and
he w
ants
to b
e th
ere
for t
he k
ids.
But
with
his
sch
edul
e he
has
to ru
sh o
ut o
f her
e to
get
to [t
hem
iddl
e sc
hool
] on
time.
”T
his
can
be c
ompl
icat
ed b
y a
seco
nd fa
ctor
; nam
ely,
it is
rare
for a
per
son
to h
ave
exac
tly a
hal
f-da
y in
one
set
ting
and
a ha
lf-d
ay in
the
othe
r. T
ypic
ally
, a s
tude
nt te
ache
ris
in o
ne b
uild
ing
for f
ive
or s
ix p
erio
ds a
nd in
the
seco
nd fo
r tw
o or
thre
e (a
ssum
ing
atr
adit
iona
l eig
ht-
or n
ine-
peri
od d
ay is
in p
lace
). M
iddl
e-sc
hool
and
hig
h-sc
hool
sche
dule
s us
ually
run
at d
iffer
ent t
imes
, and
this
can
cau
se th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
s to
eith
erru
sh o
ut o
r be
rush
ing
in to
mak
e it
to th
eir n
ext a
ssig
nmen
t on
time.
In
man
y of
our
plac
emen
ts, t
he m
iddl
e an
d hi
gh s
choo
l sha
re th
e sa
me
cam
pus
and
in c
ases
whe
re th
eydo
not
, it u
sual
ly is
not
mor
e th
an a
ten-
min
ute
driv
e fo
r the
m.
Still
, the
arr
ange
men
t can
be s
omew
hat p
robl
emat
ic b
ecau
se o
f the
se s
ched
ule
diff
eren
ces.
“I k
now
you
pre
fer
71M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
your
arr
ange
men
t,” a
form
er s
tude
nt te
ache
r sai
d, “
but p
erso
nally
I h
ated
it.
I rar
ely
had
time
to m
eet w
ith s
tude
nts
in o
ne p
lace
and
get
to m
y ot
her p
lace
men
t on
time.
” L
ike-
wis
e so
me
CT
s co
mpl
aine
d of
not
bei
ng a
ble
to e
asily
mee
t with
thei
r stu
dent
teac
hers
.“M
y sc
hedu
le is
so
wei
rd th
is y
ear,
that
by
the
time
I hav
e a
prep
per
iod
to s
it an
d ta
lk to
Pete
, he
has
alre
ady
left
for t
he m
iddl
e sc
hool
.” O
f cou
rse
it sh
ould
be
note
d, to
o, th
atth
ere
are
inst
ance
s in
whi
ch a
sec
onda
ry te
ache
r’s
wor
kday
is s
plit
betw
een
high
-sch
ool
and
mid
dle-
scho
ol a
ssig
nmen
ts s
o ou
r arr
ange
men
t of t
he p
ract
icum
is n
ot to
tally
unre
alis
tic.
The
fina
l, an
d pr
obab
ly th
e m
ost s
igni
fican
t, pr
oble
m w
e ha
ve e
ncou
nter
ed is
the
resi
stan
ce o
n th
e pa
rt o
f som
e co
oper
atin
g te
ache
rs to
try
this
new
mod
el.
Wils
on,
Flod
en, a
nd F
erri
ni-M
undy
(200
2) h
ave
foun
d th
at “
coop
erat
ing
teac
hers
hav
e a
pow
er-
ful i
nflu
ence
on
the
natu
re o
f the
stu
dent
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce”
(p. 1
95).
Thi
s sh
ould
not
com
e as
a s
urpr
ise.
How
ever
, a c
onse
quen
ce o
f thi
s in
flue
nce
is “
stud
ent t
each
ers
tend
not t
o ro
ck th
e bo
at in
the
clas
sroo
ms
in w
hich
they
are
pla
ced”
(p. 1
95).
The
resi
stan
ceto
our
new
con
figur
atio
n of
the
prac
ticum
has
bee
n es
peci
ally
the
case
with
mid
dle-
scho
ol te
ache
rs.
The
ir ra
tiona
le fo
r pre
ferr
ing
the
trad
ition
al s
truc
ture
is th
eir b
elie
f tha
tth
e st
uden
t tea
cher
ben
efits
mor
e fr
om b
eing
in th
e sa
me
setti
ng fo
r the
full
day
and
that
this
mor
e cl
osel
y ap
prox
imat
es th
e liv
ed e
xper
ienc
e of
teac
hers
. O
ne C
T to
ld m
e:
You
kno
w, I
like
the
old
way
of d
oing
stu
dent
teac
hing
. I t
hink
it is
impo
rtan
tth
at th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
get
s a
sens
e of
wha
t a fu
ll da
y of
teac
hing
is li
ke.
Bes
ides
, with
my
sche
dule
I ca
n ge
t a c
hanc
e to
talk
to h
im th
is w
ay.
I sus
pect
, too
, tha
t mos
t tea
cher
s th
emse
lves
wen
t thr
ough
pro
gram
s th
at w
ere
of th
eei
ght-
wee
k/ei
ght-
wee
k (o
r a s
imila
r con
figur
atio
n) v
arie
ty. T
here
fore
, the
trad
ition
alm
odel
is m
ore
fam
iliar
to th
em.
Som
e C
Ts
have
exp
ress
ed th
eir p
refe
renc
es fo
r the
trad
ition
al a
rran
gem
ent—
and
a fe
w h
ave
insi
sted
on
it. T
his
can
mak
e as
sign
ing
plac
e-m
ents
diff
icul
t. S
ome
CT
s w
ho a
t fir
st re
sist
ed o
ur n
ew m
odel
hav
e be
en c
onve
rted
to—
or a
re a
t lea
st to
lera
nt o
f—th
is n
ew a
ppro
ach
to th
e st
uden
t tea
chin
g ex
peri
ence
. O
ther
sco
ntin
ue to
resi
st.
As
one
CT
put
it, “
I und
erst
and
wha
t you
are
say
ing.
I ju
st li
ke it
whe
n th
e pe
rson
is w
ith m
e al
l day
.”Ir
onic
ally
, as
I not
ed e
arlie
r, th
ere
is e
vide
nce
of d
issa
tisfa
ctio
n w
ith th
e tr
aditi
onal
conf
igur
atio
n on
the
part
of b
oth
clas
sroo
m te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nt te
ache
rs.
At a
n op
enfo
rum
rega
rdin
g st
uden
t tea
chin
g he
ld a
t the
New
Yor
k St
ate
Cou
ncil
for t
he S
ocia
lSt
udie
s (N
YSC
SS) s
ever
al te
ache
rs c
ompl
aine
d th
at e
spec
ially
in th
e se
cond
blo
ck o
fst
uden
t tea
chin
g, s
tude
nt te
ache
rs s
eem
ed c
onte
nt to
sim
ply
mim
ic w
hat t
he C
Ts
wer
edo
ing
and
lack
ed a
ny in
itiat
ive
(Sch
loss
er, L
iles,
& D
uPre
, 200
7).
A s
tude
nt te
ache
r at
the
sam
e se
ssio
n co
mm
ente
d th
at h
e fe
lt co
nstr
aine
d an
d ob
ligat
ed to
follo
w to
the
lette
rth
e di
rect
ion
set b
y th
e C
T. T
hese
com
men
ts c
orre
late
with
the
findi
ngs
of B
ullo
ugh
and
colle
ague
s (2
002)
: “L
esso
n pl
an to
pics
alm
ost a
lway
s ca
me
from
men
tor t
each
ers,
and
pres
ervi
ce te
ache
rs ra
rely
sou
ght g
reat
er c
ontr
ol o
f the
cur
ricu
lum
or m
ore
invo
lvem
ent
with
it”
(p. 7
2).
Sim
ilarl
y on
e of
my
form
er s
tude
nt te
ache
rs to
ld m
e “I
alm
ost a
lway
sus
e Je
rry’
s le
sson
pla
ns.
I mea
n he
has
a to
n of
mat
eria
ls, a
nd th
is w
ay I
am n
ot s
crew
-in
g hi
m u
p w
hen
I lea
ve.”
Ano
ther
com
pone
nt to
this
resi
stan
ce s
eem
s to
be
the
incr
ease
d pr
essu
res
of h
igh-
stak
es R
egen
ts te
stin
g an
d th
e N
o C
hild
Lef
t Beh
ind
(NC
LB
) leg
isla
tion.
Pry
or (2
006)
has
note
d “t
he n
arro
win
g of
sch
ool c
urri
culu
m a
nd a
dev
alua
tion
of p
edag
ogic
al k
now
l-ed
ge”
(p. 1
16) a
s a
resu
lt of
NC
LB
in th
e ar
ea o
f dem
ocra
tic e
duca
tiona
l pra
ctic
e. O
nedi
stri
ct a
dmin
istr
ator
told
us
teac
hers
in h
er d
istr
ict w
ere
relu
ctan
t to
wor
k w
ith s
tude
ntte
ache
rs in
gen
eral
bec
ause
they
fea
r th
e lo
ss o
f ti
me
wit
h th
eir
stud
ents
and
, not
insi
gnifi
cant
ly, a
nnua
l sum
mat
ive
eval
uatio
ns o
f tea
cher
s ar
e ba
sed
in p
art o
n st
uden
t tes
tpe
rfor
man
ce.
The
sam
e is
true
for t
each
ers
who
feel
pre
ssur
ed to
do
mor
e to
pro
duce
good
test
sco
res
and
less
to d
evel
op h
igh-
orde
r thi
nkin
g sk
ills
and
in-d
epth
lear
ning
.C
onse
quen
tly, t
each
ers
fear
that
aft
er fi
ftee
n or
six
teen
wee
ks o
ne o
r tw
o of
thei
r cla
sses
may
be
too
far a
head
or b
ehin
d th
eir o
ther
cla
sses
whe
n th
e st
uden
t tea
cher
leav
es.
Thi
sin
crea
ses
the
stre
sses
ass
ocia
ted
wit
h pr
oduc
ing
desi
rabl
e te
st d
ata
whe
n th
e ex
ami-
natio
ns a
re g
iven
in J
une.
Qui
te fr
ankl
y, th
ere
have
bee
n ca
ses
in w
hich
we
have
had
to u
tiliz
e w
hat I
hav
ere
ferr
ed to
as
the
trad
ition
al m
odel
. T
here
hav
e be
en s
ituat
ions
in w
hich
the
CT
was
so
skill
ed th
at w
e di
d no
t wan
t to
depr
ive
our s
tude
nt o
f a v
ery
valu
able
lear
ning
exp
erie
nce.
The
sec
ond
case
was
whe
n du
e to
a la
ck o
f par
ticip
atin
g C
Ts,
a s
tude
nt h
ad to
be
plac
edin
two
diff
eren
t dis
tric
ts. T
he c
omm
ute
mad
e a
half
-day
arr
ange
men
t im
poss
ible
.Fi
nally
, in
case
s w
hen
ther
e ha
s be
en a
sho
rtag
e of
pla
cem
ent o
ppor
tuni
ties
we
have
, of
nece
ssit
y, p
lace
d ou
r st
uden
ts w
ith
a C
T w
ho in
sist
ed o
n th
e tr
adit
iona
l mod
el.
Obv
ious
ly, t
he n
eeds
of o
ur s
tude
nts
for p
lace
men
ts h
ad to
take
pre
cede
nce
over
any
disa
gree
men
t ove
r the
nat
ure
of th
e pr
actic
um a
ssig
nmen
t. S
ome
CT
s co
ntin
ue to
obj
ect
to o
ur p
refe
rred
mod
el, a
nd th
is is
pro
blem
atic
. H
owev
er, a
s ou
r pro
gram
bec
omes
mor
ees
tabl
ishe
d an
d m
ore
of o
ur g
radu
ates
are
wor
king
in a
rea
scho
ols,
we
antic
ipat
e le
ssre
sist
ance
and
, the
refo
re, f
ewer
inst
ance
s in
whi
ch th
e tr
aditi
onal
mod
el w
ould
be
nece
ssar
y. A
lso
as w
e “p
reac
h” th
e be
nefi
ts fo
r the
stu
dent
teac
hers
som
e co
oper
atin
gte
ache
rs h
ave
agre
ed to
try
our c
onfi
gura
tion.
Con
clus
ion
In th
eir r
evie
w o
f tea
cher
pre
para
tion,
Wils
on, F
lode
n, a
nd F
erri
ni-M
undy
(200
2)of
fer a
con
vinc
ing
argu
men
t tha
t “as
a fi
eld,
[we]
mus
t mak
e ch
ange
s th
at w
ill, i
n th
eco
min
g ye
ars,
giv
e us
a b
ette
r gro
undi
ng fo
r the
pra
ctic
es w
e be
lieve
in o
r per
haps
giv
eus
reas
ons
to re
thin
k so
me
prac
tices
” (p
. 201
). F
or p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs, t
he p
ract
icum
isar
guab
ly th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t—an
d m
ost d
iffic
ult—
com
pone
nt o
f the
ir p
repa
ratio
n. It
iscr
itica
l to
beco
min
g gr
ound
ed in
the
prof
essi
on.
Idea
lly, i
t is
an e
xper
ienc
e in
whi
chdi
scov
erin
g id
eas
for p
acin
g m
ater
ial a
nd m
anag
ing
a cl
ass
are
lear
ned.
It i
s a
time
whe
nst
uden
t tea
cher
s ar
e be
ginn
ing
to fi
nd th
eir c
lass
room
voi
ce a
nd le
arni
ng h
ow to
inte
ract
with
stu
dent
s in
way
s th
at w
ill re
sult
in th
eir d
efin
ing
appr
opri
ate
boun
dari
es.
The
Stu
dy o
f the
Edu
catio
n of
Edu
cato
rs s
urve
yed
both
facu
lty a
nd s
tude
nts
inte
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
in 1
990
and
foun
d th
at s
tude
nt te
ache
rs th
ough
t stu
dent
teac
hing
had
“th
e gr
eate
st p
oten
tial f
or c
ontr
ibut
ing
to th
eir f
utur
e su
cces
s as
teac
hers
”an
d th
at it
was
“th
e m
ost i
nter
estin
g pa
rt”
of th
eir p
repa
ratio
n (c
ited
in E
dmun
dson
,19
90, p
. 720
). It
is a
lso,
rega
rdle
ss o
f whi
ch m
odel
a te
ache
r pre
para
tion
prog
ram
follo
ws,
an
artif
icia
l atte
mpt
to p
rovi
de s
tude
nts
with
the
real
-wor
ld e
xper
ienc
e of
clas
sroo
m te
achi
ng.
Mor
e th
an 1
5 ye
ars
ago,
stu
dent
teac
hers
oft
en fo
und
they
wer
e“d
evot
ed to
a s
ingl
e te
ache
r and
cla
ssro
om, n
ot to
team
s of
teac
hers
or t
o w
hole
sch
ools
”an
d th
at “
theo
ry a
nd p
ract
ice
rare
ly w
ere
inte
rtw
ined
” (G
oodl
ad, 1
990,
p. 1
90).
A d
ecad
e ag
o M
cGui
re (1
996)
als
o ar
gued
that
tens
ions
exi
sted
in s
tude
nt te
achi
ngpl
acem
ents
due
to c
onfl
icts
“be
twee
n th
e te
achi
ng s
ettin
g an
d un
iver
sity
pro
gram
, tim
ean
d cu
rric
ulum
con
stra
ints
, tea
chin
g st
yles
and
per
sona
litie
s, a
nd a
myr
iad
of o
ther
fact
ors”
(p. 7
5).
Arg
uabl
y, th
ese
conc
erns
are
no
less
rele
vant
toda
y. S
ituat
ed in
the
soci
al c
onte
xt o
fa
clas
sroo
m (a
nd a
sch
ool)
in w
hich
indi
vidu
als
with
thei
r ow
n hi
stor
ies
and
perc
eptio
nsco
llide
in a
com
mon
env
iron
men
t, te
nsio
ns m
ay a
rise
. G
iven
the
stud
ent t
each
er’s
sta
tus
as a
beg
inne
r and
ess
entia
lly a
vis
itor,
his
or h
er p
erso
nal v
iew
or p
hilo
soph
y is
the
mos
t
72M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
likel
y to
be
com
prom
ised
. T
he ro
ad to
teac
hing
repr
esen
ts “
a so
cial
pro
cess
of n
egot
ia-
tion”
and
is a
“tim
e of
form
atio
n an
d tr
ansf
orm
atio
n, o
f scr
utin
y in
to w
hat o
ne is
doi
ng,
and
who
one
can
bec
ome”
(Bri
tzm
an, 2
003,
p. 3
1).
Our
job
at th
e un
iver
sity
leve
l is
togu
ide
and
supp
ort t
heir
initi
al d
evel
opm
ent i
n th
is p
roce
ss.
Bul
loug
h an
d co
lleag
ues
(200
2) a
rgue
that
it is
“cr
ucia
lly im
port
ant t
o fu
ture
sch
ool i
mpr
ovem
ent e
ffor
ts th
at th
ista
ken-
for-
gran
ted
view
of t
each
ing
and
of le
arni
ng to
teac
h be
alte
red”
(p. 7
9).
Prov
idin
gth
e be
st p
ossi
ble
prac
ticum
exp
erie
nce
is, t
here
fore
, ess
entia
l. T
he n
ew c
onfi
gura
tion
for
stud
ent t
each
ing
bein
g us
ed b
y th
e ad
oles
cent
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m a
t Bin
gham
ton
Uni
ver-
sity
can
be
one
way
to a
ccom
plis
h th
is g
oal.
In a
n er
a w
hen
publ
ic e
duca
tion
is in
crea
sing
ly u
nder
atta
ck a
nd te
ache
rs a
re b
eing
put u
nder
clo
ser s
crut
iny
to p
rodu
ce h
ighe
r sta
ndar
ds, i
t is
esse
ntia
l tha
t tea
cher
edu
ca-
tion
prog
ram
s m
eet t
his
chal
leng
e w
ith n
ew a
ppro
ache
s to
pro
duci
ng to
mor
row
’ste
ache
rs.
Thi
s ex
tern
al p
ress
ure
furt
her e
xace
rbat
es “
a gr
owin
g ne
ed fo
r exp
erim
enta
tion
with
con
figur
atio
ns o
f fie
ld e
xper
ienc
e an
d fo
r the
gen
erat
ion
and
stud
y of
new
mod
els
to d
eter
min
e th
eir e
ffec
tiven
ess”
(Bul
loug
h et
al.,
200
2, p
. 69)
. Tr
aditi
onal
mod
els
for
stud
ent t
each
ing
may
not
be
as s
ervi
ceab
le to
day
as th
ey w
ere
a de
cade
ago
. A
tB
ingh
amto
n U
nive
rsity
we
will
mon
itor o
ur p
rogr
ams
to b
ette
r acc
omm
odat
e th
ein
tere
sts
of o
ur s
tude
nts
and
to b
uild
str
onge
r pro
fess
iona
l rel
atio
nshi
ps w
ith a
rea
scho
ols
and
teac
hers
. W
e at
Bin
gham
ton
Uni
vers
ity h
ope
the
diff
eren
t app
roac
h w
e ha
veim
plem
ente
d ca
n ad
d to
the
disc
ussi
on o
f how
to im
prov
e th
e pr
actic
um e
xper
ienc
e fo
rpr
eser
vice
teac
hers
. A
t the
sam
e tim
e, w
e ho
pe to
be
able
to b
ette
r mee
t the
cha
lleng
e of
build
ing
and
exte
ndin
g co
llabo
rativ
e re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith o
ur p
ublic
sch
ool p
artn
ers.
Not
eI w
ould
like
to th
ank
Prof
esso
r Bet
h B
urch
for h
er c
omm
ents
and
sug
gest
ions
to a
nea
rlie
r dra
ft o
f thi
s ar
ticle
. A
lso,
I am
dee
ply
inde
bted
to th
e ed
itor a
nd a
nony
mou
sre
view
ers
for t
heir
ver
y co
nstr
uctiv
e su
gges
tions
for i
mpr
ovin
g th
is m
anus
crip
t. T
heir
reco
mm
enda
tions
wer
e in
valu
able
.
Refe
ren
ces
Bey
er, L
. (1
987)
. Wha
t kno
wle
dge
is o
f mos
t wor
th in
teac
her e
duca
tion?
In
J. S
myt
h(E
d.),
Edu
catin
g te
ache
rs:
Cha
ngin
g th
e na
ture
of p
edag
ogic
al k
now
ledg
e,(p
p. 1
9-34
). L
ondo
n: T
he F
alm
er P
ress
.B
ritz
man
, D. P
. (20
03).
Pra
ctic
e m
akes
pra
ctic
e: A
cri
tical
stu
dy o
f lea
rnin
g to
teac
h(r
evis
ed e
ditio
n).
[Ele
ctro
nic
vers
ion]
. A
lban
y, N
Y:
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
of N
ewY
ork
Pres
s.B
ullo
ugh,
R. V
. (19
89).
Fir
st-y
ear
teac
her:
A c
ase
stud
y. N
ew Y
ork:
Tea
cher
s Col
lege
Pre
ss.
Bul
loug
h, R
. V.,
You
ng, J
., E
rick
son,
L, B
irre
ll, J
. R.,
Cla
rk, D
. C.,
Ega
n, M
. W.,
et. a
l.(2
002)
. R
ethi
nkin
g fie
ld e
xper
ienc
e: P
artn
ersh
ip te
achi
ng v
ersu
s si
ngle
-pl
acem
ent t
each
ing.
Jou
rnal
of T
each
er E
duca
tion,
53(
1), 6
8-80
.C
orco
ran,
T. C
. (19
95).
Tra
nsfo
rmin
g pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent f
or te
ache
rs:
A G
uide
for
stat
e po
licy
mak
ers.
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.:N
atio
nal G
over
nors
’ Ass
ocia
tion.
Edm
unds
on, P
. J. (
1990
). A
nor
mat
ive
look
at t
he c
urri
culu
m in
teac
her
educ
atio
n. P
hiD
elta
Kap
pan,
71(
9), 7
17-7
22.
73M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
74M
akin
g t
he
Jo
urn
ey I
nto
Te
ach
ing
Goo
dlad
, J. I
. (1
990)
. Bet
ter t
each
ers
for o
ur n
atio
n’s
scho
ols.
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n,72
(3),
184-
194.
McG
uire
, M. E
. (1
996)
. NC
SS a
nd te
ache
r edu
catio
n. I
n O
. L. D
avis
, Jr.,
(Ed.
),N
CSS
in r
etro
spec
t, (p
p. 6
7-77
). W
ashi
ngto
n, D
. C.:
Nat
iona
l Cou
ncil
for t
heSo
cial
Stu
dies
.M
cInt
yre,
D. J
., B
oyd,
D. M
., &
Fox
x, S
. M.
(199
6). F
ield
and
Lab
orat
ory
Exp
erie
nces
. In
J. S
ikul
a, (E
d.),
Han
dboo
k of
res
earc
h on
teac
her
educ
atio
n,(2
nd e
d., p
p. 1
71-1
93).
New
Yor
k: A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Tea
cher
Edu
cato
rs.
Patte
rson
, N. C
., &
Luf
t, J.
A.
(200
4). C
reat
ing
a co
ntin
uum
: C
onsi
deri
ng in
duct
ion
prog
ram
s fo
r sec
onda
ry s
ocia
l stu
dies
teac
hers
. Th
eory
and
Res
earc
h in
Soc
ial
Edu
catio
n, 3
2(2)
, 138
-152
.Pr
yor,
C. R
. (2
006)
. Pre
serv
ice
to in
-ser
vice
cha
nges
in b
elie
fs:
A s
tudy
of i
nten
tion
tobe
com
e a
dem
ocra
tic p
ract
ition
er.
Theo
ry a
nd R
esea
rch
in S
ocia
l Edu
catio
n,34
(1),
98-1
23.
Schl
osse
r, L
. K.,
Lile
s, J
., &
DuP
re, J
. (2
007,
Mar
ch).
The
nex
t gen
erat
ion:
Aco
nver
satio
n ab
out m
ento
ring
our
futu
re s
ocia
l stu
dies
teac
hers
. Pr
esen
tatio
n at
the
69th
Ann
ual C
onfe
renc
e of
the
New
Yor
k St
ate
Cou
ncil
for t
he S
ocia
l Stu
dies
,R
oche
ster
, NY
.St
ate
Uni
vers
ity o
f New
Yor
k. (
2001
). A
new
vis
ion
in te
ache
r ed
ucat
ion:
Age
nda
for
cha
nge
in S
UN
Y’s
teac
her
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
ms.
Alb
any:
aut
hor.
Wils
on, S
. M.,
Flod
en, R
. E.,
& F
erri
ni-M
undy
, J. (
2002
). T
each
er p
repa
ratio
nre
sear
ch:
An
insi
der’
s vi
ew fr
om th
e ou
tsid
e. J
ourn
al o
f Tea
cher
Edu
catio
n,53
(3),
190-
204.
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Jam
es J
. Car
pent
er, E
d.D
., is
Ass
ista
nt P
rofe
ssor
of s
ocia
l stu
dies
edu
catio
n an
dC
oord
inat
or o
f the
doc
tora
l pro
gram
in E
duca
tiona
l The
ory
and
Prac
tice
atB
ingh
amto
n U
nive
rsity
, Bin
gham
ton,
New
Yor
k. H
is re
sear
ch in
tere
sts
incl
ude
citiz
ensh
ip e
duca
tion,
the
educ
atio
nal t
houg
ht o
f Joh
n D
ewey
and
Tho
mas
Jeff
erso
n, a
nd th
e em
pow
erm
ent o
f tea
cher
s in
an
era
of h
igh-
stak
es te
stin
g.E
mai
l: jc
arpe
nt@
bing
ham
ton.
edu.
No
ta B
en
e: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
The
New
Yor
k C
ompr
ehen
sive
Cen
ter:
Sup
port
ing
Facu
ltyw
ho P
repa
re T
each
ers
Susa
n V
illan
iL
earn
ing
Inno
vatio
ns a
t Wes
tEd
and
New
Yor
k C
ompr
ehen
sive
Cen
ter
The
New
Yor
k C
ompr
ehen
sive
Cen
ter (
NY
CC
) is
wor
king
to s
uppo
rt in
stitu
tes
ofhi
gher
edu
catio
n (I
HE
) fac
ulty
who
pre
pare
teac
hers
. It
is d
oing
this
in a
num
ber o
fw
ays.
As
the
IHE
Tea
cher
Qua
lity
Team
Lea
der,
I wou
ld li
ke to
sha
re w
ith y
ou in
form
a-tio
n ab
out t
he re
sour
ces
NY
CC
off
ers,
spe
cific
ally
thes
e tw
o:
1.
Sym
posi
a on
lite
racy
for I
HE
facu
lty a
nd th
e N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e E
duca
tion
Dep
artm
ent
(NY
SED
), an
d
2.
Teac
her
Qua
lity
(T
Q)
Onl
ine,
an
onli
ne e
nvir
onm
ent d
esig
ned
to p
rovi
de
in
form
atio
n on
lite
racy
and
teac
her p
repa
ratio
n an
d a
prot
ecte
d sp
ace
for r
egis
tere
d
fa
culty
to w
rite
to e
ach
othe
r abo
ut th
eir p
ract
ices
.
Bef
ore
I des
crib
e th
ese
ende
avor
s in
det
ail,
here
are
a fe
w th
ings
you
sho
uld
know
abou
t NY
CC
.
Wha
t Is
NY
CC
?
NY
CC
, one
of 1
6 re
gion
al c
ompr
ehen
sive
cen
ters
fund
ed b
y th
e U
.S. D
epar
tmen
t of
Edu
catio
n, s
uppo
rts
educ
atio
n le
ader
s in
thei
r res
pect
ive
stat
es a
s th
ey s
triv
e to
mee
t the
goal
s of
No
Chi
ld L
eft B
ehin
d (N
CL
B) a
nd im
prov
e ac
hiev
emen
t out
com
es fo
r all
stud
ents
. The
mis
sion
of N
YC
C, w
hich
beg
an it
s w
ork
in J
anua
ry, 2
006,
is to
dev
elop
the
capa
city
of N
YSE
D, i
ts n
etw
orks
, and
its
agen
cies
to a
ssis
t dis
tric
ts a
nd s
choo
ls in
impr
ovin
g ac
hiev
emen
t out
com
es fo
r all
stud
ents
. In
doin
g so
, the
Cen
ter s
triv
es to
enga
ge w
ith s
tate
edu
catio
n le
ader
s in
• Thi
nkin
g sy
stem
ical
ly a
bout
the
rela
tions
hips
am
ong
all e
lem
ents
to c
reat
e co
here
nce
and
art
icul
ate
a co
mm
on p
urpo
se;
• Usi
ng r
esea
rch-
base
d fi
ndin
gs a
nd r
igor
ous
evid
ence
to e
valu
ate
impa
ct, r
efin
e p
ract
ices
, see
k ne
w s
olut
ions
, and
mee
t lea
rner
s’ n
eeds
;• A
ctin
g st
rate
gica
lly to
max
imiz
e op
port
uniti
es a
nd m
ake
the
best
use
of a
vaila
ble
res
ourc
es; a
nd• W
orki
ng c
olla
bora
tivel
y ac
ross
lead
ersh
ip le
vels
and
org
aniz
atio
ns to
leve
rage
res
ourc
es a
nd o
verc
ome
barr
iers
.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
7
5
76N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Wha
t Doe
s N
YC
C D
o?
NY
CC
eng
ages
New
Yor
k St
ate
educ
atio
n le
ader
s in
usi
ng re
sear
ch-b
ased
find
ings
and
rigo
rous
evi
denc
e to
mee
t the
goa
ls o
f NC
LB
. The
Cen
ter’
s pu
rpos
e is
to d
esig
nte
chni
cal a
ssis
tanc
e se
rvic
es th
at m
eet e
duca
tion
lead
ers’
pri
ority
nee
ds, f
urth
er th
e ke
yin
itiat
ives
of t
he U
.S. D
epar
tmen
t of E
duca
tion,
and
hav
e th
e gr
eate
st p
oten
tial f
orde
velo
ping
sta
te c
apac
ity to
hel
p di
stri
cts
and
scho
ols
impr
ove.
Thr
ough
spe
cific
requ
ests
and
regu
lar m
eetin
gs w
ith s
tate
edu
catio
n le
ader
s to
disc
uss
thei
r pri
ority
nee
ds fo
r tec
hnic
al a
ssis
tanc
e, N
YC
C d
evel
ops
and
cont
inua
llyre
view
s th
e N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e Se
rvic
e D
eliv
ery
Plan
to e
nsur
e th
at th
e C
ente
r’s
wor
k is
attu
ned
to th
e St
ate’
s em
ergi
ng n
eeds
. Som
e of
NY
CC
’s s
peci
al in
itiat
ives
incl
ude
teac
her q
ualit
y, th
e ro
le o
f hig
her e
duca
tion
in p
repa
ring
the
teac
her w
orkf
orce
, and
oth
erco
ncer
ns th
at a
re c
omm
on a
cros
s al
l are
as o
f the
sta
te.
NY
CC
has
a w
ebsi
te w
ww
.nyc
ompr
ehen
sive
cent
er.o
rg a
nd li
stse
rvs
to s
hare
up-
to-
date
info
rmat
ion
abou
t Cen
ter e
vent
s, N
CL
B u
pdat
es, n
ews
from
NY
SED
, and
a v
arie
tyof
rese
arch
reso
urce
s. T
he fi
ve U
.S. D
epar
tmen
t of E
duca
tion
Con
tent
Cen
ters
are
am
ajor
sou
rce
of c
urre
nt re
sear
ch a
nd re
sour
ces
avai
labl
e to
edu
cato
rs. S
ome
are
refe
r-en
ced
on th
e w
ebsi
te.
Who
Are
the
Staf
f Mem
bers
of N
YC
C?
The
NY
CC
dra
ws
staf
f tim
e an
d ex
pert
ise
from
four
par
tner
s. R
MC
Res
earc
hC
orpo
ratio
n is
lead
ing
this
end
eavo
r and
is w
orki
ng w
ith fo
ur d
istin
guis
hed
part
ners
inde
sign
ing,
man
agin
g, a
nd d
eliv
erin
g te
chni
cal a
ssis
tanc
e in
New
Yor
k. T
hey
are
The
Edu
catio
n A
llian
ce a
t Bro
wn
Uni
vers
ity, P
rovi
denc
e, R
hode
Isla
nd; t
he E
duca
tion
Dev
elop
men
t Cen
ter,
Inc.
, New
ton,
Mas
sach
uset
ts; L
earn
ing
Inno
vatio
ns a
t Wes
tEd,
Wob
urn,
Mas
sach
uset
ts; a
nd th
e U
nite
d Fe
dera
tion
of T
each
ers
Teac
her C
ente
r, N
ewY
ork.
For
mor
e in
form
atio
n ab
out t
hese
org
aniz
atio
ns, v
isit
thei
r web
site
s:
RM
C R
esea
rch
Cor
pora
tion
at w
ww
.rmcr
es.c
omT
he E
duca
tion
Alli
ance
at B
row
n U
nive
rsity
at w
ww
.alli
ance
.bro
wn.
edu
The
Edu
catio
n D
evel
opm
ent C
ente
r (E
DC
) at w
ww
.edc
.org
Lea
rnin
g In
nova
tions
at W
estE
d at
ww
w.w
este
d.or
g/li
The
Uni
ted
Fede
ratio
n of
Tea
cher
s Te
ache
r Cen
ter a
t ww
w.u
fttc
.org
NY
CC
eng
ages
lead
ers
of IH
E w
ith te
ache
r pre
para
tion
prog
ram
s in
act
ion
plan
ning
to in
corp
orat
e th
e us
e of
sci
entif
ical
ly b
ased
rese
arch
find
ings
in e
arly
lite
racy
. In
addi
tion
to th
e N
YC
C c
omm
ittee
that
is fo
cuse
d on
inst
itute
s of
hig
her e
duca
tion
and
teac
her q
ualit
y (I
HE
TQ
), ot
her i
nitia
tives
incl
ude
Ado
lesc
ent L
itera
cy, A
sses
smen
t, E
-L
earn
ing,
and
Par
ent I
nvol
vem
ent.
Wha
t Has
NY
CC
Don
e to
Sup
port
IH
E F
acul
ty?
NY
CC
has
had
sev
eral
eve
nts
and
begu
n an
on-
line
envi
ronm
ent f
or IH
E fa
culty
toin
tera
ct w
ith e
ach
othe
r abo
ut th
eir c
urri
cula
and
reso
urce
s th
ey u
se in
thei
r pra
ctic
e.
77N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Enh
anci
ng T
each
er E
ffec
tiven
ess
Sym
posi
um
Aug
ust 2
006,
Col
lege
of S
aint
Ros
e, A
lban
y, N
Y
The
NY
CC
Enh
anci
ng T
each
er E
ffec
tiven
ess
Sym
posi
um b
roug
ht to
geth
er te
ache
red
ucat
ors
from
IHE
s ac
ross
New
Yor
k St
ate
with
repr
esen
tativ
es fr
om N
YSE
D a
nd lo
cal
educ
atio
n ag
enci
es. P
artic
ipan
ts jo
ined
to e
xpan
d th
eir k
now
ledg
e of
sci
entif
ical
ly b
ased
rese
arch
in re
adin
g (S
BR
R) a
nd e
xplo
re w
ays
to e
nhan
ce te
ache
r edu
catio
n. T
he L
ally
Scho
ol o
f Edu
catio
n at
the
Col
lege
of S
aint
Ros
e ho
sted
the
even
t, w
hich
laun
ched
NY
CC
’s IH
E/T
each
er Q
ualit
y in
itiat
ive.
Thi
s sy
mpo
sium
, the
firs
t of s
ever
al p
lann
ed N
YC
C e
vent
s, g
ave
IHE
facu
lty w
hopr
epar
e K
-12
teac
hers
a fo
rum
to d
iscu
ss S
BR
R a
nd h
ow to
teac
h it
to fu
ture
edu
cato
rs.
Lan
guag
e an
d lit
erac
y ex
pert
s D
r. C
athe
rine
Sno
w a
nd D
r. Sh
ari B
utle
r spo
ke w
ithpa
rtic
ipan
ts a
bout
SB
RR
and
inco
rpor
atin
g it
into
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s. T
hesy
mpo
sium
was
als
o an
opp
ortu
nity
to b
rain
stor
m fu
ture
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r col
labo
ratio
n,bo
th a
mon
g an
d be
twee
n IH
E fa
culty
, sta
te p
erso
nnel
, and
dis
tric
t per
sonn
el. N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e C
omm
issi
oner
of E
duca
tion
Ric
hard
P. M
ills
disc
usse
d th
e im
port
ance
of t
hepa
rtic
ipan
ts’ w
ork
in p
repa
ring
hig
hly
qual
ified
teac
hers
—th
us e
nsur
ing
that
eve
ry c
hild
in N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e ha
s ac
cess
to a
goo
d te
ache
r. H
e co
nclu
ded
by te
lling
par
ticip
ants
, “
It is
des
pera
tely
impo
rtan
t tha
t you
suc
ceed
in w
hat y
ou a
re d
oing
.”
Teac
her
Qua
lity
Web
inar
Let
’s T
alk
Abo
ut C
onte
nt A
rea
Lite
racy
: Pre
-ser
vice
and
In-s
ervi
ce T
each
er E
duca
tors
Shar
e N
otes
May
200
7
Thi
s w
ebin
ar w
as fo
r pre
-ser
vice
teac
her e
duca
tors
, in-
serv
ice
teac
her t
rain
ers,
and
othe
rs w
ith a
sta
ke in
teac
her e
duca
tion
from
New
Yor
k an
d N
ew E
ngla
nd. A
web
inar
isa
pres
enta
tion
that
is d
one
onlin
e, w
ith b
oth
a vi
sual
and
ora
l com
pone
nt.
Part
icip
ants
dial
in a
nd a
re a
ble
to s
ee a
Pow
erPo
int o
nlin
e w
hile
hea
ring
the
spea
ker(
s) d
iscu
ss it
.W
ebin
ars
also
pro
vide
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r par
ticip
ants
to w
rite
or s
peak
thei
r que
stio
ns a
ndco
mm
ents
. Thi
s on
e w
as th
e fi
rst w
ebin
ar to
be
offe
red
by th
e N
ew E
ngla
nd/N
ew Y
ork
Com
preh
ensi
on C
ente
rs T
each
er Q
ualit
y C
olla
bora
tions
Tea
m.
Invi
tatio
nal S
ympo
sium
Prom
otin
g St
uden
t Lite
racy
Thr
ough
Com
preh
ensi
on: E
nhan
cing
Tea
cher
Pre
para
tion
and
Prof
essi
onal
Dev
elop
men
t
June
200
7, A
lban
y, N
ew Y
ork
Thi
s sy
mpo
sium
, joi
ntly
off
ered
by
NY
CC
and
the
New
Eng
land
Com
preh
ensi
veC
ente
r, w
as th
e se
cond
in a
ser
ies
of s
ympo
sium
s to
str
engt
hen
teac
her e
duca
tion.
Mic
hael
Kam
il of
Sta
nfor
d U
nive
rsity
and
Nel
l Duk
e of
Mic
higa
n St
ate
Uni
vers
ity w
ere
the
feat
ured
spe
aker
s. I
n ad
diti
on t
o he
arin
g fr
om t
hese
pro
min
ent
rese
arch
ers,
78N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
part
icip
ants
had
opp
ortu
niti
es to
eng
age
with
New
Eng
land
col
leag
ues
and
each
oth
eron
issu
es o
f po
licy
and
pra
ctic
e fo
r en
hanc
ing
teac
her
educ
atio
n. S
aid
seve
ral
part
icip
ants
,
Thi
s w
as a
won
derf
ul o
ppor
tuni
ty to
hea
r dis
tingu
ishe
d ed
ucat
ors
and
inte
ract
with
them
abo
ut th
eir r
esea
rch.
It w
as g
reat
to fi
nd o
ut w
hat o
ther
s ar
e do
ing,
bot
h in
our
ow
n st
ate
and
thro
ugho
utN
ew E
ngla
nd.
I am
so
exci
ted
abou
t thi
s ev
ent.
I ca
n’t w
ait u
ntil
tom
orro
w to
hea
r mor
e.
How
Els
e D
oes
NY
CC
Pro
mot
e C
omm
unic
atio
n A
mon
g IH
E F
acul
ty?
One
of t
he N
YC
C’s
tool
s fo
r bui
ldin
g th
e ca
paci
ty o
f sta
tes
and
IHE
s to
enh
ance
the
use
of S
BR
-L in
teac
her p
repa
ratio
n an
d pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent i
s T
Q O
nlin
e, a
dyna
mic
onl
ine
spac
e fo
r tho
se w
ith a
sta
ke in
teac
her e
duca
tion.
TQ
Onl
ine
is c
o-sp
onso
red
by th
e N
ew Y
ork
and
New
Eng
land
Com
preh
ensi
ve C
ente
rs.
TQ
Onl
ine
prov
ides
a m
eetin
g gr
ound
whe
re te
ache
r edu
cato
rs, s
tate
edu
catio
npe
rson
nel,
and
othe
rs th
roug
hout
New
Eng
land
and
New
Yor
k ca
n te
st n
ew id
eas,
brai
nsto
rm s
olut
ions
, sha
re re
sour
ces,
and
see
k ad
vice
from
col
leag
ues
and
expe
rts
abou
tho
w to
alig
n in
stru
ctio
n w
ith s
cien
tific
find
ings
—an
d to
do
so a
cros
s ge
ogra
phic
bou
nd-
arie
s. Part
icip
ants
hav
e pr
aise
d T
Q O
nlin
e as
a re
sour
ce th
at s
uppo
rts
thei
r wor
k, s
ayin
g it
“is
alm
ost l
ike
free
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t” a
nd “
supp
orts
my
teac
hing
in w
ays
that
are
only
lim
ited
to m
y ow
n pa
rtic
ipat
ion.
” T
Q O
nlin
e of
fers
the
follo
win
g be
nefi
ts:
•U
nlim
ited
conv
ersa
tion
with
a n
etw
ork
of d
iver
se c
olle
ague
s th
roug
hout
New
Yor
k a
nd th
e si
x N
ew E
ngla
nd s
tate
s;•
The
cha
nce
to b
uild
par
tner
ship
s w
ith c
ross
-rol
e co
lleag
ues;
•A
cces
s to
the
late
st s
cien
tific
ally
bas
ed re
sear
ch in
lite
racy
, inc
ludi
ng re
sear
ch o
n s
peci
al e
duca
tion,
Eng
lish
lang
uage
lear
ners
, and
ado
lesc
ent l
itera
cy;
• Web
inar
s fe
atur
ing
in-d
eman
d sp
eake
rs o
n to
pics
requ
este
d by
par
ticip
ants
;•
Faci
litat
ed fo
llow
-up
conv
ersa
tions
onl
ine
afte
r eac
h w
ebin
ar;
• “A
sk th
e E
xper
t!”
foru
ms
in w
hich
par
ticip
ants
can
hav
e di
scou
rse
with
a v
isiti
ng e
xper
t on
SBR
-L o
r pol
icy
for p
resc
ribe
d pe
riod
s.
The
re a
re c
urre
ntly
two
colla
bora
tion
area
s on
TQ
Onl
ine:
Shar
ing
Sylla
bi a
nd R
esou
rces
Col
labo
ratio
n
Mem
bers
hip:
Exc
lusi
ve to
IHE
teac
her e
duca
tion
facu
lty a
nd N
ew E
ngla
nd a
nd N
ewY
ork
Com
preh
ensi
ve C
ente
r sta
ff.
In th
is o
nlin
e ar
ea, t
each
er e
duca
tors
, inc
ludi
ng fu
ll-tim
e fa
culty
, adj
unct
s, a
ndgr
adua
te te
achi
ng a
ssis
tant
s, c
an s
hare
and
dis
cuss
syl
labi
for l
itera
cy-r
elat
ed te
ache
rpr
epar
atio
n co
urse
s. D
iscu
ssio
ns fo
cus
on e
nhan
cing
the
alig
nmen
t of c
ours
e co
nten
t and
mat
eria
ls w
ith S
BR
-L, a
nd in
corp
orat
ing
SBR
-L in
to te
ache
r pre
para
tion
cour
sew
ork.
79N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
The
follo
win
g co
mm
ents
wer
e w
ritte
n by
IHE
facu
lty d
urin
g on
line
disc
ussi
ons
abou
t cou
rses
they
teac
h:
Tha
nks
for t
he fe
edba
ck; i
t’s g
ood
to k
now
that
oth
ers
wou
ld s
truc
ture
this
cou
rse
insi
mila
r way
s.
Plea
se le
t us
know
you
r res
ults
. If
you
find
it e
ffec
tive
I’d
like
to e
mul
ate
you
and
subs
titut
e a
PD g
roup
for t
he s
hado
win
g/in
terv
iew
ass
ignm
ent c
urre
ntly
in m
y sy
llabu
s.
To a
cces
s th
e m
embe
rshi
p re
ques
t fo
rm f
or t
his
area
, go
toht
tp:/
/nyc
ompr
ehen
sive
cent
er.o
rg/f
orm
_ws1
.
Scie
ntif
ical
ly B
ased
Res
earc
h in
Lite
racy
(SB
R-L
) and
Stat
e St
anda
rds
Res
ourc
e C
olla
bora
tion
Mem
bers
hip:
Tea
cher
edu
cato
rs, l
eade
rs fr
om s
tate
and
loca
l edu
catio
n ag
enci
es,
and
othe
rs w
ith a
sta
ke in
teac
her e
duca
tion.
Her
e, m
embe
rs c
an:
•sh
are
and
disc
uss
reso
urce
s ab
out S
BR
-L a
nd te
ache
r edu
catio
n;•
exam
ine
best
pra
ctic
es fo
r inc
reas
ing
SBR
-L in
to te
ache
r pre
para
tion
prog
ram
s an
d p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent i
nitia
tives
; and
• di
alog
ue a
bout
alig
ning
teac
her p
repa
ratio
n pr
ogra
ms
with
sta
te s
tand
ards
.
The
New
Yor
k C
ompr
ehen
sive
Cen
ter e
nthu
sias
tical
ly in
vite
s N
ew Y
ork
IHE
facu
ltyto
par
ticip
ate
in T
Q O
nlin
e an
d th
e sy
mpo
sia.
To
acce
ss th
e m
embe
rshi
p fo
rm fo
r thi
sar
ea, g
o to
http
://ny
com
preh
ensi
vece
nter
.org
/for
m_w
s2.
Her
e is
an
unso
licite
d co
mm
ent o
ne N
YSA
TE
mem
ber w
rote
abo
ut T
Q O
nlin
e.
I fin
d I c
an’t
resi
st c
licki
ng o
n th
e po
stin
gs a
s th
ey c
ome
to m
y m
ailb
ox e
ach
day
tofin
d ou
t wha
t peo
ple
are
sayi
ng. I
t onl
y ta
kes
a co
uple
of m
inut
es, a
nd it
’s a
goo
dle
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
e fo
r me.
It’s
ope
ning
doo
rs to
con
vers
atio
ns th
at o
ther
wis
ew
ould
n’t h
appe
n. I
not o
nly
lear
n fr
om p
eopl
e I t
alk
with
face
-to-
face
at m
y co
llege
,bu
t the
who
le s
tate
is o
pen
for c
onve
rsat
ion
now
! I d
on’t
feel
I’m
hel
ping
you
or
the
foru
m [w
hen
I par
ticip
ate]
, but
that
you
and
it a
re h
elpi
ng m
e by
sup
port
ing
my
teac
hing
in w
ays
that
are
onl
y lim
ited
to m
y ow
n pa
rtic
ipat
ion.
Clo
sing
Tho
ught
s
I hav
e he
ard
man
y IH
E fa
culty
spe
ak a
bout
the
isol
atio
n th
ey e
xper
ienc
e w
hen
prep
arin
g an
d te
achi
ng th
eir c
ours
es.
The
y ha
ve s
aid
they
wel
com
e di
alog
ue w
ithco
lleag
ues
at o
ther
IHE
s to
lear
n w
hat t
hey
are
teac
hing
and
thin
king
and
to s
hare
idea
s.Si
mila
rly,
I ha
ve h
eard
SE
D s
taff
com
men
t tha
t the
y w
ould
wel
com
e m
ore
oppo
rtun
ities
to h
ave
colle
gial
dia
logu
e w
ith IH
E fa
culty
abo
ut w
orki
ng to
geth
er to
pre
pare
and
supp
ort n
ew te
ache
rs. I
kno
w N
YC
C is
com
mitt
ed to
pro
vidi
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties
for s
uch
colla
bora
tion,
all
in s
ervi
ce o
f the
teac
hers
and
the
stud
ents
of N
ew Y
ork,
and
invi
te y
outo
bri
ng y
our v
oice
to th
e co
nver
satio
n.
80N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Plea
se v
isit
the
NY
CC
web
site
for i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t upc
omin
g ev
ents
and
val
uabl
ere
sour
ces
for
teac
her
educ
ator
s. F
or m
ore
info
rmat
ion
abou
t th
e N
ew Y
ork
Com
preh
ensi
ve C
ente
r, co
ntac
t Law
renc
e H
irsc
h, D
irec
tor,
atlh
irsc
h@rm
cres
.com
or 2
12-9
72-4
762.
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Susa
n V
illan
i, E
d.D
., is
Sen
ior P
rogr
am/R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
te a
t Lea
rnin
gIn
nova
tions
at W
estE
d an
d IH
E T
each
er Q
ualit
y te
am le
ader
of t
he N
ew Y
ork
Com
preh
ensi
ve C
ente
r. Y
ou m
ay re
ach
Susa
n at
svi
llani
@w
este
d.or
g. o
r78
1-48
1-11
12.
Boo
k R
evie
w o
f Rea
ders
of t
he Q
uilt:
Ess
ays
on B
eing
Bla
ck, F
emal
e, a
nd L
itera
teE
dite
d by
Joa
nne
Kilg
our
Dow
dy. (
2005
).C
ress
kill,
NJ:
Ham
pton
Pre
ss.
Kje
rsti
VanS
lyke
-Bri
ggs
SUN
Y O
neon
ta
Dow
dy b
ring
s to
geth
er a
n ex
celle
nt c
olle
ctio
n of
ess
ays
in a
com
mun
ity o
f voi
ces
that
all
cons
ider
the
role
of t
he B
lack
wom
an in
a li
tera
te s
ocie
ty.
Alth
ough
the
essa
ysar
e di
vers
e in
thei
r app
roac
h to
the
cent
ral s
ubje
ct, e
ach
wri
ter e
xam
ines
the
expe
rien
ceof
edu
catio
n fo
r Bla
ck w
omen
. Se
vera
l of t
he e
ssay
s m
odel
a re
sear
ch fo
rmat
whi
leot
hers
refl
ect m
ore
pers
onal
sto
ries
. E
ach,
how
ever
, rec
ount
s ta
les
of s
trug
gle,
em
pow
er-
men
t, an
d th
e di
ffic
ultie
s in
neg
otia
ting
an a
cade
mic
life
and
soc
ieta
l exp
ecta
tions
.T
he to
pics
cov
ered
in th
e es
says
rang
e fr
om a
n ex
amin
atio
n of
wom
en in
the
wel
fare
syst
em (G
olde
n) to
wom
en a
nd th
e ro
les
port
raye
d in
feat
ure
film
s (D
owdy
). T
he b
ook
is d
ivid
ed in
to th
ree
sect
ions
. With
in e
ach
sect
ion,
mul
tiple
aut
hors
are
repr
esen
ted,
incl
udin
g do
ctor
al c
andi
date
s, e
stab
lishe
d pr
ofes
sors
, mas
ter’
s de
gree
stu
dent
s, a
nd p
ast
high
-sch
ool t
each
ers.
The
text
s ea
ch c
onsi
der d
iffer
ent a
spec
ts o
f lite
racy
and
por
tray
the
mul
tiple
lite
raci
es th
at p
lay
an a
ctiv
e ro
le in
con
stru
ctin
g on
e’s
iden
tity.
Of t
hose
cons
ider
ed, f
unct
iona
l lite
racy
, tra
ditio
nal l
itera
cy, a
nd m
edia
lite
racy
pla
y a
pred
omin
ant
role
. One
of t
he th
emes
that
pla
ys a
pre
dom
inan
t rol
e th
roug
h m
any
of th
e es
says
is th
atof
sto
ryte
lling
. M
ost o
f the
ess
ays
incl
ude
som
e pe
rson
al n
arra
tive
in c
omm
unic
atin
g th
eth
esis
and
in s
ome
case
s th
e au
thor
s ha
ve c
hose
n to
exa
min
e th
ose
stor
ies
for d
eepe
rm
eani
ng.
Cha
pter
9 S
tory
telli
ng (F
rank
lin a
nd D
owdy
) exa
min
es th
e ro
le o
f sto
ryte
lling
as a
“fu
nctio
n in
life
for a
ll pe
ople
bec
ause
they
[sto
ries
] hel
p cr
eate
a fo
unda
tion
onw
hich
we
build
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
wor
ld”
(p. 1
19).
The
incl
usio
n of
thes
e st
orie
sst
reng
then
s th
e te
xt a
s th
e re
ader
enc
ount
ers
each
ess
ay.
The
per
sona
l nar
rativ
e ad
ds a
sens
e of
aut
hori
ty to
the
text
as
wel
l as
iden
tity.
Perh
aps
due
to th
e va
riet
y of
bac
kgro
unds
the
auth
ors
repr
esen
t, so
me
essa
ys a
rest
rong
er th
an o
ther
s. U
near
thin
g H
idde
n L
itera
cy: S
even
Les
sons
I L
earn
ed in
a C
otto
nFi
eld
(Sm
ith),
for i
nsta
nce,
is a
str
onge
r sel
ectio
n th
an s
ever
al o
ther
s in
the
text
. Thi
ses
say
reso
nate
s w
ith th
e us
e of
per
sona
l nar
rativ
e an
d a
won
derf
ul s
ense
of v
oice
. Sm
ithis
abl
e to
dra
w c
onne
ctio
ns b
etw
een
an a
cade
mic
vie
w o
f lite
racy
and
her
exp
erie
nces
pick
ing
cotto
n on
her
aun
t’s fa
rm.
The
sel
ectio
n ha
s a
beau
tiful
sen
se o
f im
ager
y an
dre
flec
ts a
n au
thor
who
is a
ttent
ive
to th
e cr
aft o
f wri
ting.
Thi
s pa
ce o
f wri
ting
is n
otco
ntin
ued,
how
ever
, in
the
next
sel
ectio
n, V
oice
s of
Our
For
emot
hers
: Cel
ebra
ting
the
Leg
acy
of A
fric
an-A
mer
ican
Wom
en E
duca
tors
, A P
erso
nal D
edic
atio
n (B
irne
y).
Thi
ses
say
read
s lik
e a
wea
k te
rm p
aper
that
relie
s to
o he
avily
on
the
wor
k of
oth
ers.
Thi
sre
sults
in a
ser
ies
of te
xtua
l quo
tatio
ns fr
om o
ther
sou
rces
and
a b
rief
ana
lysi
s by
Bir
ney.
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
8
1
82N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Rea
ders
of t
he Q
uilt,
des
pite
the
incl
usio
n of
som
e es
says
that
are
not
as
stro
ng a
sot
hers
, rem
ains
an
inte
rest
ing
read
. D
owdy
incl
udes
a w
ide
sele
ctio
n of
aut
hors
, and
each
has
a d
iffer
ent s
tory
to te
ll ab
out l
itera
cy fo
r the
Bla
ck w
oman
. T
his
text
is a
ppro
-pr
iate
for a
wid
e au
dien
ce ra
nge
and
shou
ld n
ot b
e lim
ited
to th
ose
in th
e fie
ld o
f edu
ca-
tion.
The
text
wou
ld b
e su
ited
for a
gra
duat
e cl
ass
focu
sed
on is
sues
per
tain
ing
to li
tera
cyan
d th
e st
rugg
les
of B
lack
wom
en.
At t
he u
nder
grad
uate
edu
catio
n le
vel,
the
incl
usio
n of
one
or tw
o es
says
in a
cou
rse
may
be
bene
fici
al to
stu
dent
s; h
owev
er, s
ever
al o
f the
essa
ys a
re n
ot s
uite
d to
this
aca
dem
ic le
vel.
As
a te
xt o
f res
ista
nce,
this
boo
k co
ntin
ues
tobr
ing
atte
ntio
n to
the
issu
es o
f equ
ality
and
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f val
uing
the
mul
tiple
liter
acie
s in
whi
ch B
lack
wom
en p
artic
ipat
e.
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Kje
rsti
Van
Slyk
e-B
rigg
s, E
d.D
., is
an
assi
stan
t pro
fess
or a
t SU
NY
One
onta
.H
er re
sear
ch in
tere
sts
are
in li
tera
cy a
nd fe
min
ist a
ppro
ache
s to
und
erst
andi
ngcl
assr
oom
dyn
amic
s. O
ther
aca
dem
ic in
tere
sts
incl
ude
soci
al ju
stic
e cu
rric
ulum
and
criti
cal l
itera
cy. E
mai
l: va
nsly
kb@
oneo
nta.
edu.
83N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Ph.
D. S
tori
es: C
onve
rsat
ions
with
My
Sist
ers
open
s th
e do
orw
ay fo
r rea
ders
to g
ain
a gl
imps
e in
to th
e ra
rely
exp
lore
d w
orld
of B
lack
lite
rate
wom
en. J
oann
e K
ilgou
rD
owdy
, fru
stra
ted
by h
er fe
elin
gs o
f lon
elin
ess
and
isol
atio
n as
the
only
Bla
ck fe
mal
epr
ofes
sor i
n he
r uni
vers
ity d
epar
tmen
t, em
bark
ed o
n a
jour
ney
to s
eek
out o
ther
Bla
ckw
omen
pro
fess
ors.
She
exp
lore
d th
eir e
xper
ienc
es o
f and
str
ateg
ies
for s
ucce
ss in
pred
omin
atel
y W
hite
Eur
ocen
tric
aca
dem
ic e
nvir
onm
ents
. Thr
ough
her
wel
l-de
sign
edet
hnog
raph
ic s
tudy
, whi
ch u
tiliz
es s
tory
telli
ng a
nd e
xten
sive
inte
rvie
win
g as
the
prim
ary
rese
arch
met
hodo
logy
, rea
ders
sha
re in
the
part
icip
ants
’ str
uggl
es, c
halle
nges
, joy
s,se
tbac
ks, s
eeki
ng o
f com
mun
ity w
ithin
and
bey
ond
the
acad
emy,
and
man
ifes
tatio
n of
drea
ms
as th
ey h
ave
enga
ged
in th
eir e
duca
tiona
l car
eers
.A
s w
ith h
er p
rior
boo
ks, R
eade
rs o
f the
Qui
lt: E
ssay
s A
bout
Bei
ng B
lack
, Fem
ale
and
Lite
rate
(200
5), w
hich
was
nom
inat
ed fo
r an
Ed
Fry
book
aw
ard
by th
e N
atio
nal
Rea
ding
Con
fere
nce,
and
GE
D S
tori
es: B
lack
Wom
en a
nd T
heir
Str
uggl
e fo
r So
cial
Equ
ity (2
003)
, Dow
dy c
ontin
ues
her e
xplo
ratio
n of
Bla
ck fe
mal
e id
entit
y in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es. T
his
time,
she
focu
ses
on th
e liv
es o
f nin
e B
lack
wom
en (i
nclu
ding
her
self
) who
earn
ed th
eir d
octo
rate
s, a
nd th
eir e
xper
ienc
es a
s pr
ofes
sion
als
in th
eir r
espe
ctiv
e fie
lds.
The
nin
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts in
clud
e as
sist
ant a
nd a
ssoc
iate
pro
fess
ors,
an
asso
ciat
e de
an, a
depa
rtm
ent c
hair,
and
an
inde
pend
ent b
usin
ess
cons
ulta
nt. A
lthou
gh th
ese
wom
en d
idno
t kno
w e
ach
othe
r, si
mila
ritie
s be
twee
n th
eir l
ife
expe
rien
ces
and
philo
soph
ies
emer
ged
duri
ng tr
ansc
ript
ana
lysi
s. B
ased
on
thes
e re
curr
ing
sim
ilari
ties,
eac
h ch
apte
r in
Ph.
D. S
tori
es is
dev
oted
to a
par
ticul
ar th
eme.
Cha
pter
1 la
ys th
e fo
unda
tion
for t
he ra
tiona
le b
ehin
d th
e st
udy,
its
why
s an
dw
here
fore
s, m
etho
dolo
gica
l fra
mew
ork,
and
an
intr
oduc
tion
to e
ach
of th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts.
Cha
pter
s 2
thro
ugh
4 ex
plor
e th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts’ f
amily
bac
kgro
unds
, inf
luen
tial p
eopl
e in
thei
r liv
es, t
heir
dev
elop
men
t of s
uppo
rt n
etw
orks
and
role
s as
men
tors
for t
heir
stu
dent
s,an
d ho
w a
ll th
ese
expe
rien
ces
shap
ed th
eir i
nner
driv
e to
real
ize
thei
r dre
ams.
Cha
pter
5ex
plor
es th
eir r
esea
rch
inte
rest
s, w
hich
rang
e fr
om is
sues
of d
iver
sity
in h
ighe
r edu
ca-
tion,
art
s ad
min
istr
atio
n, la
ngua
ge tr
ansl
atio
n, v
ideo
tech
nolo
gy, t
o is
sues
of t
rans
form
a-tiv
e ed
ucat
ion
and
soci
al ju
stic
e. In
bot
h ch
apte
rs 5
and
6, t
he p
artic
ipan
ts re
flec
t on
way
s th
ey h
ave
nego
tiate
d th
e in
evita
ble
frus
trat
ions
that
hav
e be
set t
hem
as
acad
emic
sw
ritin
g fo
r pub
licat
ion
and
offe
r val
uabl
e ad
vice
for b
uddi
ng s
chol
ars,
adv
ice
that
cut
sac
ross
gen
der,
race
, eth
nici
ty, a
nd a
ge. I
t is
appl
icab
le to
all
who
are
eng
aged
in th
epr
oces
s of
rese
arch
and
wri
ting.
Cha
pter
7 b
rief
ly re
itera
tes
the
them
es d
iscu
ssed
in th
e
Boo
k R
evie
w o
f Ph.
D. S
tori
es: C
onve
rsat
ions
with
My
Sist
ers
By
Joan
ne K
ilgou
r D
owdy
. (20
07).
Cre
sski
ll, N
J: H
ampt
on P
ress
.
Ani
ta C
. Lev
ine
Ken
t Sta
te U
nive
rsity
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
8
3
84N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Ani
ta C
. Lev
ine
is a
doc
tora
l can
dida
te in
Cur
ricu
lum
and
Inst
ruct
ion
at K
ent S
tate
Uni
vers
ity in
Ken
t, O
hio.
Her
rese
arch
inte
rest
s in
clud
e ed
ucat
ion
foun
datio
ns,
curr
icul
um th
eory
, tea
cher
edu
catio
n, a
nd c
ompa
rativ
e in
tern
atio
nal e
duca
tion.
Em
ail:
anita
.levi
ne@
yaho
o.co
m.
prec
edin
g ch
apte
rs a
nd th
en e
xam
ines
larg
er p
atte
rns
that
em
erge
d fr
om th
e in
terv
iew
s.T
hese
incl
ude
the
issu
e of
bal
ance
bet
wee
n w
ork
and
hom
e an
d ro
le a
s a
pare
nt, t
heir
iden
tific
atio
n as
Afr
ican
des
cend
ents
, the
infl
uenc
e of
inte
rnat
iona
l tra
vel o
n th
eir
care
ers,
ser
vice
com
mitm
ent p
hilo
soph
ies,
vie
ws
on te
achi
ng a
nd le
arni
ng, a
nd le
sson
sle
arne
d fr
om th
eir j
ourn
eys
as B
lack
, edu
cate
d fe
mal
es.
Two
criti
cism
s of
the
book
are
the
incl
usio
n of
one
non
-aca
dem
ia p
artic
ipan
t in
the
stud
y an
d ho
w it
see
ms
that
all
the
part
icip
ants
cam
e fr
om a
mid
dle-
clas
s fa
mily
bac
k-gr
ound
. Dow
dy’s
sta
ted
goal
was
to le
arn
from
the
life
expe
rien
ces
of B
lack
wom
enPh
.D.s
who
wor
k in
a p
redo
min
atel
y w
hite
aca
dem
ic e
nvir
onm
ent.
Yet
, one
par
ticip
ant
was
a b
usin
essw
oman
who
, aft
er e
arni
ng h
er d
octo
rate
, did
not
pur
sue
a ca
reer
inac
adem
ia. P
erha
ps b
ette
r wou
ld h
ave
been
to k
eep
the
book
focu
sed
sole
ly o
n w
omen
inac
adem
ia a
nd in
a s
epar
ate
stud
y ex
plor
e th
e ex
peri
ence
s of
Ph.
D. B
lack
wom
en w
hoha
ve c
hose
n to
not
wor
k in
the
univ
ersi
ty s
ettin
g. I
also
wou
ld h
ave
liked
to h
ave
seen
mor
e di
vers
ity a
mon
g th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts c
hose
n. A
ll th
e w
omen
but
one
wer
e m
arri
ed, a
ndit
seem
ed th
ey a
ll ca
me
from
a p
redo
min
atel
y m
iddl
e cl
ass,
two-
pare
nt fa
mily
bac
k-gr
ound
; eith
er o
ne o
r bot
h of
the
part
icip
ants
’ par
ents
wer
e co
llege
-edu
cate
d. I
see
thes
eas
lim
itatio
ns o
f the
stu
dy, a
s D
owdy
doe
s no
t add
ress
this
in h
er re
sear
ch d
esig
n. H
owdi
ffer
ent o
r sim
ilar w
ould
the
resp
onse
s ha
ve b
een
had
the
voic
es o
f sel
f-de
scri
bed
wor
king
-cla
ss B
lack
wom
en w
ho e
arne
d th
eir d
octo
rate
bee
n in
clud
ed, o
r per
haps
wom
en w
ho, u
nlik
e th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts, h
ad li
ttle
supp
ort f
rom
thei
r fam
ilies
or a
spo
use?
The
se c
ritic
ism
s no
twith
stan
ding
, Ph.
D. S
tori
es fi
lls a
voi
d in
the
acad
emic
lite
ratu
rein
whi
ch li
ttle
can
be fo
und
wri
tten
abou
t the
exp
erie
nces
of B
lack
, fem
ale
scho
lars
. It i
sa
gent
le a
nd in
sigh
tful
read
, and
off
ers
muc
h to
wom
en o
f any
col
or a
nd e
thni
c ba
ck-
grou
nd w
ho w
ish
to o
r hav
e em
bark
ed u
pon
the
stre
ssfu
l and
oft
en lo
nely
jour
ney
ofea
rnin
g th
eir d
octo
ral d
egre
e. T
hrou
gh th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts’ v
oice
s, th
e re
ader
will
find
hers
elf s
urro
unde
d by
an
exte
nded
fam
ily o
f men
tors
.Te
ache
r edu
cato
rs m
ay fi
nd P
h.D
. Sto
ries
use
ful f
or s
ervi
ng a
s a
disc
ussi
on s
prin
g-bo
ard
on th
e in
terp
lay
of ra
ce, g
ende
r, an
d pe
rcei
ved
prej
udic
es to
war
ds e
duca
ted
wom
en o
f col
or in
toda
y’s A
mer
ican
soc
iety
. As
note
d ea
rlie
r, ch
apte
rs 5
and
6 a
repa
rtic
ular
ly u
sefu
l for
thei
r adv
ice
on a
cade
mic
wri
ting
and
publ
icat
ion.
Thi
s ca
n be
of
grea
t ben
efit
for f
acul
ty in
thei
r pro
fess
iona
l gro
wth
, as
wel
l as
answ
er m
any
ques
tions
stud
ents
hav
e re
gard
ing
the
wor
ld o
f wri
ting
for p
ublic
atio
n in
aca
dem
e. T
he b
est
sum
mat
ion
I can
off
er fo
r the
val
ue o
f thi
s bo
ok is
in D
owdy
’s o
wn
wor
ds: “
[T]h
eim
port
ant l
esso
n th
at w
e ca
n le
arn
from
the
stor
ies
that
are
sha
red
in th
is c
olle
ctio
n of
test
imon
ials
is th
at th
ey w
ill to
be
form
ally
edu
cate
d an
d to
sha
pe th
e liv
es o
f tho
se w
hova
lue
form
al e
duca
tion
is a
live
and
wel
l am
ong
Bla
ck w
omen
in th
e ac
adem
y” (p
. 13)
.
Boo
k R
evie
w o
f Ple
dgin
g A
llegi
ance
: The
Pol
itics
of P
atri
otis
m in
Am
eric
an S
choo
lsE
dite
d by
Joe
l Wes
thei
mer
. (20
07).
New
Yor
k: T
each
ers
Col
lege
Pre
ss.
Cha
rles
F. H
owle
ttM
ollo
y C
olle
ge
In a
193
6 po
em “
Let
Am
eric
a B
e A
mer
ica
Aga
in”
(in
Wes
thei
mer
, 200
6), t
he n
oted
Afr
ican
-Am
eric
an li
tera
ry g
iant
, Lan
gsto
n H
ughe
s, s
poke
to th
e w
ide
gap
exis
ting
betw
een
a fo
rm o
f rhe
tori
cal p
atri
otis
m b
ased
ent
irel
y on
sym
bolic
ges
ture
s an
d on
e th
atem
bodi
es lo
ve o
f the
Am
eric
an id
eals
of l
iber
ty a
nd e
qual
ity. H
e kn
ew th
is w
as th
e ri
ght
kind
of p
atri
otis
m a
ll A
mer
ican
s co
uld
and
shou
ld e
mbr
ace.
O, l
et m
y la
nd b
e a
land
whe
re L
iber
tyIs
cro
wne
d w
ith n
o fa
lse
patr
iotic
wre
ath,
But
opp
ortu
nity
is re
al, a
nd li
fe is
free
,E
qual
ity is
in th
e ai
r we
brea
the.
(p. 6
20)
In 2
40 p
ages
of i
nsig
ht a
nd c
omm
enta
ry, t
he e
dito
r of P
ledg
ing
Alle
gian
ce: T
he P
oliti
csof
Pat
riot
ism
in A
mer
ican
Sch
ools
, Joe
l Wes
thei
mer
, has
put
toge
ther
a g
alax
y of
con
-tr
ibut
ors
addr
essi
ng th
e ha
rd q
uest
ions
abo
ut w
hat i
t mea
ns to
teac
h pa
trio
tism
in o
urna
tion’
s sc
hool
s. T
his
book
is a
imed
at a
ll ci
tizen
s, b
ut e
ven
mor
e to
teac
her e
duca
tors
,es
peci
ally
thos
e in
the
field
of s
ocia
l stu
dies
. Whi
le s
peci
fical
ly fo
cusi
ng o
n cr
itica
lis
sues
rela
ted
to p
atri
otis
m a
nd d
emoc
racy
in e
duca
tion
and
how
it s
houl
d be
taug
ht, t
hew
ork
also
exa
min
es th
e so
cial
stu
dies
cur
ricu
lum
, the
role
of m
ilita
ry re
crui
tmen
t in
scho
ols,
stu
dent
dis
sent
, and
the
impa
ct o
n te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms.
Som
e of
the
nota
ble
cont
ribu
tors
are
Bill
Aye
rs, C
hest
er F
inn,
Max
ine
Gre
en, D
iane
Rav
itch,
and
How
ard
Zin
n. R
eade
rs a
re p
rovi
ded
valu
able
insi
ghts
into
how
our
sch
ools
hav
e ch
ange
dsi
nce
Sept
embe
r 11,
200
1; th
e gr
owin
g de
man
d on
teac
hers
to to
e th
e ne
w “
patr
iotic
”lin
e; a
nd w
hat s
choo
ls o
f edu
catio
n sh
ould
do
to p
repa
re p
rese
rvic
e te
ache
rs fo
r the
real
ities
of t
he p
rofe
ssio
n.W
esth
eim
er, a
form
er N
ew Y
ork
City
sch
oolte
ache
r and
now
pro
fess
or a
nd U
nive
r-si
ty C
hair
in D
emoc
racy
and
Edu
catio
n at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Otta
wa,
set
s th
e to
ne in
his
intr
oduc
tory
rem
arks
and
sub
sequ
ent c
hapt
er “
Polit
ics
and
Patr
iotis
m in
Edu
catio
n.”
Wes
thei
mer
arg
ues
that
the
driv
e fo
r pat
riot
ic in
stru
ctio
n is
taki
ng o
n ne
w fe
rvor
for
thos
e of
us
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n. H
e pr
ovid
es tw
o re
ason
s. F
irst
, the
form
of p
atri
otis
mbe
ing
adop
ted
by m
any
scho
ols
boar
ds, c
ity a
nd s
tate
legi
slat
ures
, and
the
fede
ral
gove
rnm
ent i
s, s
impl
y pu
t, “m
onol
ithic
”: a
n at
titud
e of
Am
eric
an ri
ght o
r wro
ng.
Edu
cato
rs h
ave
beco
me
incr
easi
ngly
ala
rmed
by
rece
nt le
gisl
ativ
e at
tack
s on
dem
ocra
ticop
enne
ss. S
econ
d, th
ese
new
dev
elop
men
ts h
ave
not i
nclu
ded
teac
hers
or l
ocal
sch
ool
adm
inis
trat
ors
in te
rms
of c
once
ptio
n or
dev
elop
men
t. T
hese
fact
ors
have
led
the
edito
rto
cal
l upo
n ot
her w
rite
rs to
exp
ress
thei
r opi
nion
s an
d to
refl
ect u
pon
wha
t the
late
Pulit
zer P
rize
-win
ning
his
tori
an M
erle
Cur
ti ex
amin
ed in
his
pop
ular
pos
t-W
orld
War
IIbo
ok T
he R
oots
of A
mer
ican
Loy
alty
(194
6).
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
8
5
86N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Res
pond
ing
to W
esth
eim
er’s
cal
l, a
num
ber
of w
rite
rs c
omm
ent i
n P
ledg
ing
All
egia
nce
on e
duca
tors
’ com
mitm
ents
to te
achi
ng fo
r dem
ocra
tic c
itize
nshi
p. T
his
wor
kfo
cuse
s on
the
kind
of c
itize
nshi
p th
at re
cogn
izes
am
bigu
ity a
nd d
isag
reem
ent a
nden
cour
ages
deb
ate
and
delib
erat
ion
as th
e fo
unda
tion
bloc
ks fo
r pat
riot
ism
and
civ
iced
ucat
ion.
The
mor
e po
pula
r co
ntri
buto
rs m
enti
oned
ear
lier
hav
e w
ritt
en e
ssay
sad
dres
sing
nat
iona
l pol
icy
as o
ppos
ed to
eve
ryda
y m
atte
rs im
pact
ing
the
clas
sroo
m a
ndth
e ar
t of t
each
ing.
Yet
, for
teac
hers
of e
duca
tion
ther
e ar
e so
me
help
ful e
ssay
s to
con
sult.
Am
ong
the
essa
ys re
leva
nt to
teac
hers
of e
duca
tion,
bes
ides
Wes
thei
mer
’s, a
re th
ose
byPe
dro
Nog
uera
and
Rob
by C
ohen
, Deb
orah
Mei
er, G
eral
d G
raff
, Jos
eph
Kah
ane
and
Elle
n M
idda
ugh,
Dia
na H
ess
and
Lou
is G
anzl
er, a
nd C
ecel
ia O
’Lea
ry. T
his
revi
ewfo
cuse
s sp
ecifi
cally
on
thes
e es
says
.Pe
dro
Nog
uera
and
Rob
by C
ohen
’s “
Edu
cato
rs in
the
War
on
Terr
oris
m”
is ti
mel
yan
d pr
ovoc
ativ
e. T
he a
utho
rs a
rgue
that
it is
tim
e fo
r edu
cato
rs to
thin
k of
pat
riot
ism
and
citiz
ensh
ip in
term
s of
acc
ount
abili
ty. T
hey
insi
st th
at “
Eve
ry s
tude
nt in
our
nat
ion’
sse
cond
ary
scho
ols
shou
ld b
e…ab
le to
wri
te a
coh
eren
t ess
ay e
xplo
ring
the
mer
its o
fva
riou
s co
urse
s of
act
ion
and
putti
ng fo
rwar
d th
eir o
wn
pers
pect
ive
on th
e et
hics
of
U.S
.fo
reig
n po
licy
” (p
. 29)
. Rea
lizi
ng th
at s
choo
ls o
f ed
ucat
ion
have
a tr
emen
dous
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r fos
teri
ng th
e he
alth
and
wel
l-be
ing
of o
ur n
atio
n, th
ey e
voke
the
pion
eers
of t
he id
ea o
f a p
ublic
edu
catio
n—T
hom
as J
effe
rson
, Hor
ace
Man
n, a
nd J
ohn
Dew
ey—
who
arg
ued
that
it is
a te
ache
r’s
resp
onsi
bilit
y “t
o fo
ster
cri
tical
thin
king
am
ong
our s
tude
nts”
(p. 3
4).
Cer
tain
ly, t
his
idea
is c
arri
ed fu
rthe
r in
the
note
d ea
rly
child
hood
sch
olar
and
sen
ior
rese
arch
er a
t New
Yor
k U
nive
rsity
Deb
orah
Mei
er’s
ent
erta
inin
g es
say,
“O
n Pa
trio
tism
and
the
Yan
kees
: Les
sons
Lea
rned
from
Bei
ng a
Fan
.” A
lthou
gh a
die
hard
Yan
kee
fan,
she
care
fully
mak
es a
dis
tinct
ion
betw
een
loya
lty to
a b
aseb
all t
eam
and
alle
gian
ce to
the
stat
e, n
otin
g th
at “
…a
soun
der d
efin
ition
of p
atri
otis
m th
at is
con
sist
ent w
ith m
oder
nde
moc
racy
” (p
. 54)
mus
t be
inco
rpor
ated
into
teac
her e
duca
tion
prog
ram
s. In
her
opin
ion,
“Sc
hool
s ne
ed to
figh
t to
hold
up
open
an
invi
ting
pict
ure
of th
e m
arke
tpla
ce o
fid
eas—
all t
he w
ays
in w
hich
we
expr
ess
our d
iffer
ent,
som
etim
es v
ery
unco
mm
on id
eas
in m
usic
, dan
ce, p
aint
ing,
and
so
fort
h” (p
p. 5
4-55
). H
er m
ost t
ellin
g po
int i
s th
at
Kid
s…ha
ve to
o lo
ng a
ssoc
iate
d sc
hool
with
sile
nce,
with
exe
rcis
es in
ans
wer
ing
ques
tions
one
doe
sn’t
care
muc
h ab
out,
with
a b
land
stu
dent
gov
ernm
ent t
hat o
nly
gets
to d
ecid
e on
wha
teve
r is
view
ed a
s no
t sen
sitiv
e, a
nd w
ith ‘t
he ru
les’
:ke
epin
g th
ebu
ildin
g cl
ean,
wai
ting
one’
s tu
rn, f
ollo
win
g or
ders
, and
bei
ng p
olite
.(p
. 55)
For h
er, t
he e
ssen
tial q
uest
ion
is w
heth
er o
r not
sch
ools
can
be
plac
es th
at in
still
love
of
coun
try
and
plac
es th
at e
xplo
re th
e “t
rue”
mea
ning
of n
atio
n.O
f con
cern
to e
very
cla
ssro
om te
ache
r tod
ay is
the
issu
e of
pol
itica
l cor
rect
ness
.G
eral
d G
raff
, rec
ently
ele
cted
Pre
side
nt o
f the
Mod
ern
Lan
guag
e A
ssoc
iatio
n, m
aint
ains
that
a c
urri
culu
m “
in w
hich
the
dial
ectic
al c
lash
of c
once
pts
and
term
s is
scr
eene
dou
t…is
a p
resc
ript
ion
for p
oliti
cal p
assi
vity
and
inte
llect
ual i
llite
racy
” an
d “W
hen
stud
ents
don
’t ex
peri
ence
term
s lik
e ‘s
ocia
l jus
tice,
’ mul
ticul
tura
lism
,’ or
‘pat
riot
ism
’ in
com
pari
son
and
cont
rast
with
thei
r con
cept
ual a
ltern
ativ
es…
they
tend
to b
e de
priv
ed o
f acl
ear s
ense
of w
hat t
hese
term
s m
ean
and
wha
t is
polit
ical
ly a
t sta
ke in
them
” (p
. 69)
.
Tha
t poi
nt is
als
o m
ade
in c
ompe
lling
fash
ion
in J
osep
h K
ahan
e an
d E
llen
Mid
daug
h’s
“Is
Patr
iotis
m G
ood
for D
emoc
racy
?” T
hey
have
cal
led
upon
edu
cato
rs a
ndth
ose
deve
lopi
ng c
urri
cula
to e
mbr
ace
a cr
itica
l loy
alty
per
spec
tive.
For
dem
ocra
cy th
isor
ient
atio
n is
impe
rativ
e. “
The
poi
nt is
…to
hel
p st
uden
ts u
se th
eir l
ove
of c
ount
ry a
s a
mot
ivat
ion
to c
ritic
ally
ass
ess
wha
t is
need
ed to
mak
e it
bette
r” (p
. 119
).Fi
nally
, the
last
two
essa
ys w
orth
y of
com
men
t for
teac
her e
duca
tion
are
Dia
na H
ess
and
Lou
is G
anzl
er’s
“Pa
trio
tism
and
Ideo
logi
cal D
iver
sity
in th
e C
lass
room
” an
d C
ecili
aO
’Lea
ry’s
“Pa
trio
t Act
s.” T
he H
ess
and
Gan
zler
pie
ce is
par
ticul
arly
app
ropr
iate
for
disc
ussi
on in
teac
her e
duca
tion
cour
ses
beca
use
the
auth
ors
enco
urag
e th
e cr
eatio
n of
scho
ols
and
clas
ses
that
“ar
e as
pol
itica
lly h
eter
ogen
eous
as
poss
ible
” (p
. 138
). T
heau
thor
s’ m
ain
idea
is fo
r tea
cher
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
to e
ncou
rage
the
notio
n th
atst
uden
ts h
ave
as m
any
oppo
rtun
ities
to e
ngag
e in
vig
orou
s di
scus
sion
s of
pol
itica
l iss
ues
as p
ossi
ble.
And
, for
thos
e in
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
seek
ing
a br
oade
r his
tori
cal o
verv
iew
of th
e id
ea o
f pat
riot
ism
, O’L
eary
’s e
ssay
cha
lleng
es th
at fo
rm o
f lea
rnin
g “s
hape
d by
the
dem
ands
of w
ar, i
nfus
ed b
y ra
cism
, nar
row
ed b
y an
ti-im
mig
rant
pos
ition
s an
dpo
litic
al in
tole
ranc
e of
dis
sent
” (p
. 154
). H
er e
ssay
off
ers
an e
asily
und
erst
anda
ble
criti
que
of th
e ev
olut
ion
of th
e de
bate
s su
rrou
ndin
g pa
trio
tism
in tw
entie
th-c
entu
ryA
mer
ica.
Ple
dgin
g A
llegi
ance
: The
Pol
itics
of P
atri
otis
m in
Am
eric
an S
choo
ls o
ffer
s qu
ite a
coll
ecti
on o
f es
says
wit
h m
ulti
ple
pers
pect
ives
. Str
uctu
rally
, the
wor
k co
nsis
ts o
fre
lativ
ely
shor
t and
eas
ily re
adab
le e
ssay
s th
at a
re in
tend
ed fo
r a p
opul
ar a
udie
nce.
It is
ava
luab
le s
ourc
eboo
k fo
r te
ache
rs w
hen
disc
ussi
ng th
e is
sues
of
citi
zens
hip
and
patr
iotis
m. E
duca
tors
in te
ache
r edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
are
enco
urag
ed to
sam
ple
the
num
erou
s es
says
add
ress
ing
this
ver
y im
port
ant t
opic
. Use
ful f
or te
ache
rs is
an
appe
nded
list o
f res
ourc
es d
ealin
g w
ith th
is m
atte
r. A
gain
, as
we
prep
are
the
futu
re c
itize
ns o
f thi
sna
tion,
how
do
we
deal
with
the
com
plex
and
dee
ply
prob
lem
atic
role
of p
atri
otis
m in
ade
moc
ratic
soc
iety
? H
ow d
o w
e, in
the
clas
sroo
m, g
ener
ate
a lo
ve o
f cou
ntry
whi
leen
cour
agin
g a
mor
e th
orou
gh e
xam
inat
ion
of th
e m
eani
ng o
f cou
ntry
itse
lf?
Refe
ren
ces
Cur
ti, M
. (19
46).
The
root
s of
Am
eric
an lo
yalty
. New
Yor
k: C
olum
bia
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
.W
esth
eim
er, J
. (A
pril
2006
). Po
litic
s an
d pa
trio
tism
in e
duca
tion.
Phi
Del
ta K
appa
n,87
,p.
620
.
87N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Cha
rles
F. H
owle
tt, P
h.D
., te
ache
s in
the
Gra
duat
e P
rogr
am, E
duca
tion
Div
isio
n, M
ollo
y C
olle
ge. H
e is
a re
tired
sec
onda
ry s
choo
l tea
cher
and
form
ersc
hool
adm
inis
trat
or. H
e is
als
o a
note
d sc
hola
r in
the
field
of A
mer
ican
pea
cehi
stor
y ha
ving
aut
hore
d ov
er 1
00 s
chol
arly
and
pop
ular
art
icle
s, in
clud
ing
seve
n bo
oks.
He
is a
lso
a m
embe
r of E
xcel
sior
’s E
dito
rial
Rev
iew
Boa
rd.
Em
ail:
chow
lett@
mol
loy.
edu.
An
Ana
lytic
al O
utlin
e of
Why
Soc
ial J
ustic
e M
atte
rs b
y B
rian
Bar
ry. (
2005
).L
ondo
n, U
K: P
olity
Pre
ss.
Jaso
n B
lokh
uis
Uni
vers
ity o
f Roc
hest
er
In a
nut
shel
l, so
cial
just
ice
mat
ters
bec
ause
a s
ocie
ty th
at d
oes
not a
ckno
wle
dge,
assu
me,
or a
ccep
t col
lect
ive
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r the
wel
l-be
ing
of a
ll its
mem
bers
isdo
omed
. T
his
is B
rian
Bar
ry’s
cen
tral
thes
is; h
is k
ey c
laim
s le
nd s
uppo
rt to
this
over
arch
ing
them
e. B
arry
str
uctu
res
his
argu
men
ts, c
hapt
er b
y ch
apte
r, in
a m
anne
r tha
thi
ghlig
hts
the
cum
ulat
ive
disa
dvan
tage
pri
ncip
le.
Cum
ulat
ive
disa
dvan
tage
(lik
e its
coro
llary
, cum
ulat
ive
adva
ntag
e) d
escr
ibes
a g
row
ing
gulf
bet
wee
n ‘h
aves
’ and
‘hav
eno
ts’.
Con
cent
rate
d w
ealth
ent
ails
con
cent
rate
d po
vert
y. W
hen
extr
emes
of w
ealth
beco
me
too
grea
t, th
e se
nse
of c
omm
on p
urpo
se o
r sha
red
fate
on
whi
ch th
e co
ntin
ued
exis
tenc
e of
any
soc
iety
dep
ends
is lo
st.
Why
Soc
ial J
ustic
e M
atte
rs is
indi
spen
sabl
e re
adin
g fo
r tea
cher
s an
d te
ache
r edu
ca-
tors
. G
ood
teac
hers
are
phi
loso
pher
s –
peop
le w
ho s
eek
trut
h, th
ink
criti
cally
, lov
ekn
owle
dge,
and
resp
ect t
he in
here
nt d
igni
ty o
f all
pers
ons
as m
oral
age
nts.
Goo
d te
ach-
ers
help
to d
evel
op th
e ra
tiona
l cap
aciti
es o
f chi
ldre
n so
that
, as
adul
ts, t
hey
can
mak
ego
od c
hoic
es fo
r the
mse
lves
and
for t
heir
fello
w c
itize
ns th
roug
h th
e ex
erci
se o
f pra
ctic
alre
ason
(phr
ones
is).
“If
all
com
mun
ities
aim
at s
ome
good
,” w
rote
Ari
stot
le, “
the
stat
e or
polit
ical
com
mun
ity, w
hich
is th
e hi
ghes
t of a
ll, a
nd w
hich
em
brac
es a
ll th
e re
st, a
ims
atgo
od in
a g
reat
er d
egre
e th
an a
ny o
ther
, and
at t
he h
ighe
st g
ood”
(Ari
stot
le, t
rans
. 188
5).
In s
hort
, the
soc
iety
for w
hich
teac
hers
are
pre
pari
ng th
eir s
tude
nts
for f
ull m
embe
rshi
pan
d pa
rtic
ipat
ion
is s
uppo
sed
to b
e a
part
ners
hip
for l
ivin
g th
e be
st k
ind
of li
fe.
Hum
anbe
ings
are
‘pol
itica
l ani
mal
s’ b
ecau
se w
e re
ly o
n ou
rsel
ves
and
othe
rs to
lead
com
plet
ean
d fl
ouri
shin
g liv
es (
Cur
ren,
200
0).
A s
yste
m o
f un
equa
l wea
lth
and
reso
urce
dist
ribu
tion
is ju
st o
nly
to th
e ex
tent
that
the
grea
test
ben
efits
acc
rue
to th
e le
ast
adva
ntag
ed, l
est t
he p
oor b
ecom
e m
ere
mea
ns to
the
ends
of t
he ri
ch (R
awls
, 200
1).
Bar
ry a
rgue
s th
at in
divi
dual
resp
onsi
bilit
y as
a g
over
nmen
t man
tra
is m
ore
than
asy
mpt
om o
f th
e gr
owin
g di
spar
ity
betw
een
have
s an
d ha
ve n
ots.
Ind
ivid
uali
smac
cele
rate
s in
equa
lity.
Soc
iety
is a
zer
o-su
m e
nter
pris
e in
sofa
r as
bene
fits
to s
ome
nece
ssar
ily c
ome
at th
e ex
pens
e of
oth
ers.
As
the
gulf
bet
wee
n th
e pr
ivile
ged
and
the
disa
dvan
tage
d w
iden
s, th
e co
st o
f sus
tain
ing
priv
ilege
gro
ws
expo
nent
ially
. R
eade
rs o
fTh
e Ju
ngle
(Sin
clai
r, 19
06) m
ight
reco
gniz
e a
para
llel i
n th
e re
lent
less
‘spe
edin
g up
’pr
oces
s th
at b
edev
iled
sla
ught
erho
use
wor
kers
. C
hica
go’s
pac
king
hous
es o
pera
ted
as a
mon
opol
y. W
ithi
n a
clos
ed s
yste
m, n
o in
crea
se in
pro
fit c
an b
e ga
ined
by
expa
ndin
g m
arke
ts o
r ot
herw
ise
exte
rnal
izin
g co
sts.
Thu
s, g
row
th in
pro
fit, b
uilt
on
Exc
elsi
or:
Lead
ersh
ip in
Tea
chin
g an
d Le
arni
ngV
olum
e 2,
Num
ber 1
F
all/W
inte
r 200
7
8
9
90N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
extr
actin
g m
axim
um la
bor f
or m
inim
um c
ost,
can
be m
aint
aine
d on
ly b
y ‘s
quee
zing
’w
orke
rs a
nd s
uppl
iers
. W
hen
the
inst
itutio
ns o
f gov
ernm
ent –
ano
ther
clo
sed
syst
em –
are
oper
ated
in s
uch
a w
ay a
s to
ext
ract
val
ue fr
om o
ne g
roup
for t
he b
enef
it of
ano
ther
,th
e re
sult
is m
uch
the
sam
e.
The
sta
kes,
how
ever
, are
muc
h hi
gher
.B
arry
’s fi
rst k
ey c
laim
abo
ut th
e pe
rils
of c
umul
ativ
e di
sadv
anta
ge is
mad
e in
his
chap
ter o
n ed
ucat
ion:
A s
ocie
ty th
at d
oes
not a
ssum
e re
spon
sibi
lity
for t
he e
duca
tion
ofits
you
ng s
ows
the
seed
s of
its
own
dest
ruct
ion.
A c
ompe
titiv
e m
arke
t for
sch
oolin
gen
sure
s th
at c
hild
ren
will
rece
ive
the
best
edu
catio
n th
eir f
amily
can
aff
ord.
For
the
child
ren
of p
rivile
ged
fam
ilies
, thi
s is
the
begi
nnin
g of
cum
ulat
ive
adva
ntag
e, a
s w
ell-
educ
ated
chi
ldre
n ga
in re
ady
acce
ss to
the
offic
es a
nd o
ppor
tuni
ties
soci
ety
has
to o
ffer
.Fo
r the
chi
ldre
n of
und
erpr
ivile
ged
fam
ilies
, a c
ompe
titiv
e m
arke
t for
sch
oolin
g is
the
begi
nnin
g of
an
even
mor
e se
vere
cum
ulat
ive
disa
dvan
tage
. A
chi
ld w
ho d
oes
not l
earn
to re
ad m
ay n
ot q
ualif
y fo
r a d
river
’s li
cens
e, li
miti
ng h
er m
obili
ty a
nd e
mpl
oym
ent
pros
pect
s. S
he w
ill n
ot b
e ab
le to
par
ticip
ate
fully
in p
ublic
dis
cour
se th
roug
h pr
int
med
ia.
She
will
be
unab
le to
def
end
her i
nter
ests
as
a ci
tizen
, mak
ing
her e
asy
fodd
er fo
rth
ose
who
wou
ld e
xplo
it h
er ig
nora
nce
for
fina
ncia
l or
poli
tica
l gai
n.
Bet
wee
n th
ew
ell-
educ
ated
and
the
ill-e
duca
ted,
ther
e is
littl
e se
nse
of a
‘com
mon
goo
d’ a
t whi
ch a
gove
rnm
ent m
ight
aim
. In
stea
d, th
e pr
ivile
ged
live
in fe
ar, a
ssua
ging
thei
r gui
lt w
ithev
er-c
ostli
er b
read
and
cir
cuse
s fo
r tho
se w
ho w
ould
rese
nt th
eir e
xplo
itatio
n (i
f the
yw
ere
awar
e of
its
mag
nitu
de).
Whe
n th
e pr
ivile
ged
live
in fe
ar o
f tho
se w
hom
they
exp
loit,
war
ehou
sing
is a
n ea
sy–
thou
gh c
ostly
– s
olut
ion.
In
a ch
apte
r ent
itled
, “T
he M
akin
g of
the
Bla
ck G
ulag
,”B
arry
des
crib
es h
ow a
pen
al s
yste
m a
ssig
ned
to m
arke
t for
ces
adds
to c
umul
ativ
edi
sadv
anta
ge.
A g
over
nmen
t tha
t inv
ests
in e
duca
tion
in a
dis
crim
inat
ory
fash
ion
– or
whi
ch m
akes
edu
catio
n an
indi
vidu
al re
spon
sibi
lity
– ca
n ex
pect
mor
e re
spec
t for
law
amon
g th
ose
who
se ra
tiona
l cap
aciti
es w
ere
wel
l-cu
ltiva
ted
than
am
ong
thos
e w
hose
ratio
nal c
apac
ities
wer
e no
t. W
hat c
an g
over
nmen
t do
for t
he ig
nora
nt, t
he in
capa
ble,
and
the
alie
nate
d w
ho h
ave
‘cho
sen’
not
to o
bey
the
law
? W
hy, l
ock
them
aw
ay, o
fco
urse
! A
ny c
once
rn th
at g
over
nmen
t mig
ht b
e co
mpl
icit
in th
e ig
nora
nce,
inca
paci
ty,
and
alie
natio
n th
at le
d to
unl
awfu
l con
duct
is b
rush
ed a
side
with
a ra
ther
hyp
ocri
tical
appe
al to
ratio
nal c
hoic
e: ‘
The
y’ c
hose
to b
reak
the
law
; the
refo
re, ‘
they
’ cho
se th
eco
nseq
uenc
es.
All
the
whi
le, a
pen
al s
yste
m o
pera
ted
by c
ompe
ting
priv
ate
corp
orat
ions
man
ipul
ates
pub
lic p
olic
y to
ens
ure
an e
ver-
grow
ing
pris
on p
opul
atio
n, w
ith c
onco
mita
ntpr
ofits
gen
erat
ed a
t pub
lic e
xpen
se.
Inde
ed, a
s B
arry
poi
nts
out,
soci
etal
col
laps
e is
that
muc
h cl
oser
as
inve
stm
ent i
n pu
blic
goo
ds (e
duca
tion
and
heal
th c
are)
is re
duce
d to
pay
the
Pied
Pip
er o
f priv
atiz
ed p
riso
ns.
The
cap
acity
to th
ink
criti
cally
is a
nec
essa
ry c
ondi
tion
for p
erso
nal a
uton
omy
and
dem
ocra
tic p
artic
ipat
ion.
It i
s al
so a
nec
essa
ry c
ondi
tion
for w
ell-
bein
g in
its
mos
tfu
ndam
enta
l sen
se: B
arry
’s c
hapt
er o
n he
alth
illu
stra
tes
the
cum
ulat
ive
disa
dvan
tage
that
accr
ues
in a
soc
iety
that
relin
quis
hes
both
edu
catio
n an
d he
alth
car
e to
mar
ket f
orce
s.In
bri
ef, t
he in
adeq
uate
ly e
duca
ted
are
read
ily m
anip
ulat
ed b
y th
e ir
ratio
nal a
ppea
ls o
fhu
ckst
ers.
Bar
rage
d w
ith a
dver
tisem
ents
tout
ing
unhe
alth
y fo
ods,
the
unde
redu
cate
dsu
ffer
dis
prop
ortio
nate
ly fr
om o
besi
ty a
nd d
iabe
tes.
Man
y ca
nnot
read
nut
ritio
nal
info
rmat
ion
and
prod
uct w
arni
ng la
bels
. In
a s
ocie
ty th
at a
ssig
ns h
ealth
car
e to
aco
mpe
titiv
e m
arke
t, th
e ha
ves
can
‘cho
ose’
to b
uy to
p-of
-the
line
med
ical
car
e, w
hile
the
have
not
s ar
e he
ld in
divi
dual
ly re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
con
sequ
ence
s of
thei
r poo
r nut
ritio
nal
‘cho
ices
’ and
thei
r ‘de
cisi
on’ n
ot to
buy
ade
quat
e he
alth
insu
ranc
e.
Ulti
mat
ely,
cum
ulat
ive
disa
dvan
tage
lead
s to
a g
ulf s
o w
ide
betw
een
the
have
s an
dth
e ha
ve n
ots
that
nei
ther
sid
e re
cogn
izes
the
othe
r as
fello
w c
itize
ns.
Thi
s al
iena
tion
–ex
acer
bate
d by
gov
ernm
ents
com
mitt
ed to
indi
vidu
al re
spon
sibi
lity
– ob
liter
ates
any
linge
ring
not
ions
of s
hare
d fa
te, a
nec
essa
ry c
ondi
tion
for a
soc
iety
to b
e re
cogn
izab
le a
sa
part
ners
hip
for l
ivin
g th
e be
st k
ind
of li
fe.
Yet
Bar
ry g
oes
a st
ep fu
rthe
r. In
the
final
cha
pter
s of
Why
Soc
ial J
ustic
e M
atte
rs,
Bar
ry in
voke
s th
e A
rist
otel
ian
trag
edy
of th
e co
mm
ons,
asc
ribi
ng th
e im
min
ent c
olla
pse
of th
e ea
rth’
s ab
ility
to s
usta
in h
uman
life
to g
over
nmen
ts th
at p
rom
ote
mat
eria
lism
and
indi
vidu
al re
spon
sibi
lity
abov
e th
e co
mm
on g
ood.
The
relu
ctan
ce o
f the
U.S
. gov
ern-
men
t to
tack
le g
loba
l col
lect
ive
actio
n pr
oble
ms
such
as
glob
al w
arm
ing
and
reso
urce
depl
etio
n m
ay h
ave
cata
stro
phic
con
sequ
ence
s. A
n ir
resp
onsi
ble
soci
ety
is a
doo
med
soci
ety,
to b
e su
re.
But
wha
t is
ultim
atel
y at
sta
ke is
not
the
surv
ival
of A
mer
ican
soc
iety
or B
ritis
h so
ciet
y; it
is h
uman
soc
iety
.Th
at is
why
soc
ial j
ustic
e m
atte
rs. Refe
ren
ces
Ari
stot
le. (
1885
). Th
e po
litic
s of
Ari
stot
le, t
rans
late
d in
to E
nglis
h w
ith in
trod
uctio
n,m
argi
nal a
naly
sis,
ess
ays
and
indi
ces
by B
. Jow
ett.
Oxf
ord,
UK
: C
lare
ndon
Pre
ss.
Cur
ren,
R. R
. (20
00).
Ari
stot
le o
n th
e ne
cess
ity o
f pub
lic e
duca
tion.
Lan
ham
, MD
:R
owm
an &
Litt
lefi
eld.
Raw
ls, J
. (20
01).
Jus
tice
as fa
irne
ss: A
res
tate
men
t. C
ambr
idge
, MA
: Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
.Si
ncla
ir, U
. (19
06).
The
jung
le.
New
Yor
k: D
oubl
eday
, Pag
e &
Co.
91N
ota
Be
ne
: R
eso
urc
es o
f N
ote
Au
tho
r B
iog
rap
hy
Jaso
n B
lokh
uis
hold
s de
gree
s in
His
tory
, Law
, and
Edu
catio
n. H
e is
cur
rent
lyw
orki
ng o
n a
Ph.D
. in
Edu
catio
nal T
houg
ht a
nd P
olic
y at
the
Mar
gare
t War
ner
Gra
duat
e Sc
hool
of E
duca
tion
and
Hum
an D
evel
opm
ent a
t the
Uni
vers
ity o
fR
oche
ster
. H
e al
so s
erve
s as
Stu
dent
Rep
rese
ntat
ive
on th
e E
xecu
tive
Boa
rd o
fth
e N
ew Y
ork
Stat
e A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Tea
cher
Edu
cato
rs (N
YSA
TE
).E
mai
l: jb
lokh
uis@
war
ner.r
oche
ster
.edu
.