microprocessor 01 handout

Basic Structures of Computers

Computer Types

Functional Units

Basic Operational Concepts

Number Representation and Arithmetic Operations

Character Representation

Historical Perspective

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*Property of STI I0022

• Modern computers can be divided roughly into four general categories:

–Embedded Computers

– used for a specific purpose rather than for general processing tasks

–Personal Computers

– used for dedicated individual use such as general computation, document preparation, computer-aided design, audiovisual entertainment, interpersonal communication, and Internet browsing

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–Servers and Enterprise Systems

– large computers shared by a potentially large number of users who access them from some form of personal computer over a public or private network.

–Supercomputers and Grid Computers

– offer the highest performance and are the most expensive and physically the largest category of computers

• Cloud Computing • where personal computer users access widely distributed

computing and storage server resources for individual, independent, computing needs through the Internet

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• Five Parts: input, memory, arithmetic and logic,output, and control units

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• Input unit accepts coded information from human operators Memory is the location where the information received is stored

• The processing steps are specified by a program that is also stored in the memory.

• Results are sent back to the outside world through the output unit.

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• Control unit coordinates all actions.

• Interconnection network provides the means for the functional units to exchange information and coordinate their actions.

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• Information categories

– Instructions

• Machine instructions

• Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as between the computer and its I/O devices

• Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed

–Data

• Numbers and characters that are used as operands by the instructions

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• Input Unit–Accepts coded information

–Most common input device is the keyboard.

–Other kinds of input devices include touchpad, mouse, joystick, and trackball.

–Microphones can be used to capture audio input

–Cameras can be used to capture video input.

– Internet, can also provide input to a computer from other computers and database servers.

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• Memory Unit

–Primary Memory or Main memory

• Fast memory that operates at electronic speed

• Consists of a large number of semiconductor storage cellsrepresenting one bit of information.

• Read or written in a fixed size called words.

• Addresses – provides easy access to any word in a memory,provides location of a word.

• Instructions or data can be written

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– RAM

• Any location can be accessed in a short and fixed amount of time

– Memory access time

• Required to access one word

• Ranges from nanoseconds to about 100 nanoseconds

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• Cache Memory

–Smaller and faster RAM unit

–Holds sections of program that are currently being executed

–At program execution, cache is empty

–During execution, instructions are fetched and placed in the cache

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• Secondary Storage

–Primary memory is expensive and does not retain information when power is turned OFF.

–Less expensive and used for less frequently accessed information

–Longer access times

–Magnetic disks, DVD and CD and flash memory devices

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• Arithmetic and Logic Unit

–Performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division orcomparison of numbers

–Operands are brought to the processor

–Stored in high-speed storage elements known as registers

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• Output Unit

–Counterpart of the input unit

–Send process results to the outside world

• Control Unit

–Coordinates the operation of the other units

– Is the nerve center that sends control signals to the other units and senses their states

–Generates timing signals that govern the transfers

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• Summary of Computer Operation

–The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and stores it in the memory.

– Information stored in the memory is fetched under program control into an arithmetic and logic unit, where it is processed.

–Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit.

–All activities in the computer are directed by the control unit.

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• Activity is governed by instructions

Load R2, LOC–Reads the contents of a memory location (LOC) and loads them

to the processor register (R2)

– LOC data are preserved and R2 data are overwritten

Add R4, R2, R3–R4 = R2 + R3

–R4 data are overwritten with the addition result

Store R4, LOC– LOC data are overwritten

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• Memory – processor interconnection

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• Processor Registers

– Instruction register

– holds the current instruction that is executed

–Program counter

– contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed

–General Purpose Registers

– can hold operands for processing and other variety of functions

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• Integers

B = bn-1…b1b0

V(B) = bn-1x 2n-1+…b1 x 21 + b0

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• Floating-Point Numbers

– -2.34 x 1056

– +0.002 x 10-4

– +987.02 x 109

–Can not be encoded in a 32-bit integer

• Floating point representation

– -1sign x F x 2E

– F – fraction, E - exponent

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• Floating-Point Numbers

–Follows the IEEE 754 Floating Point Standard

– -1sign x F x 2E-bias

–Bias = 127 (single precision) and 1023 (double precision)

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• All information in the computer must be represented by 0s or 1s, including letters and other characters

• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was established in the 1960s.

• Assigns binary patterns for numbers 0 to 9, all letters of the English alphabet (uppercase and lowercase) and many control codes and punctuation marks

• Used by most computers so that information is shared among computers

• Provides a standard for printing and displaying characters by output devices

• Uses a total of 7 bits to represent each code

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http://www.asciitable.com/

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• Performance is how quickly it can execute programs– Technology

– use of VLSI to fabricate circuits for a processor on a single chip

– Switching between 0 and 1 states is determined by transistor size

– Smaller transistors switch faster

• Parallelism– Instruction-level Parallelism

– pipelining

–Multicore Processors – multiple processing units in a single chip

–Multiprocessors – many processors in a computer system

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• First Generation–Key concept of a stored program was introduced

–Assembly language was used to prepare programs and was translated to machine language for execution

–Basic arithmetic operations were performed in a few milliseconds

–Uses vacuum tube technology to implement logic functions

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• Second Generation–Uses transistors instead of vacuum tubes

–Magnetic core memories and magnetic drum storage devices

–High-level languages such as Fortran were developed

–Compilers were also developed

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• Third Generation–Ability to fabricate to many transistors on a single silicon chip

called integrated circuit (IC) technology

– Enabled faster and less costly processors and memory elements to be built.

– IC replaced magnetic core memories

– Introduction of microprogramming, parallelism and pipelining

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• Fourth Generation– Implementation of complete processors and large sections

of the main memory of small computers on a single chip.

–Very large scale integration (VLSI) technology

–Microprocessor

– complete processor fabricated on a single chip

–Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)

– allowed system developers to design and implement processor, memory and I/O circuits on a single chip

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