Middle Woodland and the Middle Woodland and the Hopewell (2200-1600 B.P.)Hopewell (2200-1600 B.P.)

TraitsTraits

ArtifactsArtifacts

SitesSites

TimelineTimeline

Middle WoodlandMiddle Woodland

The middle period or stage of the The middle period or stage of the Woodland tradition in eastern North Woodland tradition in eastern North America. America.

Many trends that began thousands of Many trends that began thousands of years earlier in the Archaic reach years earlier in the Archaic reach their climax in the Middle Woodland their climax in the Middle Woodland in some resource rich regions. in some resource rich regions.

Middle Woodland TraitsMiddle Woodland Traits

an increasing efficiency in harvesting a an increasing efficiency in harvesting a wide variety of productive and nutritious wide variety of productive and nutritious wild food resources; wild food resources;

an increasing emphasis on the gathering an increasing emphasis on the gathering and gardening of seed-bearing plants; and gardening of seed-bearing plants;

an intensification of food procurement; an intensification of food procurement; smaller, better defined, and more smaller, better defined, and more

circumscribed group territories; circumscribed group territories; more sedentary lifeways; more sedentary lifeways;

Traits ContinuedTraits Continued

"packing" in resource rich environments "packing" in resource rich environments caused by increasing population sizes, caused by increasing population sizes, group fissioning, and inward migration; group fissioning, and inward migration;

a sense of corporate, or "ethnic," identity; a sense of corporate, or "ethnic," identity; increasingly conspicuous group boundary increasingly conspicuous group boundary

markers to legitimize a corporate right to markers to legitimize a corporate right to local resources; local resources;

more elaborate burial rites;more elaborate burial rites; more complex intra- and intercommunity more complex intra- and intercommunity

social arrangements; and social arrangements; and increasingly formal inter-group exchange increasingly formal inter-group exchange

mechanisms. mechanisms.

Middle Woodland archaeological Middle Woodland archaeological complexes include:complexes include:

Ohio Hopewell in southern Ohio; Ohio Hopewell in southern Ohio; Havana Hopewell in the Illinois Valley and Havana Hopewell in the Illinois Valley and

adjacent Mississippi Valley; adjacent Mississippi Valley; Crab Orchard in southern Illinois; Crab Orchard in southern Illinois; Kansas City Hopewell; Kansas City Hopewell; Swift Creek, Copena, Deptford, Miller, and Swift Creek, Copena, Deptford, Miller, and

Marksville in the Southeast; Marksville in the Southeast; Laurel in the western Upper Great Lakes; and Laurel in the western Upper Great Lakes; and

Point Peninsula in the Northeast. Point Peninsula in the Northeast. Most of these complexes participated to varying Most of these complexes participated to varying

degrees in what has been called the Hopewell degrees in what has been called the Hopewell Interaction Sphere; some in mostly spatially Interaction Sphere; some in mostly spatially peripheral areas did not participate at all. peripheral areas did not participate at all.

Middle WoodlandMiddle Woodland Dates for the Middle Woodland time period vary Dates for the Middle Woodland time period vary

widely across the Eastern Woodlands, for widely across the Eastern Woodlands, for archaeologists do not agree on which traits are archaeologists do not agree on which traits are diagnostic of the period or stage.diagnostic of the period or stage.

In addition, some events, such as the appearance In addition, some events, such as the appearance of new ceramic forms, occurred at different times in of new ceramic forms, occurred at different times in different areas.different areas.

For some archaeologists, the "Middle Woodland" is For some archaeologists, the "Middle Woodland" is that period between 200 B.C. and A.D. 400 when that period between 200 B.C. and A.D. 400 when most of the Eastern Woodlands was dominated by most of the Eastern Woodlands was dominated by the Hopewell culture.the Hopewell culture.

For others, it is defined by the presence of "Middle For others, it is defined by the presence of "Middle Woodland" ceramic complexes, which, according to Woodland" ceramic complexes, which, according to some interpretations, ranges from about 300 B.C. some interpretations, ranges from about 300 B.C. to A.D. 300 in the Illinois Valley, ca. A.D. 1-600 in to A.D. 300 in the Illinois Valley, ca. A.D. 1-600 in the Southeast, and ca. A.D. 1--900 in the Northeast. the Southeast, and ca. A.D. 1--900 in the Northeast.

Middle WoodlandMiddle Woodland In the southeastern Deptford and Swift Creek In the southeastern Deptford and Swift Creek

complexes, pottery was check, complicated, complexes, pottery was check, complicated, and simple stamped. and simple stamped.

Classic Ohio Hopewell and Illinois Havana Classic Ohio Hopewell and Illinois Havana Hopewell decorated pottery had rocker-and Hopewell decorated pottery had rocker-and dentate stamp and incised designs arranged dentate stamp and incised designs arranged largely in zonal patterns. largely in zonal patterns.

In general, Middle Woodland ' ceramic vessels In general, Middle Woodland ' ceramic vessels tended to have more complex and sophisticated tended to have more complex and sophisticated shapes and designs than Early Woodland shapes and designs than Early Woodland pottery. They also had thinner walls that were pottery. They also had thinner walls that were more resistant to breakage when heated.more resistant to breakage when heated.

HopewellHopewell The most spectacular archaeological evidence of The most spectacular archaeological evidence of

this climax is associated with the Hopewell this climax is associated with the Hopewell phenomenon in the heartland of the culture area. phenomenon in the heartland of the culture area. The most spectacular Hopewell ceremonial sites The most spectacular Hopewell ceremonial sites are in the Sciota Valley near Chillicothe, Ohio. are in the Sciota Valley near Chillicothe, Ohio.

These religious and political centers typically These religious and political centers typically contain a burial mound and geometric earthwork contain a burial mound and geometric earthwork complex that covers 10 to hundreds of acres and complex that covers 10 to hundreds of acres and sparse; evidence of large resident populations is sparse; evidence of large resident populations is lacking. Larger mounds can be up to 12 m high, lacking. Larger mounds can be up to 12 m high, 150 m long, and 55 m wide. 150 m long, and 55 m wide.

Multiple mortuary structures under the mounds Multiple mortuary structures under the mounds were often log tombs that contained the remains were often log tombs that contained the remains of skeletons that had been cremated, bundled, or of skeletons that had been cremated, bundled, or interred in some other manner. interred in some other manner.

Hopewell AreaHopewell Area

Hopewell ArtifactsHopewell Artifacts Exotic raw materials and "art" objects, the diagnostic Exotic raw materials and "art" objects, the diagnostic

artifacts of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere, accompanied artifacts of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere, accompanied some of the burials. some of the burials.

Included were Lake Superior copper, galena, obsidian from Included were Lake Superior copper, galena, obsidian from Wyoming, Knife River nint from North Dakota, pipestone, Wyoming, Knife River nint from North Dakota, pipestone, silver, meteoric iron, mica, chlorite, quartz crystal, petrified silver, meteoric iron, mica, chlorite, quartz crystal, petrified wood, foreign nodular flints, both large and small marine wood, foreign nodular flints, both large and small marine shell (Cassis, Busycon, Farrciolaria, Marginella, Oliva, shell (Cassis, Busycon, Farrciolaria, Marginella, Oliva, OliveNa), ocean turtle shells, alligator and shark teeth, OliveNa), ocean turtle shells, alligator and shark teeth, barracuda jaws, clay figurines, platform effigy pipes, and barracuda jaws, clay figurines, platform effigy pipes, and two-dimensional representational art cut from sheets of two-dimensional representational art cut from sheets of copper or mica, among other items. copper or mica, among other items.

Small villages where people hunted and gathered wild food Small villages where people hunted and gathered wild food resources and tended small gardens presumably resources and tended small gardens presumably surrounded these large centers. However, the intense focus surrounded these large centers. However, the intense focus on the larger centers and their exotic contents has on the larger centers and their exotic contents has detracted until recently from investigations of year-round detracted until recently from investigations of year-round subsistence-settlement patterns. subsistence-settlement patterns.

TradeTrade

Copper artifacts:Copper artifacts:

Sources Sources – Lake Superior area Lake Superior area

Kewanaw Peninsula Kewanaw Peninsula Isle Royale Isle Royale

Essential two ways of making cold Essential two ways of making cold copper objects: copper objects: – Beaten Beaten – Cutouts Cutouts

Copper artifact types:Copper artifact types:

Ear spools Ear spools Artificial noses Artificial noses Beads Beads Gorgets Gorgets Panpipes Panpipes Relief drawings Relief drawings Breastplates Breastplates Fake deer antlers Fake deer antlers Coverings for wooden artifacts (e.g., covering for Coverings for wooden artifacts (e.g., covering for

a wooden representation of a hallucinogenic or a wooden representation of a hallucinogenic or poisonous mushroom—the famous "Shaman's poisonous mushroom—the famous "Shaman's baton") baton")

Ax heads Ax heads

Copper ArtifactsCopper Artifacts

Mica artifacts:Mica artifacts: Source: Source:

– southwest North Carolina southwest North Carolina Mica is a sometimes almost perfectly transparent Mica is a sometimes almost perfectly transparent

laminated mineral that can be carefully separated laminated mineral that can be carefully separated into clear sheets that can then be cut into shapes: into clear sheets that can then be cut into shapes: – Serpents Serpents – Animal claws Animal claws – Human heads Human heads – Human hands Human hands – Geometric forms Geometric forms

As many as 3,000 sheets of worked mica have As many as 3,000 sheets of worked mica have been recovered from one mound (at the original been recovered from one mound (at the original Hopewell Site) Hopewell Site)

Mica ArtifactsMica Artifacts

Obsidian and Ground Stone Obsidian and Ground Stone artifacts:artifacts:

Source: Source: – appears to be Yellowstone, Wyomingappears to be Yellowstone, Wyoming

Technology employed: Technology employed: – developed pressure flaking developed pressure flaking

Artifact types: Artifact types: – Knives Knives – Projectile points Projectile points – Ritual, non-utilitarian forms of the above (too big and too Ritual, non-utilitarian forms of the above (too big and too

brittle to have been used practically) brittle to have been used practically) Ground-stone artifacts: Ground-stone artifacts:

– Probably the most famous Hopewell artifact is the Probably the most famous Hopewell artifact is the platform pipe platform pipe

– Platform pipes depict a wide range of animals forming Platform pipes depict a wide range of animals forming the tobacco bowl—often in rather whimsical forms the tobacco bowl—often in rather whimsical forms

Flaked and Ground Stone artifactsFlaked and Ground Stone artifacts

Ground Stone Shaman

Bone and Wood ArtifactsBone and Wood Artifacts

Bone artifacts: Bone artifacts: – Wolf's upper palette with upper fangs still Wolf's upper palette with upper fangs still

intact (may have been a mouth mask that was intact (may have been a mouth mask that was held in the teeth of a shaman) held in the teeth of a shaman)

Wooden artifacts: Wooden artifacts: – Preservation of wood is often poor in the Preservation of wood is often poor in the

Eastern Woodlands, but luckily some of these Eastern Woodlands, but luckily some of these had been covered with thin sheets of copper had been covered with thin sheets of copper

Copper acids inhibit biological activity, thus Copper acids inhibit biological activity, thus sometimes preserving organic material adjacent to itsometimes preserving organic material adjacent to it

Copper sometimes remains long after wood has Copper sometimes remains long after wood has disappeared (requiring careful excavation disappeared (requiring careful excavation techniques!)techniques!)

Textile fragment from Hopewell Textile fragment from Hopewell MoundMound

Other artifactsOther artifacts

Freshwater mollusks: Freshwater mollusks: – Freshwater clamshell to make beadsFreshwater clamshell to make beads– Freshwater pearl for beads, etc.Freshwater pearl for beads, etc.

Ceramics: Ceramics: – Vessels: Vessels:

Utilitarian Utilitarian Luxury/funerary Luxury/funerary

– Figurines: Figurines: Distinct from those of the Southwest and Distinct from those of the Southwest and

MesoamericaMesoamerica

Hopewell Interaction SphereHopewell Interaction Sphere

Smaller amounts of Hopewell Interaction Smaller amounts of Hopewell Interaction Sphere items are found in Havana graves Sphere items are found in Havana graves in Illinois and in other Hopewellian in Illinois and in other Hopewellian complexes. complexes.

Differences in regional burial practices, Differences in regional burial practices, ceramics, settlement pattern, and other ceramics, settlement pattern, and other aspects of the archaeological record aspects of the archaeological record suggest that these items and presumably suggest that these items and presumably their associated ritual practices were their associated ritual practices were grafted onto local cultures.grafted onto local cultures.

Hopewell PhenomenonHopewell Phenomenon Just what the Hopewell phenomenon represents Just what the Hopewell phenomenon represents

remains a focus of investigation. remains a focus of investigation. Some researchers view the increase in burial Some researchers view the increase in burial

mound and earthwork construction, the mound and earthwork construction, the elaboration of burial ceremonialism, and the elaboration of burial ceremonialism, and the presence of "powerful" exotic substances and presence of "powerful" exotic substances and manufactured items as the archaeologically manufactured items as the archaeologically visible manifestation of a climactic expression of visible manifestation of a climactic expression of a cosmology whose roots extend deep into the a cosmology whose roots extend deep into the Archaic. Archaic.

According to this view, the spirit world had to be According to this view, the spirit world had to be propitiated to ensure an abundance of food, a propitiated to ensure an abundance of food, a successful raid on a traditional enemy, and so on, successful raid on a traditional enemy, and so on, and these items functioned within that process of and these items functioned within that process of communication. communication.

Other InterpretationsOther Interpretations Others regard the florescence as evidence of the Others regard the florescence as evidence of the

emergence of regional social ranking. emergence of regional social ranking. – In this view, heads of high ranking lineages legitimized their In this view, heads of high ranking lineages legitimized their

positions in part by obtaining interaction sphere symbols of positions in part by obtaining interaction sphere symbols of power from other high ranking lineage heads in distant power from other high ranking lineage heads in distant communities. communities.

Still another interpretation considers the aspirations of Still another interpretation considers the aspirations of "Big Men" as responsible for moving interaction sphere "Big Men" as responsible for moving interaction sphere items through an extensive intertribal network. items through an extensive intertribal network.

– Here, a potential "Big Man" would attempt to build his own Here, a potential "Big Man" would attempt to build his own reputation and a political blee within the segmented tribal reputation and a political blee within the segmented tribal organization by exchanging locally available items for organization by exchanging locally available items for interaction sphere raw materials and ritual items. interaction sphere raw materials and ritual items.

Presumably, aspects of all three interpretations were Presumably, aspects of all three interpretations were important to varying degrees in different Middle important to varying degrees in different Middle Woodland complexes. Woodland complexes.

What seems apparent, however, is the value of viewing What seems apparent, however, is the value of viewing the Hopewell phenomenon from a social rather than a the Hopewell phenomenon from a social rather than a strictly material perspective.strictly material perspective.

Forms of Hopewell Earthworks:Forms of Hopewell Earthworks: EnclosuresEnclosures: :

– Circular Circular – Rectangular Rectangular – Octagonal Octagonal

ProcessionalsProcessionals: : – Parallel connecting mounds connecting enclosuresParallel connecting mounds connecting enclosures

Internal moatsInternal moats and and borrow pitsborrow pits were also part were also part of such complexes of such complexes

Effigy MoundsEffigy Mounds: : – Not to be confused with the Effigy Mound Culture Not to be confused with the Effigy Mound Culture

of Northeastern Iowaof Northeastern Iowa, which is late, but which also , which is late, but which also has Hopewellian affiliationshas Hopewellian affiliations

Functions of Hopewell Functions of Hopewell EarthworksEarthworks::

Many mounds were burial mounds Many mounds were burial mounds (sometimes containing hundreds of (sometimes containing hundreds of burials) burials)

Some mound complexes may reflect Some mound complexes may reflect archaeoastronomic orientations archaeoastronomic orientations

Definitely not used as temple bases Definitely not used as temple bases (such as later Mississippian and (such as later Mississippian and Mesoamerican forms) Mesoamerican forms)

Mound City, Ohio Mound City, Ohio Aerial photoAerial photo

Mound City LayoutMound City Layout

Seip Mound, OhioSeip Mound, Ohio

Seip Mound EnclosureSeip Mound Enclosure

Seip, top of long moundSeip, top of long mound

Newark EarthworksNewark Earthworkshttp://www.comp-archaeology.http://www.comp-archaeology.org/Newark%20Octagon%20Eorg/Newark%20Octagon%20Earthworks_files/frame.htmarthworks_files/frame.htm

Hopewell Mound GroupHopewell Mound Group

Burial PracticesBurial Practices

The dead were buried in many different ways, The dead were buried in many different ways, depending upon social status. The majority of the depending upon social status. The majority of the scientifically studied burials are cremations, only scientifically studied burials are cremations, only the elites being buried intact. Both burial crypts the elites being buried intact. Both burial crypts and charnel houses were used.and charnel houses were used.

CryptsCrypts– Large boxes constructed for the storage of the dead and Large boxes constructed for the storage of the dead and

their grave goods their grave goods – Simple structures sunk into the ground and covered with Simple structures sunk into the ground and covered with

heavy roofs heavy roofs – Often built on isolated high-spots clear of the settlement Often built on isolated high-spots clear of the settlement – May have served as lineage and/or clan facilities for a May have served as lineage and/or clan facilities for a

single community single community – Generally maintenance free Generally maintenance free

Charnel HousesCharnel Houses

Structures with thatched roofs and substantial post frames - Structures with thatched roofs and substantial post frames - used both to shelter the dead (cremated and /or entire used both to shelter the dead (cremated and /or entire corpses) and the burial activities associated with them corpses) and the burial activities associated with them

Bodies often subjected to considerable preparation Bodies often subjected to considerable preparation Elites buried in log-lined tombs within the charnel house Elites buried in log-lined tombs within the charnel house

[and were accompanied by extremely rich grave offerings] [and were accompanied by extremely rich grave offerings] Once house had fulfilled its role, was burned to the ground Once house had fulfilled its role, was burned to the ground

and an earthen mound erected over it and an earthen mound erected over it A single mound might be used for later burials which were A single mound might be used for later burials which were

placed immediately adjacent to, or partially into, the placed immediately adjacent to, or partially into, the exisiting burial mound. Over time a single burial mound exisiting burial mound. Over time a single burial mound would assume gigantic proportions [some as large as 90-would assume gigantic proportions [some as large as 90-100 feet in diameter and 15 feet tall] and contain as many 100 feet in diameter and 15 feet tall] and contain as many as 200+ burials. as 200+ burials.

May have served as lineage and /or clan facilities for a May have served as lineage and /or clan facilities for a single community single community

SourcesSources

http://www.comp-archaeology.org/UShttp://www.comp-archaeology.org/USWoodlandHopewellEarthworks.htmWoodlandHopewellEarthworks.htm

http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/ohc/archaeol/p_indian/artifact/ohc/archaeol/p_indian/artifact/face.shtmlface.shtml