modifying reading listening for group testing

The Japan Language Testing Association

NII-Electronic Library Service

The JapanLanguageTesting Association

Modifying Reading and Listening Span Tests

for Group Testing

Yuji USHIRO and Yasuyuki SAKUMA

7)he Uhiversity oj'7Isukuba, Fletkushima Uhivezsity '

The authors have conducted several studies concerning reading and listeningcomprehension processes of Japanese learners of English. Assuming that working

memory is the crucial factor in these two types of processing, estal)lished reading and

listening span tests are needed. However, so far, span tests have traditionally beenconducted in a

"face

to face" situation. It has been impossible to gather a large numberof subjects or to adapt these tests fbr pedagogical use.

This paper is intended as an experiment to explore the possibility of modifying

span tests for a large nurnber of subjects, i,e. fbr group tesdng. A Reading Span Test

(RST) was made on a video tape, using a character generator, VTR and controller. AListening Span Test (LST) was recorded onto a cassette mo tape, using an morecorder. These tests vvere administered to students in a Language Laboratory room.

The results are presented and some suggestions are made ahout how the results

of this research can contribute to the improvement of current English teaching.

1, Introduction

How do Japanese learners of English process written and phonological linguistic

information? As a general tendency, EFL learners rarely process either written or

phonological linguistic information according to the word order of English. There aretwo major factors that hinder the process of both kinds of linguistic infbmiation

according to English word order, One of them is the linguistic factor and the other isthe ps]tcliological factor. As for the linguistic factor, it goes without saying that thesyntactic .and phonological structures of both Japanese and English are different. As fbrthe psychological factor, it is necessary fbr learners to process language infotmation

promptly and keep it in their short-term memory as accurately as possible. This study

sheds light on the role of working memory in the processing of both reading and

lisbening. The subjects in this study are Japanese national university students who havebeen studying English as a fbreign language.

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2. Working Memory, Reading and Listening Processing

When we calculate a fbrmula such as 38 multiplied by 8, we first set about the

multiplication of the first digit i.e. 8 multiplied by 8. While we keep the result of it, 64,

in mind, we have to do funher multiplication, i.e. 3 multiplied by 8. ln this way, any

cognitive process requires us to do both storing and processing of information at the

same time, It goes without saying that language processing is one of those cognitive

processes, either in reading or listening. There is considerable evidence that working

memory plays a crucial part in both reading and listening processing (Baddeley, 1986,

1992; Saito, 1997).

For exarnple, in reading comprehension processing, we have to retain the

infbrmation that we have already read and try to process the incoming part of the

sentences. However, since the quantity of the C`processing

resources" is limited, there

may not be sufficient memory capacity fbr both storing and processing, This can be

narned "trade-off"

(Baddely, 1986, 1992; Just & Carpenter, 1992). This problem

causes Japanese EFL learners to go back to the first part of the sentence to confirm the

meaning, that is, "back-to-front reading," many times.

The RST has been developed on this concept of trade-off (Daneman & Carpenter,

1980; Waters & Caplan,1996). In the RST, examiners present examinees one sentence

at a time, Examinees read them aloud and, at the same time, they are required to store

the target word, the word at the end of the sentence, in their memory. To read the

sentence aloud, an exarninee will use some parts of the working memory capacity,

Under this trade-off condition, the number of werds that can be memorized are

estimated. This individual difference in the RST is reported to be a barometer of thelevel of reading comprehension, As for the Japanese version of the RST, Osaka &

Osaka (1994) reported a strong correlation between their RST and Daneman &

Carpenter's (r = .84,p < .OOI). The LST has been administered in the same way as the

RST (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980).

3. Survey

3.1 Characteristics ofthis study

(1)Considering adaptation for pedagogical use, we nied to develop the reading and

listening span tests for a large number of subjects.

(2) We put three loads in the tests in order to survey the characteristics of the linguistic

infbrmation processing: recall of the last word of each sentence in a short period,

true-false tests to confirm the content of sentences, and use of post-modifiers which

are difficult fbr Japanese EFL learners to process at once.

e.g. I have a friend whose father is an applied linguist

(PYlritashi niwa oayongengo gakusha wo chichi ni motsu tomodochi ga iru.)

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3.2 Materials

Sentences used in both RST and LST are from 10 to 12 words in length.

Traditional span tests have used from 8 to 16 word length sentences. However, wetried to make both tests as sirnilar as possible. AII ofthem are post-modified, e.g using

relative pronouns etc. The genre, the number of true-fhlse answers and the length of the

sentences (i.e. number of woTds) were controlled, The genres or topics were almost

equally balanced between RST and LST (See Appendices).

3.3 Subjects

The study involved 168 subjects in their first year at the University of Tsukuba.

On the basis of their perzfbrmance on the TOEFL, the subjects were then divided intethree proficiency levels: Upper (45 students), Middle (78 students), and Lower (45students).

3.4 Hypothesis

(1) The different load of tasks between RST (reading aloud, answering true-fhlse tests

and recal1 of the final word of each sentence) and LST (answering true-false tests

and recall of the final word of each sentence) highlight the cognitive problem fbr

the Japanese learners with regard to working memory.

(2) There is a correl ation of scores between linguistic ability (TOEFL) and span tests,

(3) There is a correl ation of scores between RST and LST,

3.5 ProcedureoftheExperirnent

Both tests were administered to students in a Language Laboratory room.

Previous experiments have used two kinds of presenting sentences, that is, three

sets of sentences, or five sets. We adopted three sets of sentences. The main reason is

that it was necessary to admini ster both RST and LST in one class period (75 minutes).Also, a five-set condition would put too great a load on our subjects, considering their

level ofEnglish.

A rough overview of the order of the experiment is as fbllows:- lst & 2nd weeks -

(l) All sections of the TOEFL are taken,

- 3rd week -

(2) RST: each sentence is displayed on the monitor of each LL booth,

(3) LST: each sentence is played on a cassette tape in each LL booth.

(4) Evaluation: the scale has 3 levels: a score of O, which is when subjects cannot recall

any set of the three target items in each sentence condition; a score of O.5, which is

when they can recall only one set; and a score of 1, which is when they can recall 2

or more sets.

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RST and LST were conducted in the same way as fo11ows:

(1) There were three sets in each sentence condition, from the two-sentence condition

to the five-sentence condition.

(2) Between each sentence, there was a one-and-a half-second pause, The subjects

were required to judge whether the content of the sentence was true or false.

They fi11ed in O for `true' or × fbr`false' in the answer sheet.

(3) The task vvas to memorize the word at the end of the sentence as the target word. In

a certain period of time at the end of each seg the subjects wrote the target words

on the answer sheet. When they wrote the target words, they were prohibited to

write the vvord at the end of the final sentence in each set Besides this, any order of

answers was acceptable.

(4) Each sentence was presented only once in both reading and listening tests.

(5) No break was permitted in this experiment.

(6) Taking notes was prohibited in al1 the above procedures, (The subjects have to keep

al1 information in their mind.)

3.6 StreamofRSTandLST

In both tests, the order of presenting sentences was the samei<2-sentence condition>

IS` sentence (5 sec.Fpause (1.5sec.F-2"d sentence (5 sec,Fpause (1.5sec.) -

fi11ing out the end word of sentence (1Osec,: recal1 in the order ofword of

ls' sentence + one of 2"d sentence )<3-sentence condition>

1st sentence (5 sec.)-pause (1.5sec.F2"" sentence (5 sec,Hpanse (1.5sec,)- 3'd sentence (5 sec.F writing down the last word in sentence 1 and 2 (15sec.: recal1 from the end words of sentences except for the final sentence, 3rd sentence)

The reason why we did not ask them to recal1 the word at the end of the final

sentence is to avoid the Recency Effect. This refers to the high probability of recall

immediately after the final word is processed.

By increasing a set by one sentence, the time to recal1 the final word in each

sentence was increased by five seconds, that is, in the case of the 4-sentence condition,

20sec., and the 5-sentenee condition, 25sec,

Regarding the setting of 5 seconds for each sentence, we judged that this would

pose no problem in reading aloud and listening to English. The results of a pilot study,

in which we had previously administered other sentences of similar length to those

used in this experimeng showed that al1 the subiects could read aloud and listen to

English within this time.

Administering the T-F tests has the role of ensuring that the subjects pay

attention to the meaning of each sentence as well as recalling words at the end of each

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The JapanLanguageTestingAssociation

sentence.

3.7 ProcedureofEditingtheSpanTests

The RST was made at the Educational Media Center at the University of

Tsukuba. First the sentence was typed, using a character generator (SONY SMC-

3000G), Then each sentence was recorded onto a video tape bY a video tape

recorder (SONY PVW-2800), The length of presenting sentences and pauses was

timed by a controller (SONYBVE-600). This centroller can divide one second into35 frames, which means the possible measurement of the error is about O.028 sec.

The LST was made at the Foreign Language Center at the University of

Tsukuba. Sentences were recorded onto an lvfi) tape using an }ma recorder (SONYMDS-B5). This editor can divide one second into 85 frames, which means the

possible measurement of the error is ab6ut O.Ol1 sec.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 DescriptiveStatistics

Table 1The Resuits of RST, LST and TOEFL (TOTAL soning) Mean

Upper(n:45)Middle(n:78)Lower(ni45)Total(n:168)TOEFLSectionl50' 16.60 13.62 11.64 13,89TOEFLSection240' 25,69 18,83 12,84 19.07TOEFLSection350' 32.44 24.Sl 17,82 24.85TOEFLroTAL140* 74.73 56.96 42.31 57.80RST2-SentenceCondhion O.77 O,72 O,71 O.73RST3-SentenceCondition O,23 O,19 O.32 O.24RST4-SentenceCondition O.17 O,09 O.17 O.13RST5-SentenceCondition O.06 O,04 O,07 O.05RSTTOTAL 1.22 1.04 1.27 L15LST2-SentenceCondition O.78 O.80 O.S9 O.74LST3-SentenceCondition O,42 O,39 O.34 O,39LST4-SentenceCondition O.08 O.14 O.14 O.13LST5-SentenceCendition O.09 O.08 O.10 O.09LSTTOTAL 1.37 1.41 1.18 1.34T[F-testinRST:2-Senten¢ eCondition 4.82 4,47 3.82 4.39T[F-testinRST:3-ScntenceCondition 7.51 6.99 6.07 6.88TF-tcstinRST:4-SentenceCondition 9,93 9.63 8.16 9.32TF-testinRST:5-SentcneeCondition 11.51 11.05 9.82 10.85TF-testinRST:TOTAL 33.78 32,14 27.87 31.43TF-testinLST:2-Sen'tenceCondition 4,58 4,67 4,02 4.47TF-testinLST:3-SentenccCondition 6,22 5,96 5,09 5.80IF-testinLST:4-SentenceCondition 7.51 6.82 6,60 6,95TF-testinLST:5-SentcnceCondition 11,31 10.64 10.82 10.87TF-tcstinLST:TOTAL 29,62 28,09 26.53 28.08' Scores ofTOEFL are raw scores,Figures in parenthesis show the number of questions.

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Table 1 shows the mean scores regarding RST, LST, and true-false tests of both

span tests and each section of TOEFL. As shovvn in this table, the higher TOEFL

groups are not superier on all variables equally. They excel on some variables but not

so much on others. This might suggest that better and poorer speakers use different

strategies or have diffbrent capabilities. There are some indications that this is the case.

First, we can find tliat the score of LST is higher than that of RST, especially in 2-, 3-

and 5-sentence conditions in upper and lower groups. Second, only the middle-TOEFL

group (fbr the 2-sentence trial) and the low-TOEFL group (for the 2- and the 5-

sentence trials) showed a reversed effect in which the T-F scores fbr LST were higher

than those fbr RST.

Table 2 shows the mean, SD, maximum score and minimum score regarding

RST, LST and TOEFL. We can see that the score ofLST is higher than that of RST.

Table 2 [[he Results of RS T, LST and TOEFL (n : 168)Mean SD Max Min

RSTTota1 1.15 O.73 3,50o.oo

RST2-sentenceconditionO.73 O.35 1.00o.oo

RST3-sentenceconditienO.24 O.34 1.00o.oo

RST4-sentenceconditionO.13 O.26 1.00o.oo

RST5-sentenceconditionO,05 O.17 1.00o.oo

LSTTota1 1.34 O.81 3.50o.ooLST2-sentenceconditienO.74 O.38 1,OOo.oo

LST3-sentenceconditionO,39 O.39 1.00o,ooLST4-sentenceconditionO.13 O.26 1.00o.oo

LST5-sentenceeonditionO,09 O,20 1.00o,oo

TOEFLSection1 13,893.80 26,OO5,OO

TOEFLSection2 19,076.26 32.00o.oo

TOEFLSection3 24.857,12 43,OO3,OO

TOEFLTota1 57,8013,2S 93.0018.00

4.2 t-tests of True-False Tests between RST and LST

Regarding the t-test results of the true-false tests between RST and LST, there

were fbur ways of sorting, that is, TOEFL section 1, 2, 3 and al1 sections. We could

find an almost consistent tendency, that is, in al1 groups (upper, rniddle, lower and

Table 3le3t-testofTrue-FalseTestsbetweenReadinandListenin(TOTALSonin)

ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:4S Tota1n:l68

2-sentence 1,06 -l.26 -O.95 -O.70

3-sentence 4.79*** 5,18*** 3,37** 7.75***

4-sentence 7.80*** 11.19*** 5,12*** 14,06***

S-sentence O,62 1.53 -2,12* -O,12

TOTAL 6.53*** 8.46*** 2,11* 9.89****p<.05

**p<.Ol

**,Ep<,OOI

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total) and the 3-sentence condition, the 4-sentence condition and al1 sentence

conditions, scores of the T-F test fbr RST were higl)er than those for LST. However,we fbund that scores of the T-F test for LST were higher than those for RST in the 2-sentence condition, total soning middle and lower groups, and the 5-sentence

condition, total soning, lower group, as Table 3 shows.

4.3 Correlation between True-Fa]se Tests and Each Span Test

As Tables 4 and 5 below show, we could find some negative correlation between

true-false tests and reading span tests, especially for the middle group. However, we

could find the same correladon between true-false tests and listening span tests only inthe upper group, as shown in the Tahle 6. ln reading span tests, each group has somenegative correlation in some sentence conditions. On the other hand, in listening span

tests, we could find negative correlation in 3- or 4-sentence trials depending on soning

only in the upper group, We regard this negative correlation as a possible result of

trade-off (the relationships between true-false, i.e, comprehension of each sentence,

and the recall ofthe final word of each sentence).

Table 4 Correlation between True-False Tests and Reading Span Tests CrOTAL Soning)ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Totaln:1682-sentence O,31* O.15 O.29 O.22**3-sentence O,05 -O.13 O,04 n.o74-sentence -O,09 -O.23* O.27 O.065-sentence O.06 -O,13 -O.15 -O.09

TOTAL -O.08 -O.19 o.oo -O.11*p<.05

**p<.Ol

***p<.OOI

Table 5 Correlation between True-False Tests and Reading Span Tests (Section 2 Soning)ConditionsUrn:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45

2-sentenee O.29 O.12 O.31*3-sentence O,11 -O.33** O.194-sentence -O,05 -O,20 O.115-sentence -O,02 -O.10 -O.19

TOTAL -O,04 -O.35** O,09*p<.05

**p<.Ol

**Ep<,OOI

Table 6 Correlation between True-False Tests and Listening Span Tests (TOTAL Sorting)ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Tota1n:1682-sentence O,42** O,21 O.44** O,38#*3-sentence -O.06 O,23. O,07 O,124-sentence -O.08 O.23* O,17 O.12S-sentence O.18 O.08 O,IS O.13TOTAL O.31* O,32** O.21 O,29***

*p<.os

**p<.Ol **!p<.OOI

As fbr the difference between reading and listening, reading may be more

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conducive to correct comprehension than listening because, in reading one can control

the timing of the input and perhaps becanse one does not have to worry as much about '

deciphering the phonological forms of foreign speech, On the other hand, listeningmay be more conducive to memory simply because there is superior serial memory fbrsounds than for printed materials,

4.4 Differences of t-tests among sentence conditions in both RST and LST

As Tables 7 to 12 show, we could find considerable sigtiificant differences

among sentence conditions in both RST and LST. First, regarding the differences of t-

tests in RST, we could find considerable significant differences in al1 groups betweentwo and three sentence conditions, middle and lower groups between three and foursentence conditions, and almost al1 groups between four and five sentence conditions.

Similarly, as for the LST, we could find considerable significant differences intwo-three and three-four sentence conditions. However, in the four-five combinationwe could find only a few significant differences. JUdging from the differences among

several sentence combinations, we can see the effbcts of the diffbrent levels of memory

capacity in each sentence condition. For exarnple, for the 2-sentence condition, there isless of a load when processing written and phonological linguistic information than fbrthe 3-sentence condition, And also, judging from the results of Table 1 and 2, we can

say that there is some tendency that the loads given to the subjects become heavier asthe number of sentences conditions increases.

Table 7 t-test between the 2-Sentence Condition and 3-Sentenc¢ Condition in RSTSortin Uern:45 Middlen:78Lowern:45 Totaln:l68Section1 7.29*** 8,93*** 8.41***

Section2 9.27*** 7.99*** 8.08***Section3 7.90*** 8,93*** 7.74***TOTAL 8,29*** 9.12*** 7.78*** 14.16*.l

*p<.05

**p<.Ol **fp<,OOI

Table 8 t-test between the 3-Sentence Condition and 4-Sentence Condition in RSTSomh Urn:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Totaln:168Section1 l.48 3.801** 1.52Section2 1.43 3.38*** 2.07*Sectien3 1,35 2,93** 2.79#TOTAL 1,35 2,70** 3,12** 4.16***

tp<,05 **p<,Ol

**lp<.OOI

Table 9 t-test between the 4-Sentence Condition and 5-Sentence Condition in RSTSonin Uerni45 Middlen:78Lowern:45 Totaln:168Section1 2.93** 3.00** 1,43Section2 2.20* 2,98** 2.20*Section3 2.46* 3,32*** 1,53TOTAL 2.88** 2,04*･ 2,66* 4.33***

tp<.OS *+p<.Ol **tp<.OOI

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Table 10 t-test between the 2-Sentence Condition and 3-Sentence Condition in LSTSortin Uern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Totaln:168Section1 6,45*** 5.78*** 4.94***Seetion2 7.17*# 5.83*** 4,55***Section3 5,09*** 6.94*** 4.62**.

TOTAL 5.85#* 6.96*** 4,02***'9.77***

tp<,05 *tp<.ol

***p<10ol

Table 1 1 t-test between the 3-Sentencc Condition and 4-Sentence Condition in LST

Sortin Uern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:4S Tota1n:168Section1 5.38*** 4.50*** 4.33*#Section2 4.66*** S.34*** 3,84***Section3 S.13*** 4,98*** 3.92***TOTAL 5.13*** 5.11*** 3.73*** 8.08***

tp<,05 **p<,Ol

**tp<.OOI

Table 12 t-test between the 4-Sentence Condition and 5-Sentence Condition in LSTSenin Uern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Tota1n:168Section1 -O.33 2,66** O.63

Section2 o.oo 1,91 1.27Section3 -O,70 1,92 1.86TOTAL -O.37 2.18* L16 2,05*

Ep<.05 **p<.Ol ***p<,ool

4.5 VerificationofHypotheses

The first hypothesis projects that the differences between three tasks in RST and

two tasks in LST highlight the coghtive problem fbr Japanese learners in working

memory. Compared to previous studies on span tests, the scores of span tests this time

are mainly lower, because we have heavier loads; especially, sentences included a postmodifier, which is a different syntactic structure from Japanese. Our subjects, Japanese

learners, find it hard to process linguistic infbrmation literally in English word order.

Still, due to fewer roles in LST than in RST, that is, no necessity to read aroud, scores

for each sentence condition in LST are mostly higher than those of RST. Therefbre, the

first hypothe.sis was partially supported,

The second hypethesis prejects a correlation of scores between linguistic

abilities (TOEFL) and span tests. We could find some correlation with each TOEFL

section as follows:

Firsg regarding TOEFL section 1, listening comprehension, we could find somecorrelation only in the upper group in both RST ( r

= .41,p < ,Ol : upper group, the 5-

sentence cendition, section 1 soning, r = .35, p < .05 : upper group, the 4-sentence'condition,

section 2 sorting, r =

.35, p < .05 : upper group, the 2-sentence condition,

section 3 sorting) and LST (r = .23, p < ,05 i upper group, the 5-sentence condition,

section l soning, r= .30, p < .05:upper group, the4-sentence condition, section 2

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sorting, r = ,32, p < .05:upper group, the 4-sentence condition, total sorting andr

== .31,p < ,05:upper group, the 5-sentence condition, total soning).

Second, regarding TOEFL section 2 which fbcuses on grammatical ability, we

could find some correlation in RST ( r =

,37, p < .05 : upper group, the 2-sentence

condition, section 3 sorting, r = .37, p < .05 : lower group, the 2-sentence condition,

section 3 sorting, r= .37,p < .05 : lower group, the 3-sentence condition, total soning )and LST ( r = .24, p < .O1 i middle group, the 2-sentence condition, section 1 sorting r

= .34, p < .05 :lower group, the 2-sentence condition, section 2 soning, r= .34, p

< ,05 : upper group, the 2-sentence condition, section 3 sorting, r =, 30,p < .e5 :

lower group, the3-sentence condition, total soning ). Third, regarding TOEFL section 3, reading comprehension, we could find some

correlation only in RST(r == ,37, p < .05:upper group, the 5-sentence condition,

section 3 sorting, lr = .32, p < .05 : upper group, the 5-sentence condition, total soning

and r = .3O, p < .05 : lower group, the 3-sentence condition, section 3 soning).

Judging from our results on correlation between TOEFL and each span test it

seems that, in written and phonological linguistic infbrmation processing, linguistic

ability is related to working memory capacity. Therefbre, the second hypothesis was

panially supported.

Regarding the third hypothesis prejecting a correlation of scores between RST

and LST, as shown in Tables 13 to16, we could find correlation between RST and LST

especially in the upper and lower groups. Therefore, the third hypothesis was partialiy

supported.

Table13 Correlation between Reading Span Tests and Listening Span Tests (Section 1 Sorting)

ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78Lowerni45

2-sentence ,ll ,22 .oo

3-sentenee ,20 ,10 ,18

4-sentence ,33* ,06 ,08

5-sentence ,66*** 21 -.Ol

TOTAL ,42** .31** .18

tp<.05 **p<.Ol

***p<.OOI

Table14 Correlation between Reading Span Tests and Listening Span Tests (Section 2 Sorting)

ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78Lowern:45

2-sentence .16 ,09 ,08

3-sentence .39** -.03 .20

4-sentence .36* -,Ol 15

5-sentence .52*** -.12 ,39**

TOTAL .48*** ,11 .35**p<.05

**p<,Ol

#*p<.OOI

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Table 15Correlation between Reading Span Tests and Listening Span Tests (Section 3 Sorting)

ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:452-sentence ,29 -,os .30*3-sentence ,32* -,05 .264-sentence .34* .Ol 205-sentence .45** ,06 .24TOTAL .47**l .03 .45**

Table

tp<.05 **p<.Ol

**tp<.OOI

16 Correlation between Reading Span Tests and Listening Span Tests CIrOTAL Sorting)ConditionsUern:45 Middlen:78 Lowern:45 Tota1n:168

2-sentence .08 ,11 .16 .123-sentence .39** -,06 ,25 .144-sentence .40** -,05 ,20 .145-sentence .48*# ,14 ,13 .27#*TOTAL .45** ,07 .40** 29*#

*p<.05

**p<,Ol

***p<.OOI

Regarding correlation between the true-false tests and span tests, as we have

expected in the light of the possibility of trade-off; we could find liule negative

correlation between the T-F test and RST and then, we could find some negative

correlation between the T-F test and LST. These results can be considered to be due to

a 1arge trade-off effect,

Through this experiment, we have explored the possibilities of RST and LST byusing educational apparatuses fbr a group consisting of a large number of subjects.

Judging from the tendency in this experiment, as discussed above, we can conclude

that the procedure we planned, RST and LST for a large number of subjects using

educational apparatuses, was largely successfu1,

5. Pedagogical Implications

In considering the pedagogical implications of the role of working memory, the

functions of the phonological loop are made clear, espeeially, with regard to the

acquisition of 1) vocabulary and 2) syntactic construction.

Short-term memory span, the ability to repeat phonological linguisticinfbrmation in working memory, has a role of predicting the level of vocabulary

acquisition of FL as well as Ll. The rate of acquiring new foreign words depends on

how fast the Iearners can repeat them accurately and faster in short-term memory span

(Gathercole andBaddeley 1989, 1990).

Still, it has been reported that little children with better short-term memory span

can produce long speech with more complicated syntactic structures, and their

acquisition of syntactic structures depends on their short-term memory span capacity

(Adams and Gathercole 1995, EIIis and Sinclair 1996).

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In addition to the previous studies showing in the significant role of phonologicalloop, this research can be said to be fbcused on not only the role of the phonologicalloop but also on the roles of the other two functions in working memory. The threetasks of this study, which give heavier loads to the subjects, are used in investigatingthe roles of three features in working memory: the central executive, the visuo-spatial

sketch pad and the phonological loop. The role of the visuo-spatial sketch pad has

some relation to eye-movement in reading aloud. The role of the phonological loop has

some relation to reading aloud and listening to English within 5 seconds, in that it is

concerned with (or deals with) sound, And one of the roles of the central executive has

some relation to the processing of the T-F test, that is, the deciphering the linguisticinfbrrnation in RST and LST,

The result of this study showed some pedagogical implications for reading and

listening processing, based on the differences and similarities in RST and LST, Thefirst one is the necessity of 1arger memory capacity to process much more informationin both reading and listening. And the second one is importance of relation betweenlinguistic ability and rnemory capacity, as shown in correlation between each TOEFL

section and RST or LST. The third one is that it seems to be easier for subjects to

understand written rather than phonologicar infomiation, that is, reading

comprehension is easier than listening comprehension.

6. Conclusion

This study shows the possibility of developing span tests for a large number of

subjects. The result of this experiment shows that capacity in working memory iscentral to both reading and listening processing, and showed the similarities and

diffbrences of these two types of processing. However, fbr Japanese EEL learners,dealing with the three loads given to them was beyond their capacity. Their

perfbrmance in reading and listening was lower than expected. Furtihermore, they

scored better on LST than RST. This is because, in LST, they need pay attention only

to listening while, in RST, there is a trade-off of reading aloud and keeping

infbrmation. However, regarding the results of TrF-tests in RST and LST, we could findbetter scores on RST than LST, as a whole. This shows that written infbrmation is

easier to comprehend than phonological infbrmation because in reading, one can

control the timing of the input, but when deciphering the phonological fbrms of foreign

speech one has no control over the timing,

Our Japanese EFL learners reported that they try to anticipate the pattern and the

content of the sentence, On this point, Japanese EFL learners utilize consciousness

awareness to overcome their lack of capacity as they become older. Baddely (1999)proposes a fburth component of working memory:

"the

episodic buffbr." He claims

that the old three-component model fails to explain 1) the interaction between working

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memory and long-term memory, 2) the character of chunking and limitations on

working memory, and 3) the role of consciousness arNareness. However, this episodicbuffer integrates infbrmation from long-term memory and the slave systems. This

integration is done under the active control of the central executive. There, conscious

awareness plays a central role. Further research based on this new model is needed.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their hearty thanks to Dr. Nobuo Ohta, Dr,

Nelson Cowan, Dr. Graharn Hitch and Dr. Satoru Saito fbr their valuable suggestions

and comments, Thanks are due to Professor Andrew BarfTield, Ms, Emiko Noda, who

recorded the tapes for the LST, and Professor Simon Fraser, who proofread our draft.

References

Adarns, A, M and Gathercole, S.E. 1995. "Phonological Working Memory and Speech

Production in Preschool Children," .lbui:nal ofSPeech and Hearing Research. 38, 403-414.Baddeley, A. D. 1986, PVbnkingMbmoiy, .Oxfbrd University Press.Baddeley, A. D 1992, "Working

Memory." Sbience, 255. 556-559,Baddeley, A. D. 1999.

C`The

Episodic Buffler: A Fourth Component of Working

Memory?" Absuacts of the Psychonomic Sbciety 40`" Annuai Mizeting, A

Psychonomic Society Publication.Daneman, M. and Carpenter, P. A. 1980. "Individual

Differences in Working Memory

and Reading." Jburnal of Vizrbal Learning and Plerbal Behavior. 19, 45O-466.Ellis, N,C. and Sinclair, S.G, 1996. "Working

Memory in the Acquisition of

Vocabulary and Syntax : Putting Language in Good Order," euarterly Jbumal of Eicperimental Psychology, 49A, 234-250.

([}athercole, S.E. and Baddely, A.D. 1989, `tEvaluation of the Role of Phonological

STM in the Development of Vocabulary in Children: A Longitudinal Study." Jbttmal ofMemory andLangziage, 28, 200-213.(iathercole, S.E, andBaddely, A.D. 1990. "Phonological

Memory Deficits in Language Disordered Children: Is There a Causal Connection?" .lounial of Memory cmdLanguage, 29, 336-360.

JUst, M A,, and Carpenter. P. A. 1992. "A

Capacity Theory ofComprehension:

IndividualDifferences in Working Memory." RsycholQgical Review. 99, 122L149.

Osakq M. and Osaka, N. 1994. "Yomi to Working Memory YoryorNihongoban

Reading Span Test ni yoru Sokutei-7])e lapanese .loumal ofPsychology. 1994,

65, 339-345.Saito, S. 1997. 0ninteki Stidoldoku ni Kbnsuru Kbnby. KazamashoboWaters, G. S. and Caplan, D. 1996. "The

Measurement of Verbal Working Memory

Capacity and Its Relatiort to Reading Comprehension," 7he euarterly Jbumal of ll :perimentaI Psychology. 49A(1). 51-79,

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Appendices

Reading Span Test

<Practice section>

Practice 1 : Students de notneed to study math to prepare forhigh schools,Practice 2 : The number of women in the politics in 1800 was larger than that ofthe present,ttttktttMt--t-ttttMktttMM-tlktM---tttkkt+-+tthttt+ttttt-ttteMt-titttt

<2-sentencecondition>SETI No.1: Vancouyer isacity that is the state capita1 in Mexico.(F)

No,2 : It is true that elementary school students are ta11er than university students, (F)SET2 No.1 : A traditional Italian food eaten all over the world is spagheui, (I) No.2 : Boys who are short and thin are good at for sumo wrestling, (F)SET 3 No.1 : [[1ie scientist who discovered the law of universal gravhation is Newton. (I) No,2 : Green and yellow are the marks that begiming drivers put on cars, (I')<3-sentence condition>

SETI No,1 : People who live in nombern Italy don't eat with chopsticks. (T) No.2 : We can use only thousand yen coins when we use telephones. (F) No,3 : Abraham Lincoln is a person who grapp!ed with the problern ofslayery, (T)SEP No,1 : Everybody knows the fact thatblue andblackmakes green. (F) No,2 : Fletkushima is one ofthe prefectures that belongs to Ktrnto region, (F) No.3 : A jibrarian is a person who is in charge ofa library. CI')SET3 No,1:"B" is the letter that comes second in the alphabet, (r) No.2 : It is unlucky when white cats cross in front ofyeu. (F) No,3 : A taxi driver is a person whose job is to teach English, (F)<4-sentencecondition>SETI No.1 : A large animal whose coleris yellow is an elephant, (F) No.2 : [ihe fare is thc price for carrying pe.ople by bus or train. (Tl) Ne.3 : October is the rnonth that has the most snow in Japan. (F) No.4 : A piano is a musical instTument whose keyboard has ebony and ivory. (T)SET2 No. 1 : A horse is an animal who has a long-shaped face, (I) No.2 : An electric product used to dry hair is ca11ed a hair dryer. (D No.3 : Cern is a crop which is usually picked every eighty years. (F) No,4 : A pig is an anirnal that carL rtm fastest in the wood. (F)SET3 No.1 : A planet is a body in space that moves round a star. (Ir) No.2 : It is a JaPanese custom that people in Japan eat beef (F) No.3 : A bookseller is a person who sells books to people, a) No,4 : An oyen is a machine used when we want to bake bread. (T)<5-sentencecondition>SETI No,1:You can openacamera even before rewinding the film, (F) No.2 : A person who takes care ofbabies is called

"a baby-sitter." (I')

No.3 : Kyoto is the eldest town situated in the nonhern part ofJapan. (F) No,4 : You must show a ticket when you get on an airplane , (I') No.5 : Drums are important instruments used by sorne people to communicate. (I')SET2 No.1 : Swallows come to Japan when leaves turn red andyellow. (F) No,2 : Social studies are subjects that reguire students to understand people better. (I]) No,3 : A rainy day means one when we can see lots of stars . (F) No.4 : There is a commonly held beliefthat cats run after dogs, (F) No.5 : A television set is a product which is pepular only in Japan. (F)SET3 No,1 : These who can speak only one 1anguage are ca11ed monolingual. (T) No.2 : We should not cross the street when the traffic light is green. (F) No.3 : Pizza is an Italian food containing cheese, meat, fish and vegetables. (Ir) No,4 : Christmas is a religious cerernony related to Buddliism al1 over the world, (F) No,5 :

"Mickey Mouse" is a mouse who is very popular among children. (I)

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Listening Span Test

<Practice section>

Practice 1 : Students do not need to stpdy math to prepare forhigh schools,Practice 2 : The number ofwomen in the politics in 1800 was larger than that ofthe present.ttMttktttMtt-tttt-MtMtk-Mtt-tt--MtttMttttttttde-httttttttttMtth-tM--

<2-sentencecondition>SETI No.1:March is the month that is the third of the year. CI) No,2 : Mathematics is a subject in which students take lessons at a gym. (F)SE[M No.1 : A guitar is a musical instruinent that usually has six strings. (I) No.2 : A policernan is a person who helps those who are in tromble, (I)SE[[ 3 No,1 : Drinking is an excellertt habit which is good for our health. (F) No.2:The color the Japanese most use in drawing the sun is gray, (F)<3-sentence condition>

SETI No.1:An octopus isaseacreature which has ten arms. (F) No,2 : Graduation is the cerentony that is held in March in Japan. (T) No.3 : A season is a period of time each year marked by theater, (F)SET2 No,1 : IVbbttnaga Odu is the person who established the Edo era, (F) No.2 : in London we can see red buses which have two decks. (D No,3 : The centigrade temperature at whieh water comes to a boil is sixty. (F)SET 3 No.1 : The highestmountain seen from Tokyo Tower is Mt, Everest. (F) No,2:A lawyer is aperson wiio solves problems based on law. (I) No,3 : There is a lot of time to relax when you are busy, (F)<4-sentencecondition>SETI No.1:Bread isacornmon cheap food made ofbaked fiour. (D No.2 : j(bishu Kbtstt is the famous Japanese person whe started World War II. (F) No,3 : There is no desert that has a lot of surfaee water. CI) No,4 : A lottery is a system in which many numbered tickets are sold, (I)SET2 No.1:Yeu have to dial O09 when you call an ambulance. (F) No,2 : The Olympic Garnes is an event that is held every five years, (F) No.3 : An extremely tall Affican animal which eats leaves is a giraffc. (I) No,4 : Japanese people have the custom of wearing black-colored clothes at a funera1, (I')SET3 Nb.1 : It is･the biggestmerit oflibiaries that you can buy comics, (F) No.2 : A banker is the person who ewns or manages a bank. (I) No.3 : Most rnodern seientists have the beliefthat the earth is cubic. (F) No,4 : William Shakespeare is a person who painted landscapes in the 16th century, (r)<5-sentencecondition>SET 1 No,1 : Horne economics is a branch of chemistry dealing with animals. (F) No.2 : Curry and rice is a dish which is spicy and hot, (D No.3 : A bicycle is a usefu1 vehicle for shopping that has four wheels, (F) No,4 : A refligerator is an appliance which keeps food and drinks fresh, (I') No.5 : The poor rneans those whe earn a lot of money. (F)SET 2 No.1 : Cine ofthe prefectures surreunded by the sea is Okinawa. (I) No,2 : A bear is a fierce animal whose body is very tiny. (F) No.3 : Honeymoon is the holida)T talcen by people who havejust got rnanied. CI) Ne,4 : A bookworm is a person who is very fond ofreading. (r) No,5 : [[he reason why we cannot sleep well after drinking cofflee is nicotine. (F)SET3 No.1:Every child has the idea that an apple is spicy, (F) No,2 : A chihuahua is a dog that is famous for its tiny body. (I) No.3 : As you know, the day which comes after Wednesday is [[hursday. (I) No,4 : The bite ofa cobra is the one that is not dangerous,･e No.5 : Columbus is the person who discovered india in the 15th century. (T)

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Comparison Table of the .Contents between RST & LST

CONTENTS RST LST

Occupations 4 3

Musicalinstrurnents 2 1

Food 4 2

Animals 4 4

FarnousPeople 2 4

Geography 3 3

CustomsfHabits 1 2

Subjects 1 2

Drinks o 2

Transportation 1 2

Events 1 3

LawsXRules 3 3

ElectricAppliances 2 1

Superstitions 2 o

Months/DaysoftheWeek 1 2

DefmitionofWords 2 2

Telephone 1 1Others 8 5

TOTAL 42 42

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modifying reading listening for group testing

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