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Water Perspectives in Emerging Countries

Modern and Traditional Methods of Water Resource Management in Africa

Stephen O. Ojwach, Precious N. Mahlambi,

Chrispin Kowenje, Gnon Baba (Eds.)

May 5-9, 2019 – Durban, South Africa

International Network onSustainable Water Management i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s

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International Network onSustainable Water Management i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s

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Water is a key driver of economic and social development, while it also has a basic function in maintaining the integrity of the natural environment. The traditional fragmented approach of dealing with water issues is no longer viable and a hybrid system, which incorporates modern methods, is essential. This is a rational approach that has now been accepted internationally as the way forward for efficient, equitable and sustainable development of the world’s limited but most precious resources.

Finding solutions to these challenging hydric problems requires close collaboration between traditional knowledge and current science practices, expert practitioners, and stakeholders from private and public organizations. Therefore, this book encourages to contribute and to be part of the search for efficient solutions to water crisis in Sub Saharan Africa by widening scientific and technological know-how - and more importantly - engaging in knowledge brokerage. This book focuses on a multi-disciplinary diagnosis of water challenges in developing countries in general but specifically in Sub Saharan Africa, and proposes viable solutions with respect to modern and the traditional methods of water resource management. Specific areas of interest include water quality and quantity parameters, water supply in urban and rural areas, wastewater treatment and recycling.

Editors Prof. Dr. Stephen O. Ojwach – University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Dr. Precious N. Mahlambi – University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Prof. Dr. Chrispin Kowenje – Maseno University, Kenya Prof. Dr. Gnon Baba – University of Lomé, Togo ISBN: xxx-x-xx-xxxxxx-x © 2019

Water Perspectives in Emerging Countries

Modern and Traditional Methods of Water Resource Management in Africa

Stephen O. Ojwach, Precious N. Mahlambi, Chrispin Kowenje, Gnon Baba (Eds.)

May 5-9, 2019 – Durban, South Africa

Issue Editors Prof. Dr. Stephen O. Ojwach Dr. Precious N. Mahlambi University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Chemistry & Physics, Pietermaritzburg Campus, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa; [email protected]; [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Chrispin Kowenje Maseno University, Department of Chemistry, Maseno, 40105, Kenya; [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Gnon Baba University of Lomé, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, 01 P.O Box 4574, Lomé 01, Togo; [email protected] Exceed Chairman & Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dr.-Ing. Norbert Dichtl Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; [email protected] Publishing Editor Prof. em. Dr. mult. Dr. h.c. Müfit Bahadir Technische Universität Braunschweig, Leichtweiss Institute, Exceed Office, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; [email protected]

This publication was financed by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). All rights reserved including translation into foreign languages. The publication or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publishers. Printed in Germany by Cuvillier Verlag, Göttingen, Germany

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Water Perspectives in Emerging Countries Modern and Traditional Methods of Water Resource Management in Africa

May 5-9, 2019 – Durban, South Africa S.O. Ojwach, P.N. Mahlambi, C. Kowenje, G. Baba (Eds.)

CONTENT

Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Mathematical modelling of wastewater treatment processes, water analysis and nanotechnology for degradation of organic compounds (J.C. Ngila, A.N. Matheri, V. Muckoya, E. Ngigi) ………………………………………………………………. 3

Advanced biological wastewater treatment in a small town in Konya, Turkey (M.E. Aydin, F. Beduk, S. Aydin, S. Koyuncu) …………………………………………………………………… 25

Assessment of water resource potential and water allocation system using WEAP model Case study Berki catchment, Tigray Region (A.D. Birhane, B.A. Abebe) …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37

Quality evaluation of discharged water from aquaculture operations into selected rivers in Ibadan, Nigeria (A. Adekanmbi, E. Joel, A. Olatayo, A.F. Lana) ……………………………………………………………….. 51

Evaluation of sustainability of rural water supply schemes in Kilte-Awlaelo District in the Tigray Regional State, Ethiopia (E. Alemayehu, H. Goitom) …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60

Water procurement and environmental sanitation in equatorial Africa: Implication of population and the developmental partners (A.G. Aghaindum, C. Kowenje, S. Pare, G. Baba) …………………………………………………….……… 72

Impact of mining and agricultural activities on water chemical quality of the Volta Basin in Togo over 2015 – 2017 (O. Akpaki, B. Ouadja, G. Baba) ……………………………………………………………………………………. 85

Assessment and management of groundwater fauna and quality in the Town of Limbe, Cameroon (T.S.H. Zebaze, S.B. Chinche, O.F. Pountougnigni) …………….………………………………………….. 96

Evaluating combinatorial water treatment by locally available materials (E.O. Agunja, D. Ongeri, B.C. Nyamosi, W. Nyairo, C. Kowenje) …………………………………….. 109

Sanitary risks related to contamination of well water by cadmium and zinc, and depollution tests by aquatic plants (M. Melila, A. Ganeshkumar, K. Vinot, R. Rajaram, K. Amouzou) .………………. ………………. 125

Preparation, characterization and adsorption application of chitosan powder from shrimp (Penaeus monodon) shells for the removal of nitrate ions from wastewater (N.R.B. Lekene, N.J. Ndi, D. Kouotou, B.P.D. Belibi, R. Asma, R.N. Che, I.B. Muhammad, M.J. Ketcha) ………………………………………………………………………… 136



Solvent extraction of zinc(II), cadmium(II) and lead(II) cations from wastewater using synthetic chelating ligands (G.S. Nyamato, S-O. Ojwach) …………………………………………………………………………………………. 151

Innovative approaches to water resource management in Nigeria (O.A. Odeku) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 164

Mechanism and kinetics for adsorption of indigo carmine with polyaniline (F.O. Okumu, M.C. Matoetoe) ……………………………………………………………………………………… 176

An assessment of public water facilities in rural areas of Oyo State, Nigeria (T.A. Oluwaleye, J.O. Oladeji) ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 190

Nanotechnology process for pesticide wastewater treatment prior to reuse in agricultural irrigation (R. Salghi, M. Errami) …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 200

Treatment of enriched arsenic water using iron coated activated carbon: A contribution for water resources management (Y. Sanou, S. Pare) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 208

Bathymetric survey and sediment core analysis for sustainable water resources management (C.W. Maina, J.K. Sang, J.M. Raude, B.M. Mutua, J.T. Karanja) …………………………………… 223

Growing scarcity of freshwater in three villages in Ta Ngabu, Chikwawa District, Malawi: how the people are coping and need for sustainable approaches for availability of freshwater (E. Vunain) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 235

Hydro-biological characteristics of the Bui Dam area of the Black Volta (E.H. Alhassan) …………………………………………………………………….……………….……………………… 248



1

PREFACE

In 2018, a training workshop on “Holistic Approach to Water Resources Management in Africa” was held at the University of Yaoundé 1 in Cameroon. During the workshop, it was realized that in Africa, there is some salient indigenous knowledge that is not yet tapped and is under exploited. Also, the conventional fragmented approaches in dealing with water issues are no longer viable and a hybrid system, which incorporates both indigenous and modern techniques, is essential. These observations formed the idea for this subsequent workshop held in May 2019 in Durban, South Africa. The theme of the workshop was on “Modern and Traditional Methods of Water Resource Management in Africa”. The workshop was organized by the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) group of the International Network on Sustainable Water Management in Developing Countries (Exceed-Swindon) and hosted by the University of KwaZulu-Natal. The book is written and published courtesy of the Exceed-Swindon, Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany (BMZ), German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), and Technical University of Braunschweig (TUBS).

Water is considered a common social good that drives the global economy, general social development and daily livelihoods. In developing countries and specifically in Africa, water is a key determinant of both crop production and general lifestyle activities. According to the 2019 UN World Water Development Report, access to clean drinking water and sanitation is an internationally recognized human right and is vital for the dignity of every human being. In this UN report, like elsewhere in the world, less than 50 percent of population in Africa has access to both safe sanitation and drinking water.

Africa has not only missed many international development targets but also its own governments’ visions on development. Therefore, the participants that gathered in Durban realized that invoking the Sustainable Development Goal 6; which is mainly to preserve our water future, certain aspects should put into place. These include (i) Teaching the communities about their contribution towards water pollution and conservation and preservation; (ii) Applying modern and traditional techniques to continuously monitor our water and to monitor water quality parameters; (iii) To increase the information available so that policy makers are able to set allowable safety limits that are specific for African countries as well as to formulate viable and sustainable water governance structures. Also, the preservation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge and infusing it with modern technology is a sure means to uplifting and achieving sustainable water resources management. The book, therefore, focuses on a multi-disciplinary diagnosis of water challenges in developing countries in general but specifically in Sub-Saharan Africa. Specific areas include water quality and quantity parameters, water supply in urban and rural areas, wastewater treatment and recycling. Proposed solutions were new water management expressions such as water cycle cities, water sensitive cities, total water cycle and catchment management, or adaptive and integrated urban water management, and designing innovative solutions and concepts on the sustainable use of water in agriculture, energy, environment, health, industry and in the community.

http://www.iwa-network.org/thematicarea/agriculture/?pq_var=blog

http://www.iwa-network.org/thematicarea/energy/?pq_var=blog

http://www.iwa-network.org/thematicarea/environment/?pq_var=blog

http://www.iwa-network.org/thematicarea/health/?pq_var=blog

http://www.iwa-network.org/thematicarea/industry/?pq_var=blog



2

Specifically, among others, this book discusses (i) need to evaluate mathematical modelling of wastewater treatment, allocation systems, supply, persistence of pollutants and filtration and nanotechnology, (ii) monitoring quality of water for environmental discharge, mining discharge, by benthic community and mechanisms of environmental interactions, (iii) understanding the procurement, ground water quality and quantity measuring techniques, pharmaceutical products in water, water quality index, water governance structure, effects of organic soil conditioners and organic fertilizers application (GHG and underground waters), impacts of the treatment methods such as chlorination, and use of readily available biomass as adsorbents of water pollutants. Finally, emerging approaches such as water treatments by photocatalytic methods, combinatorial/factorial approach, solid and liquid phase adsorption, nanotechnology, indigenous water treatment ways, and decentralized treatment methods will lead us to the envisaged future.

Prof. Dr. Stephen O. Ojwach – University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Prof. Dr. Chrispin Kowenje – Maseno University, Kenya Dr. Precious N. Mahlambi – University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Prof. Dr. Gnon Baba – University of Lome, Togo



3-24

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES, WATER ANALYSIS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR DEGRADATION

OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Jane Catherine Ngila1,3, A. N. Matheri2, V. Muckoya1, E. Ngigi1

1,2Applied Chemistry Department, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] 3Morendat Institute of Oil & Gas, KPC, P.O. Box 73442-00200, Nairobi, Kenya

Keywords: Analytical methods, Emerging organic contaminants, Mathematical modelling, Nano-photocatalysts, Wastewater management

Abstract Emerging contaminants in water bodies pose a health hazard to the environment and human health. Discharge of effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) into water bodies contributes to water pollution. WWTPs face challenges in removing contaminants in real-time due to the continuously changing process parameters, diversity and pollutant concentrations. Mathematical modelling using artificial intelligence can achieve process control and optimization of programmable physical-biochemical, quantitative characterization, analysis and intelligent implementation of novel integrated waste management systems. This study aims to employ an integrated approach to WWTP design, using mathematical modelling techniques, optimised analytical methods for monitoring of the composition and concentration levels of pollutants, and nanotechnology techniques for degradation of selected organic pollutants based on tungsten oxide doped with nanoparticles. The study was carried out on a WWTP in Gauteng province, South Africa under a funded project by Water Research Commission. The modelling and computation of the speciation of compounds offered an extremely powerful tool for process design, data handling, troubleshooting and optimization of a multivariable system. The research findings on the model-ling and simulation of the WWTP produced a framework that could be used in plant modelling of activated sludge and biofilm, metabolic approaches, fate of micropollutants, trace metals’ removal processes and utilization of the sludge. For analysis of contaminants in the wastewater samples, multivariate-based optimization techniques for sample pre-concentration were investigated using solid phase extraction and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques for quantification of parabens and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The suitability of tungsten trioxide (WO3) nanomaterials modified with various nanoparticles to produce iron–doped WO3, cadmium sulphide doped WO3, and Z-scheme cobalt oxide-tungsten oxide (Co3O4/WO3) nanocomposites for the photocatalytic degradation of parabens and methylene blue were also investigated. The best photodegradation results were obtained with a Z-scheme Co3O4/WO3 nanocomposite.





25-36

ADVANCED BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT IN A SMALL TOWN IN KONYA, TURKEY

Mehmet Emin Aydin1, Fatma Beduk2, Senar Aydin2, Serdar Koyuncu3

1Department of Civil Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey; [email protected] 2Department of Environmental Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey; [email protected], sozcan@[email protected] 3Konya Water and Sewerage Administration, [email protected]

Keywords: Konya, nutrient, small scale treatment, wastewater

Abstract Numbers of Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) have increased in time in Turkey. Water scarcity and water quality deterioration prompted municipalities to apply better treatment tech-nologies. WWTPs in small towns are generally constructed with the criteria of low maintenance costs, low energy consumption and no-qualified labor. However, artificial wetlands, which meet these criteria, are generally not working properly because of design and construction problems. Low aeration performance is determined to be the main problem in small scale biological treat-ment plants. There are 36 WWTPs in Konya District. Among these WWTPs, most of the artificial wetlands are being rehabilitated. In this study, firstly overall wastewater treatment statistics in Turkey and Konya are given. Then, design and working performance of two selected WWTPs in Konya, Derbent WWTP and Zengen WWTP are given as examples of small scale WWTPs.



mailto:sozcan@[email protected]




37-50

ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCE POTENTIAL AND WATER ALLOCATION SYSTEM USING WEAP MODEL - CASE STUDY BERKI CATCHMENT, TIGRAY REGION

Abrehet Desta Birhane1, Bizuneh Asfaw Abebe2

1Department of Civil Engineering, Adigrat University, P.O. Box 50, Adigrat, Ethiopia; [email protected] 2School of Civil Engineering, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 231, Mekelle, Ethiopia; [email protected]

Keywords: Berki watershed, demand, supply, water allocation, WEAP

Abstract The availability and safety of water are two important factors for a good life and required for economic growth and development. The management of water resources is the concern of all stakeholders involved. The overall objective of this study was to assess the water resources system and water allocation of Berki watershed in a sustainable manner for social, economic and environmental benefits. Water Evaluation And Planning [WEAP] model was used for analysis, and all data requirements by the model were collected from different sources. The model was set up for a current account year in 2015 and last year of scenarios in 2045. A set of realistic scenarios can be built in order to account for the uncertainty in the evolution of the water demands. The water resources system of the area was modelled and evaluated, while giving consideration for existing developments in relation to current and future water demands among multiple water users in the watershed. Water demand was simulated for three different sectors: domestic, livestock and agriculture. In the watershed, the current average annual amount of surface water resources was estimated as 13.81 MCM. Current situation of water demands among water users were modelled and the result indicated that all demands are satisfied fully in the current situation. From the total demand, 93.4% is consumed by agriculture and 6.6 % was shared by domestic and livestock usages.





51-59

QUALITY EVALUATION OF DISCHARGED WATER FROM AQUACULTURE OPERATIONS INTO SELECTED RIVERS IN IBADAN, NIGERIA

Abimbola Adekanmbi1, Elizabeth Joel2, Adewale Olatayo2, Allan Femi Lana2

1Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, University of Ibadan, c/o El-Shaddai Baptist Church, P. O. Box 20000, U. I. Post Office, Ibadan, Oyo State, Ibadan, Nigeria; [email protected], [email protected] 2Department of Microbiology, Lead City University, Ibadan, Nigeria

Keywords: Aquaculture ponds, physicochemical parameters, metal analysis, microbiological quality, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract Aquaculture is regarded as one of the major contributors to food security in the present day world. It ranks as one of the fastest growing agricultural industries in some countries with freshwater aquaculture dominating the total aquaculture production. Water discharges from 30 aquaculture ponds in the Awotan area of Ibadan were collected and analyzed for physicochemical and microbiological qualities. Physicochemical and metal analyses of the samples were determined using standard methods and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) respectively, while bacteriological analyses were carried out on CHROMagar Vibrio and MacConkey agar using membrane filtration and pour plate methods, respectively. The bacteria obtained were characterized using conventional methods. The physicochemical parameters of 13 of the selected ponds had pH ranging from 6.99 to 7.82, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) ranging from 3.86 to 826 mg/L and 1.57 to 426 mg/L, respectively, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the range of 139-444 mg/L, Electrical Conductivity 77.4-299 µS/cm, Hardness 31.4-117 mg/L and Total Suspended Solid (TSS) 2.25-759 mg/L. The range for the anion concentrations in the aquaculture pond water discharge were for Cl- 1.56-35.2 mg/L, PO4

3- 0.00-3.60 mg/L, SO42-

0.37-11.9 mg/L and NO3- 0.86-38.8 mg/L. The metal concentrations showed that Nickel was

detected only in six of the sampled pond with a range of 0.17-0.80 mg/L, Copper 0.010-0.018 mg/L, Lead 0.00-0.29 mg/L, Zinc 0.11-4.58 mg/L and Chromium 0.04-2.57 mg/L, respectively. A total of 220 isolates were obtained from the aquaculture wastewater, and they were identified to belong to seven genera including Yersinia (14.1%), Edwardsiella (20.9%), Shigella (7.7%), Citrobacter (0.5%), Salmonella (0.9%), Ewingella (0.9%) and Vibrio (55%). There is a need to put an effective treatment option in place for water generated from aquaculture to prevent the introduction of potentially pathogenic bacteria into receiving water bodies.





60-71

EVALUATION OF SUSTAINABILITY OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES IN KILTE-AWLAELO DISTRICT IN THE TIGRAY REGIONAL STATE, ETHIOPIA

Eskindir Alemayehu1, Haddush Goitom2

1Ethiopian Development Bank, Mekelle District, P.O. Box 474 Mekelle, Ethiopia; [email protected] 2School of Civil Engineering, Ethiopian Institute of Technology – Mekelle, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 231, Mekelle Ethiopia; [email protected]

Keywords: Rural water points, sustainability indicators, water user communities

Abstract The study focuses on evaluation of sustainability of rural water supply systems including hand dug wells, shallow wells and spring developments in Kilte-Awlaelo district, eastern zone of Tigray regional state, Ethiopia. Kilte-Awlaelo district is geographically located between 39030‘ to 39045‘E and 13045‘ to 14000‘N at a distance of 45 km from Mekelle city, Ethiopia. Weighted average of five indicators constituting physical condition, operational and maintenance (O&M), consumer satisfaction, financial management and willingness to sustain were used to measure the overall sustainability of the rural water supply systems. Systems with over all sustainability scoring lower than 5.0 in a scale of 10 would be considered “unsustainable”, systems scoring between 5.0 and 6.67 are considered “potentially sustainable”, and systems scoring above 6.67 are “sustainable”. Quantitative data required to calculate those sustainability indicators were collected using structured questioner survey from household level water users, group discussion of water communities, and technical onsite evaluation of the available water sources. For this purpose, out of the 18 rural Kebelles and 1 town available in Kilte-Awlaelo district 5 Kebelles are purposively selected based on types of water sources, data availability and accessibility. In the selected Kebelles, there are 112 functional rural water supply points, out of which 23 (20% sample size) including 9 hand-dug wells, 12 shallow wells and 2 spring developments are selected for the study. Finally, 88 household representative water users (considering 95% significant level and 10% margin of error) were selected for questionnaire survey and focus groups discussions from among 1,111 water supply system users in the study area. Findings of the research revealed that sustainability indicators value in physical condition score is found 5.91, operational and maintenance (O&M) score is 5.03, consumer satisfaction score is 5.2, financial management score is 5.5 and willingness to sustain score as 7.43. The weighted average overall sustainability score for Kilte-Awlaelo district is, therefore, computed as 5.78, hence, the rural water supply system in the study area is categorized as “potentially sustainable“. According to the quantitative data result shallow wells are more sustainable compared with the spring and hand dug wells’ sources. Furthermore, the focus groups discussion result shows operational and maintenance problems, attributable to the poor institutional and technical capacity is the main problem hindering sustainability of the water supply systems of the study area.





72-84

WATER PROCUREMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA: IMPLICATION OF POPULATION AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL PARTNERS

Ajeagah Gideon Aghaindum1, Chrispin Kowenje2, Samuel Pare3, Gnon Baba4

1Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde 1; P.O. BOX 182, Yaounde, Cameroon; [email protected] 2Laboratory of Water Treatment, Chemistry Department, Maseno University, Kenya 3Department of Environmental Chemistry, University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso 4Department of Chemistry and Environment, University of Lome, Togo

Keywords: bio-pollutants, equatorial Africa, sanitation, seasonality, water supply

Abstract The water supply and sanitation sector in the central African region is lagging behind that of many of its economic peer-group countries as over the last 15 years funding and hence progress have been sporadic. More recently, the sector has started to regain the trust of development partners through the implementation of reforms that have led to improved governance, the start of decentralization, the establishment of sectorial policies and institutional development. There is, however, a marked difference between progress made in the water supply and sanitation subsectors. The mandate for sanitation remains dispersed among several stakeholders; the subsector has not been proactive and is far less well-resourced than water supply. The progress between urban and rural water supply subsectors is also quite distinct: access rates are increasing in both subsectors, but the progress is slower in rural areas. The rural water supply subsector is also less structured and is currently being overlooked by external funders. In contrast, budget allocations to the urban water supply subsector are set to increase significantly once institutional reforms are completed, enabling development partner funding to be absorbed more rapidly. Whilst the prospects for funding and service development are generally positive for water supply, the backlog experienced in the sanitation subsectors means it is highly unlikely the affixed targets will be met. The bio-pollutants assessed around water points are Ascaris sp., Enterobius sp., Necator americanus and/or Ancylostoma duodenale, Strongyloides sp., Taenia sp., Hymenolepis sp., Diphyllobothrium sp. and Fasciola sp. Densities of environmental forms of the helminths were also higher during the short rainy season than during the short dry season. This trend of seasonality was observed for protozoans such as Amoeba, Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora.




85-95

IMPACT OF MINING AND AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON WATER CHEMICAL QUALITY OF THE VOLTA BASIN IN TOGO OVER 2015 - 2017

O. Akpaki, B. Ouadja, G. Baba

Laboratory of Sanitation Water Science and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Kara; P.O. Box 297 Kara, Togo; [email protected]; [email protected]

Keywords: Chemical quality of water, pollution, trace elements, Volta Basin

Abstract Agricultural and mining pollutions occur mainly due to the application of fertilizers and pesticides and to the exploitation of mining resources. Once infiltrated, the pollutants in soils migrate towards the aquifers. Volta Basin in Togo is known for intensification of agricultural activities for food production and revenue crops. In addition to agricultural activities, mining activities are also extensive in the Basin. Both agricultural and mining activities influence the Basin water chemical quality. Thus, this work aims to monitor over three years (2015 to 2017) each season the evolution of water chemical pollution in Bangéli mining zone and Mango agricultural zone of Volta Basin in Togo. The research undertaken within this framework related to the evaluation of physico-chemical parameters and the trace elements Pb, Cu, Ni and Fe in ponds, wells and drillings in Bangéli and Mango. Results showed that those waters contain organic and inorganic chemical pollutants. The progression is rather pessimistic. Iron concentration in Bangéli water is incredible and requires a regular monitoring.





96-108

ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF GROUNDWATER FAUNA AND QUALITY IN THE TOWN OF LIMBE, CAMEROON

T.S.H. Zebaze, S.B. Chinche, O.F. Pountougnigni

Laboratory of Hydrobiology and Environment, Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I, P.O Box 1467, Yaounde, Cameroon; [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Keywords: Epigean, Groundwater, Cameroon, Physicochemical Parameters, Stygofauna

Abstract A study to assess groundwater fauna and water quality was carried out in Limbe. A total of 06 wells and 04 points around the beach were sampled for both physicochemical and biological analysis. Physicochemical analyses were carried out using standard techniques. With respect to biological analyses, a phreatobiological net sampler was used to collect samples from wells, while the Karaman – Chappuis method was used to collect samples at the points around the beach. The results show that groundwater in the wells was acidic (5.9 ± 0.1 CU), moderately mineralised (443.2 ± 328.2 µS/cm), rich in organic matter and less oxygenised (23.3 ± 9.6%), while the results of the points around the beach show that, groundwater was highly mineralised, saline (5.6 ± 0.010/00) and acidic (6.6 ± 0.2 CU). According to the results obtained, a total of 8461 individuals were identified in the wells and the beach, belonging to 04 phyla, 7 classes and 34 families. In the wells, a total of 8,149 individuals were collected, belonging to 4 phyla, 5 classes and 28 families. These wells lodge a rich and diversified fauna made up of a mixture of stygobites, stygophiles and stygoxens. The presence of stygobites from 03 of these families was noted, all belonging to the class Crustacea they are Stenasellidae, Alpheidae and Asellidae. Arthropods dominates (63.4% of total abundance) with dominant class being Crustaceans (67.6%) and Oligochaets (29.5%). In the beach, a total of 312 individuals were collected, belonging to 4 phyla, 6 classes and 12 families. The dominant class was Polychaeta (72.3%) and Crustaceans (14.3%), and no stygobite species was collected.






109-124

EVALUATING COMBINATORIAL WATER TREATMENT BY LOCALLY AVAILABLE MATERIALS

E.O. Agunja, D. Ongeri, B.C. Nyamosi, W. Nyairo, C. Kowenje

Department of Chemistry, Maseno University, P.O. Box 333-40100, Maseno, Kenya; [email protected]

Keywords: Combinatorial water treatment, Moringa Oleifera, clay, natural zeolite, activated carbon

Abstract The most applied mass water treatment technique is municipal water treatment plant (MWTP), though it is considered inefficient and inaccessible in peri-urban/rural settings leading to use of untreated waters such as borehole, spring and surface waters. Desirable water treatment proces-ses need to be developed for provision of portable water to peri-urban settlements. Relatively cheap and locally available materials such as Moringa Oleifera seeds, activated clay, activated charcoal and natural zeolite have been applied individually in water treatment. Results obtained, when individually used, do not influence positively all drinking water quality guidelines, but their activity, when factorially combined, is not known. This work reports on factorial combinations of the treatment regimes for two types of borehole water, and other literature reports of similar considerations. The study determined effective treatment combination of local materials for each borehole and compared their treatment effects with MWTP. Water quality parameters temperature, pH, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total solids and E. Coli count were determined before treatment. The different factorial combinations were calculated from permutation formulae, where order was taken into account, while effective treatment combinations were determined from the least summation of variance from WHO guidelines for each parameter for a particular combination. The most effective and sequential factorial combination of the local materials for Salty Borehole Water was: Activated charcoal → Natural zeolite → Activated clay → Moringa oleifera seeds water extract, while that of Fresh Borehole Water combination was: Activated charcoal → Moringa oleifera seeds water extract → Activated clay → Natural zeolite in the orders of the local materials given.




125-135

SANITARY RISKS RELATED TO CONTAMINATION OF WELL WATER BY CADMIUM AND ZINC, AND DEPOLLUTION TESTS BY AQUATIC PLANTS

M. Melila1,2, A. Ganeshkumar2, K. Vinot2, R. Rajaram2, K. Amouzou1

1Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lome, 01 BP 1515 Lome 01, Togo; [email protected]

2Department of Marine Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu - 620 024, India

Keywords: cadmium, zinc, depollution, drinking water, macrophyte, Togo, phosphate processing

Abstract Environmental pollution with its effects that are difficult to control because of their diversity and intensity, gives rise to daily discussion points in the interest of sustainable human development. This is how the aquatic flora thanks to its various characteristics has been solicited. Well water used as drinking water in the phosphate treatment area in Togo, is polluted by the different types of waste produced by the phosphate processing plant. While the availability of tap water remains practically non-existent in this area, the hypothesis has been tested that aquatic plants that invade effluent discharge zones with high levels of metallic trace elements can be used to clean up the water. Among these plants, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) and Pistia stratiotes L. are characteristic. This work aims to assess the health risks associated with Cd and Zn and to determine the bioaccumulation potential of these elements by the two aquatic species. Cd and Zn contents were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The health risk was evaluated in relation to the daily intake and the dose limits set by international organizations. The average levels were 8.72 μg/L for cadmium and 23.8 μg/L for zinc in drinking water samples. These levels are above the WHO drinking water standard in case of Cd. These results thus reflect the evidence of the poor quality of these waters with hazard quotients rated greater than 1 for Cd. The test experiments for the decontamination of well water showed a reduction of metals up to 64% for Cd and 60% for Zn. Both species of aquatic plants could, therefore, be used in the depollution of water.




136-150

PREPARATION, CHARACTERIZATION AND ADSORPTION APPLICATION OF CHITOSAN POWDER FROM SHRIMP (PENAEUS MONODON) SHELLS

FOR THE REMOVAL OF NITRATE IONS FROM WASTEWATER

Lekene Ngouateu René Blaise1,2, Ndi Nsami Julius1, Kouotou Daouda1, Belibi Belibi Placide Desiré1, Asma Rauf2, Che Randy Nangha1, Muhammad Iqbal

Bhanger2, Ketcha Mbadcam Joseph1 1Applied Physical and Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon; [email protected] 2H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan; [email protected]

Keywords: Adsorption, Chitosan, Nitrate, Shrimp Shells, Wastewater

Abstract Chitosan powder (CP) was successfully prepared from shrimp shells (Penaeus monodon) by a chemical method and used as adsorbent for the removal of nitrate ions from aqueous solution. CP was characterized by FTIR, TGA-DSC, AFM, BET, XRD and elemental analysis. The adsorption capacity of CP was investigated by studying the effects of pH, contact time, initial concentration of nitrate ions and coexisting anions. The results showed that a degree of deacetylation of 77.12% was obtained. The prepared chitosan was mesoporous with a BET surface area and pore size of 28.5 m²/g and 27.2 Å, respectively. The maximum adsorption of nitrate ions onto CP occurs at pH 3 and the adsorption equilibrium was reached after 20 min. Equilibrium adsorption data were well described by Temkin and D-K isotherms, while pseudo-first-order kinetic model suitably fitted the kinetic data and suggested that the adsorption process was dominated by physisorption. Desorption of nitrate from the loaded CP was realized using 0.1 M NaOH solution with for four adsorption-desorption cycles. This study demonstrates that the prepared CP would be a promising adsorbent for nitrate ions removal from aqueous media.





151-163

SOLVENT EXTRACTION OF ZINC(II), CADMIUM(II) AND LEAD(II) CATIONS FROM WASTEWATER USING SYNTHETIC CHELATING LIGANDS

George S. Nyamato1, Stephen O. Ojwach2

1Department of Physical Sciences, University of Embu, P.O Box 6-60100, Embu, Kenya; [email protected] 2School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa; [email protected]

Keywords: Chelating ligands, heavy metals, liquid-liquid extraction, theoretical calculations, wastewater

Abstract The ligands 2,6-bis(pyrazol-1-ylmethyl)pyridine (L1), 2,6-bis(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-ylmethyl)-pyridine (L2), 2,6-bis(3,5-ditertbutylpyrazol-1-ylmethyl)pyridine (L3), 2-(pyrazol-1-ylmethyl)pyridine (L4), and 2-(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-ylmethyl)pyridine (L5) were used as model chelating agents for liquid–liquid extraction of Zn(II), Cd(II) and Pb(II) cations from water using dichloromethane as organic solvent. The relative affinities of these chelating ligands for Pb(II), Cd(II) and Zn(II)) by liquid–liquid extraction was found to follow the sequence Zn(II) > Pb(II) > Cd(II). For example, L1–L3 showed binding efficiencies of 99% for Zn(II), 60% for Pb(II), and 30% for Cd(II) from aqueous solutions. L4 and L5 showed extraction efficiencies of 88% for Zn(II), 54% for Pb(II) and 19% for Cd(II). Theoretical results obtained from density functional theory calculations were consistent with the experimental extraction trends.





164-175

INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN NIGERIA

Oluwatoyin A. Odeku

Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, 1 Oyo Road, Ibadan, Nigeria; [email protected]; [email protected]

Keywords: Water Resources Management, Nigeria, Municipal water, Boreholes

Abstract Water has a strong tie to the physical and spiritual well-being of humankind. In Africa, both traditional and modern techniques are used to store, distribute, allocate, treat and clean dirty water. Traditionally, rain water is collected or fetched from rivers and streams. However, the growing population, economic development, high demand for domestic needs as well as climate change and extreme weather events (both droughts and floods) have altered the way, in which people, technology and governance systems have been allocated to this scarce natural resource. The municipal water treatment services have become insufficient to cope with the rising demand for potable water. Most homes especially in Nigeria now rely on groundwater from boreholes and deep wells. In the arid regions of Northern Nigeria, people resort to digging dried riverbed to access water that is often filled with impurities. However, some of these water sources have been contaminated with sewer and solid wastes, especially when the wells and river beds are not deep enough, thus contributing directly to the contamination of locally available fresh water supplies. The unmanaged wastes have also resulted in broad degenerative effects on public health and waterborne pathogens; illnesses and outbreak of diseases have often resulted from communities without access to wastewater treatment facilities. Appropriate technology of water management would lead to reduction in the risks of environmental transmission of emerging diseases. There are some traditional and modern water management approaches that are now used to manage these scarce resources. This paper examines the innovative approaches to water resource management in Nigeria.





176-189

MECHANISM AND KINETICS FOR ADSORPTION OF INDIGO CARMINE WITH POLYANILINE

Fredrick O. Okumu1, Mangaka C. Matoetoe2

1Department of Physical Sciences, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology, Bondo 210, 40601 Kenya; [email protected] 2Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town 652, 8000 South Africa; [email protected]

Keywords: Adsorption, Indigo, kinetics, mechanism, polyaniline

Abstract A UV-visible spectroscopic method using a wavelength of 616 nm was validated and used to monitor indigo dye adsorption process with Polyaniline (PANI) as adsorbent. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) for the method was determined as 4.58 x 10-9 mol/L and 1.14 x 10-8 mol/L, respectively. The adsorption was found to be depended on indigo concentration, solution pH, temperature and contact time. Favourable adsorption conditions are low pH, high temperature, high concentration and minimum 3 h contact time. Maximum adsorption capacity for a 500 mg/L indigo carmine solution, pH 3 was 450 mg/g at 25 °C with 20 min equilibration time. Pseudo-second-order kinetics and Langmuir isotherm were the best data fits. UV-visible and Infrared (IR) spectra of the used and unused PANI adsorbent are described. Used PANI spectra showed the retention of PANI backbone structure with minor wavelength shifts and increase in signal (absorbance or transmittance). The used PANI IR spectrum shows presence of both PANI and Indigo dye, strongly suggesting a layer by layer arrangement. These structural changes observed in the spent PANI were a result of chemisorption of the indigo dye and adsorbent inter-actions at the N-H bond.





190-199

AN ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC WATER FACILITIES IN RURAL AREAS OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

T.A. Oluwaleye, J.O. Oladeji

Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria; P.O. Box 18745 Dugbe Post Office Ibadan. [email protected]; [email protected]

Keywords: Water Access, Availability, Complementary, Conditions, Rural Areas

Abstract This study investigates public water facilities in Rural Areas of Oyo State. Multistage sampling was used to select 144 respondents from 3 Rural Local Governments in Oyo State. The availability, conditions, access, frequency of use of public water facilities, the extent, to which public water facilities aid the use of other infrastructural facilities, and constraints limiting the use of public water facilities were measured with structured interview schedule guides. Data collected were described using frequency counts, percentages, means and illustrative data representations. The study revealed that, while public water facilities were available to most of the respondents, there were wide gaps in the access to these facilities and the extent of use of the water facilities. Furthermore, less than half of the respondents had their public water facilities in good working condition. 87.5 % of respondents adjudged public water to aid and complement the use of health facilities, making health facilities the highest ranked infrastructural facility that cannot function without accessible water. The study revealed that irregular access of respondents to water facilities was due to its far distance from their homes, amongst other constraints. The study recommends that women, who are the primary users of these facilities, should be involved in the planning process of setting up these facilities especially in deciding strategic locations. Furthermore, single infrastructural facilities should not be provided in isolation, other facilities that will aid its use should be put in place.





200-207

NANOTECHNOLOGY PROCESS FOR PESTICIDE WASTEWATER TREATMENT PRIOR TO REUSE IN AGRICULTURAL IRRIGATION

R. Salghi1, M. Errami2

1Team of Applied Chemistry and Environment, National School of Applied Science (ENSA), Ibn Zohr University, Box 1136, Agadir, Morocco; [email protected] 2Sustainable Innovation and Applied Research Laboratory, International University of Agadir, Morocco; [email protected]

Keywords: Electrocoagulation, Nanotechnology, Pesticide wastewaters

Abstract The farmer’s interest in the use of this innovation is responsive to the development of innovative combined system, which will be presented to water sector decision markers of the Arab Ministerial Water Council to include in their national water strategies and also within the Arab Water Strategy 2010-2030. No work has been carried out to date using nanomaterials as an additive to remove pesticide for comparison to the conventional electrocoagulation system. The percentage of sludge formation is less than 5%. The impacts of this system were to sustain clean ground water, to prevent land degradation and to sustain human health through having safe food products when reusing in agricultural. This work provides new results on the electrocoagulation degradation of pesticides and lead to the following conclusion that all pesticides studied by electrocoagulation the removal from wastewater was between 96% and 98%.





208-222

TREATMENT OF ENRICHED ARSENIC WATER USING IRON COATED ACTIVATED CARBON: A CONTRIBUTION FOR WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Y. Sanou, S. Pare

Laboratory of Analytical, Environmental and Bio-Organic Chemistry, University Ouaga 1 Prof. Joseph KI-ZERBO, Chemistry Department, 03 BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso; [email protected]

Keywords: Arsenic removal, iron coated activated carbon, groundwater, pollution.

Abstract Drinking water supply is one of challenges that developing countries, mainly Burkina Faso and Vietnam are facing in rural area due to the lack of appropriate systems of water treatment. Indeed, arsenic pollution is a global issue for drinking water supply in Burkina Faso. To mitigate this water pollution, Iron Coated Activated Carbon (ICAC) has been prepared by chemical activation using rice husk to be used as adsorbent of arsenic. Characterization through BET experiments revealed a specific surface area of 150 m2/g and Iodine index indicated that this carbon is microporous. Batch experiments were undertaken to evaluate the performance of ICAC in arsenic removal from groundwater under various operating conditions and mechanism of the process. Results showed an increase of arsenic removal capacity from 37 to 42.47 µg/g with the increase of the contact time, indicating a fast adsorption of arsenic ions, and the saturation of available active sites on ICAC surface was achieved for 60 min. The increase of the initial arsenic concentration caused an increase of the removal capacity from 12.46 to 30.36 μg/g. The removal of arsenic occurred toward a chemisorption mechanism following a kinetic of pseudo-second order.




223-234

BATHYMETRIC SURVEY AND SEDIMENT CORE ANALYSIS FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Maina, Caroline W.1,2, Sang, Joseph K.1, Raude, James M.1, Mutua, Benedict M.3, Karanja Joseph T.4

1Soil, Water and Environmental Engineering Department, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P. O. Box, 62000 – 00200 Nairobi, Kenya; [email protected] 2Department of Agricultural Engineering, Egerton University, Nakuru, Kenya 3Planning, Partnerships, Research and Innovation, Kibabii University, Bungoma, Kenya 4Research and Development, Nairobi City Water and Sanitation Company, Nairobi, Kenya

Keywords: Bathymetric survey, contamination indices, multifrequency Acoustic Profiling System (APS), Sediment

Abstract Lakes and reservoirs are greatly exploited to meet water demand for domestic, industrial, agricultural, fisheries and recreational purposes. However, these water bodies are threatened by sedimentation, which results in loss of water storage capacity and quality. Thus, for the lakes and reservoirs to be sustainably exploited, there is need to understand their characteristics and sedimentation status by conducting bathymetric and sedimentation surveys. The information generated is useful to lakes/reservoirs’ stakeholders and managers in allocation and management of the available water resources. Hence, the goal of this study was to conduct bathymetric and sedimentation survey of Thika reservoir, Kenya. The survey was conducted using Bathymetric Survey System (BSS), which comprises multifrequency Acoustic Profiling System (APS) and navigation system. A vibe coring system was used to collect sediment cores from the reservoir. The data collected aided in establishing the current water and sediment volume of the reservoir. Also, Depth-Area-Volume relationship of the reservoir was generated. In addition, sediment distribution, quality and sources were assessed. It was found that Thika reservoir had water and sediment volume of about 67.89 x 106 m3 and 4.78 x 106 m3, respectively. The reservoir was found to have experienced 6.58 % storage capacity loss over the past 22 years. From the contamination indices, sediment in Thika reservoir can be classified as being lowly to moderately contaminated. The BSS was found useful in understanding the current bathymetry and sedimentation status of the reservoir. Further, results from this study point to the need for an integrated catchment conservation to protect the water quality and quantity in Thika reservoir.




235-247

GROWING SCARCITY OF FRESHWATER IN THREE VILLAGES IN TA NGABU, CHIKWAWA DISTRICT, MALAWI: HOW THE PEOPLE ARE COPING AND NEED

FOR SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES FOR AVAILABLILTY OF FRESHWATER

Ephraim Vunain

Department of Chemistry, Chancellor College, P.O. Box 280, Zomba, University of Malawi, [email protected]

Keywords: Freshwater Scarcity, TA Ngabu, Chikwawa District, Sustainable Approaches, Malawi.

Abstract Good quality water is essential to economic and social growth of a community and a nation at large. Freshwater remains critical in the Chikhwawa District, located in the Lower Shire Valley, Malawi. The deterioration of drinking water quality due to salinity following its collection from community wells or standpipe has been well documented in this area. This study examines access to fresh drinking water in three villages in Traditional Authority (TA) Ngabu Chikwawa District, Malawi. The fieldwork was based on data collection through interviews, questionnaire and observations. The findings indicated that nearly all boreholes had a ‘salty’ taste, and this may be due to the salinity of the aquifer. Finally, this study concludes that the Government of Malawi, policy-makers, development partners and environmentalists need to find sustainable solutions to the freshwater scarcity in the study area.




248-256

HYDRO-BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BUI DAM AREA OF THE BLACK VOLTA

E. H. Alhassan

Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana; [email protected]

Keywords: Ecology, phytoplankton, river impoundment, sampling station, zooplankton

Abstract The hydro-biology of the Black Volta near the Bui Dam was studied during the pre- and post-impoundment periods between February 2011 and December 2012. The primary objective was to assess the ecological impacts of the dam on the hydro-biological factors and to provide data for monitoring the hydro-biological characteristics of the newly created Bui reservoir. Two sampling stations at Bui and Bamboi were selected to represent the upstream and downstream stations, respectively. The phytoplankton and zooplankton groups were significantly (p < 0.05) higher at the upstream station than at the downstream station indicating the impact of the impoundment on the downstream plankton ecology. The study also showed that chlorophyll a and some species of phytoplankton significantly differed (p < 0.05) between the pre- and post-impoundment periods. There was generally a low macrobenthic invertebrate diversity in the Black Volta. Chironomidae dominated the benthic samples. The seasonal distribution showed that the post-wet season recorded the highest invertebrate numbers, while the wet season recorded the lowest numbers. Chironomidae increased from 15 during the pre-impoundment period to 19 during the late post-impoundment period. Ephemeroptera numbers, however, increased from 7 during the pre-impoundment period to 11 in the post-impoundment period. There were, however, no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the numbers of the macro-invertebrates between the pre- and post-impoundment periods. Hence, the damming of the Black Volta at Bui had no significant impact on the abundance and distribution of benthic invertebrates. The study, therefore, revealed that out of the 4 hydro-biological factors (chlorophyll a, phytoplankton, zooplankton and microbenthic invertebrates), there was an impact of the impoundment on chlorophyll a and phytoplankton abundance.


modern and traditional methods of water resource ......water perspectives in emerging countries....

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