What is TEFL and TESL?There are differences and similarities between EFL and ESL teaching contexts.

A teacher must know the differences to be able to plan effectively.

The following information will show you the differences and similarities of TEFL and TESL.

Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL)

Teaching English to students who have immigrated to an English-speaking country. You will also find the abbreviation ESL (English as a Second Language). This programme is offered to immigrants and students that come from other countries to learn English. ESL programmes have been around for many decades in English-speaking countries.

Below you will find fundamental points about TESL from a student's perspective:

1. Students communicate in a new language on a regular basis in everyday life.

2. Role models for the new language are all around (teacher, friends, TV, radio…).

3. Immediate goals for students involve learning 'survival' English to meet their basic needs. This means teaching your students to adapt quickly to the new changes and challenges, eg how to buy groceries, how to order at a restaurant, how to ask for directions and more.

4. Long-term goals involve communicating fully in the second language.

TESL teachers’ goals may include:

1. Helping students meet immediate needs through introduction of 'survival' English. Here teachers will not focus on basic grammar but on helping students survive those first weeks.

2. Helping students learn to communicate through understanding of basic language structure. This means that the second step would be to introduce grammar topics and structures.

3. Helping students understand and adjust to their new culture. Our students face what is called 'culture shock'. It is the psychological process of adapting to a new place. They have to change the food they eat, their families and

friends. We must help our students adapt as quickly as possible to avoid any mental blocks.

4. Helping students continue their ongoing learning in other subject areas. ESL students travel to English-speaking countries to learn the language and to further their academic knowledge. Many enrol in schools and universities to complete their higher education goals.  

Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)

Teaching English to students in a country where English is not readily spoken (eg China, Mexico, Vietnam). There are many more countries where English is not spoken as a native language.

Below you will find fundamental points about TEFL from a student's perspective:

1. Use of the new language is largely restricted to the classroom. Even though the internet and international cable TV companies are available in many countries around the world, the only real source or place to learn the language is in the classroom. Countries that have a high number of international tourists (eg Vietnam, China, Mexico, Greece, Costa Rica or Panama) still have many people that are not able to speak English.

2. Role models for the new language are almost exclusively the teachers. Although, as mentioned before, IT, mass media and tourists are also now role models, they are not always available to all students.

3. Immediate goals for students may be to meet the requirements of a course. Since there is no immediate need for the language outside of the classroom, students are not motivated to learn it.

4. Long-term goals for language learning may not yet be realised by the students. Young learners do not understand why they need to learn this new language. Sometimes you will find lack of tolerance by the student towards this new language. Students often complain of being obligated to learn it.

 

TEFL teachers’ goals may include:

1. Helping students learn basic English language structures and vocabulary. In an EFL context we have to begin the process by actually teaching the basic structures, such as the colours, numbers, basic messages and classroom survival language. Classroom survival is teaching students basic greetings and instructions (eg How do you say ____ (this) in English? / Please repeat the question / I don't understand).

2. Helping students communicate basic messages. After we teach basic structures and vocabulary, we can move on to basic communicative competences.

3. Building confidence in students. Their lack of confidence turns into frustration or lack of motivation.

4. Encouraging students’ interest in language study beyond the classroom. This particular topic is one that you will have to deal with as you teach in an EFL context. Many students complain of not having time to study or having too much work to be able to continue their studies beyond the classroom. They assume that if they go to class, they will not need anymore 'study time' at home. We know that if a student does not study at home or outside of the classroom, they will simply not learn to speak the language. Encourage and build your students' interest in the language beyond the classroom. Assign homework activities and projects. Check on them, follow up and be patient!

5. Providing a global perspective. Tell your students about the use of the language internationally. Bring articles related to the use of English as the language of choice by businesses around the world.

Additional comments related to TEFL vs. TESL

You must also take into consideration your students' ages and the importance the second or foreign language has in their community.

Tourism, in many countries, provides students with a great job opportunity. There are other countries, however, where English is not important for the community. Making students and parents understand the importance of the language for future opportunities is not always an easy task in those countries where English is not readily used.

Another aspect that must be taken into consideration is the limitation of activities to be done after class. In an EFL setting the only contact that students will have with the language outside of the classroom is a workbook. In this particular case, try to be creative with the assignments. These difficulties will not be present in English-speaking countries. In countries where English is spoken, there will be plenty of interest and immediate need for the second language.

Understanding the difference between ESL and EFL will provide you with information on the needs of the students and the contexts in which you will teach.

All academic institutions that offer language courses must have a programme that adheres to international standards. They must also provide you with the necessary material and information to be able to help your students reach

their goal. Whether you are teaching English in the USA, UK, Australia, China, Mexico or Colombia, the school must provide you with a programme that will be easy to follow. Publishers make different books for EFL or ESL contexts. Visit the major publishers such as Longman, Cambridge, Oxford and Macmillan or their local representatives. See how the books are formatted for both purposes. Some schools in EFL countries such as Mexico, Greece, China and Peru call their English programmes 'ESL programmes'. They do this as a marketing strategy, to try to make parents feel that their kids are learning English the same way kids do in English-speaking countries.

There are other common acronyms and abbreviations used:

ESL - English as a Second Language

EFL - English as a Foreign Language

ESOL - English to Speakers of Other Languages

ELT - English Language Teaching

TESOL - Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

As you can see there are similarities and differences in EFL and ESL. Take these things into consideration when teaching students and preparing your lessons.

"It is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge" Albert Einstein

Describing learners

An English teacher needs to know and understand as much as possible about the learner. Students are different and learn differently. They also have different needs, abilities, competences, goals and expectations when learning a new language. We can expect adults to have an immediate need for the language, and the opposite for young learners who do not understand the global perspective.

It is true that young learners have a facility to learn a language but that does not make the process as fast as many people generally believe. Young learners have less obstacles and preconceived ideas about a language but that does not make it easier for them to learn. Teens, on the other hand, seem to be faster learners and are able to master skills faster than some adults and very young learners. This ability has to deal with better cognitive abilities that teens have, and the ability to understand and process abstract ideas and approaches.

Children learn differently from adolescents and adults because they tend to understand the general idea and not the meaning of individual words. This technique is used by children when learning their mother tongue as well, since they are going

through a similar process and do not have complete command of it yet. Children tend to learn from everything around them and not from one specific message. They find grammar rules difficult to understand because they may not understand abstract concepts. They focus on the use of the language and are not concerned about making mistakes or feeling embarrassed about it. They are also enthusiastic and energetic when they like something and are eager to participate in any activity that the teacher brings to class.

Adolescents are known as problematic students but that may not be the case at all. Once teens are interested and passionate about a particular topic, you will not have any difficulties teaching them. Teens are in search of identity and in need of self-esteem.

That usually brings discipline issues to deal with in the classroom but once you have engaged those students into a learning objective, the results are going to be rewarding for you as a teacher. Teens are also extremely vulnerable to negative comments and are in need of approval from their peers constantly. Our job is to engage students with topics that are relevant to them and lessons that are exciting and dynamic. Teens need to be encouraged to participate and respond in class with their own ideas and thoughts. Previous knowledge of the language will also make it easier to teach teens. You will find yourself teaching teens that have been learning the language for quite some time and may be at an intermediate level. This will make your teaching experience a lot less difficult.

People tend to think that teaching adults are usually the easiest age group to teach and in some cases it may be true. We can engage adults with abstract ideas. We can draw from their previous knowledge and life experiences. Adults tend to be less problematic and more disciplined in learning a language. They usually have a clear idea and understanding of why they are learning the language and how to take advantage of it. Adults are able to sustain their level of motivation for a longer period of time because they know that learning a language is not going to be an overnight experience. They can, however, be critical of your teaching methods and activities. They are quick to criticise your lessons and are usually under-confident about their language learning process. Older students tend to feel insecure in class and feel diminished when coming from managerial positions.

As teachers we need to recognise the different needs that our students have in the classroom and the effects that our teaching methods and planning will have on their learning process. We should strive to lower all of our students' fears in learning a language and prepare engaging lesson plans that will keep our students happy and motivated to continue their language learning process.

Principles of adult learning

The four criteria of adult learning

Professor Malcolm Knowles of Boston University identified four criteria that impact the learning process of adults.

Self-concept of the learner

Children conceive of themselves as dependent persons, but as they grow toward adulthood they experience a need for others to see them as being capable of self-direction. This change from a self-concept of dependency to one of autonomy is what we call psychological maturity or adulthood. Because of this self-concept, adults tend to resent being put into situations that violate their feeling of maturity, such as being talked down to, being judged, being treated with a lack of respect or otherwise being treated like children.

When adults are faced with learning a new language, their mature self-concept is often in conflict with the fact that they have reverted, of necessity, to childlike language patterns. This makes it even more essential that language instructors treat these individuals as adults. When adults find that they are capable of self-direction in learning, they often experience a remarkable increase in motivation to learn and to continue the learning process on their own initiative.

This discovery points out a major difference between the assumption of child learning, pedagogy, and adult learning. This difference exists in the relationship between teacher and learner and in the learner’s concept of self with regard to the capacity for self-direction.

Catchphrase: Adults don’t like to be treated like children

Utilising the learner’s experience

In the process of living, adults accumulate vast quantities of experience of different kinds. It is safe to say, 'we are our experience'. Our experience is what we have done, ie the sum total of our life’s impressions and our interaction with other persons and the world. In the andragogical approach to education, the experience of adults is considered a rich resource for learning. Andragogy abounds with 'experiential', two-way, multi-directional techniques, such as group discussion, skill practice sessions, simulations, role playing and team building. In this way, the experience of all participants can be used as a resource for learning. When individuals function as teachers and learners at the same time, using their experience to facilitate the learning process, the second major difference between andragogy and pedagogy becomes clear.

Catchphrase: Adults like to share their own stories

Readiness to learn

It is widely known that educational development occurs best through a sequencing of learning activities into developmental tasks so that the learner is presented with opportunities for learning certain skills or topics when he or she is 'ready' to assimilate them but not before. In this traditional, pedagogical approach, it is assumed that the

teacher must take the total responsibility for designing the curriculum for the learners. While this may be true if the learner has no idea of what they need to learn next, it has been shown that adults are capable of diagnosing their own needs for learning and designing learning activities around specifics of their situations. The facilitator of andragogical learning acts as a resource person to help the learners form interest groups and diagnose their learning needs. In forming these groups, the instructor may provide some structure by suggesting the kinds of competencies needed to perform various roles or functions or the teacher may suggest several areas of interest into which learners may wish to group themselves to begin the diagnostic process.

An example of this applied to the ESL classroom is the use of peer groups in writing. Students may form groups to aid each other in revision or editing or a group of students who share the same weakness, such as formation of thesis statements, may band together to work on recognising focus statements. An additional example is found in a listening/speaking situation in which students watch a videotape of three-minute speeches, which they have presented. In watching the video, they try, with the help of the instructor, to pinpoint major grammatical mistakes. Then they work on grammar exercises specific to their grammatical weaknesses with a group of students sharing the same mistakes.

Catchphrase: Adults like to work in groups

Time perspective and orientation to learning

We are used to thinking of education in terms of 'preparation for the future' rather than 'doing in the present'. When we were children, we were involved in the educational process of storing up information to be used at some far-off day, following graduation. Our teachers presented us with information neatly packaged into subjects that we could unwrap as needed on our journey through life, and graduation seemed to be a sort of 'rite of passage' from the learning world into the 'doing world'. In andragogical philosophy, there is a strong push to close the gap between learning and doing. While adults are interested in planning and learning for the future, they seem to be more interested in learning for immediate application. Hence, learning in andragogical education is 'problem centred' rather than 'subject centred'.

Catchphrase: Adults like to have immediate application

In conclusion

The full meaning of andragogy, or self-directed learning, can be made clear by comparing it to its opposite, pedagogy, which is teacher-directed learning. The word pedagogy is derived from the Greek words paid (meaning 'child') and agogus (meaning 'leader'). When we contrast the definitions of andragogy and pedagogy, this does not mean that children should be taught pedagogically and adults should be taught andragogically. Rather, the two terms simply differentiate between two sets of assumptions about learners. The teacher who makes one set of assumptions will teach

pedagogically whether he or she is teaching children or adults, whereas the teacher who makes the other set of assumptions will teach andragogically whether the learners are children or adults, according to Knowles. In fact, many of the innovations in schooling, such as open classrooms, non-graded schools, learning laboratories, community schools and non-traditional study are based upon andragogical assumptions about children and youth as learners.

Perhaps what makes the difference between pedagogical and andragogical education is not so much the difference in the assumptions underlying practice as in the attitude of the learners. If self-directed learners recognise that there are occasions in which they will need to be taught, they will enter those taught-learning situations in a searching, probing frame of mind and will exploit them as resources for learning without losing self-directedness.

Note: The information shared in this article will also be mentioned in the Speaking skills section. We will discuss each criteria again and relate them to the process of developing speaking skills and how we must take them into consideration as you take your students through that process.

By Connie L. Shoemaker - 'Interactive Techniques in an EFL classroom'

A brief history of methodologies

Introduction

Teachers around the world are following the communicative approach to teaching languages but it has not always been that way. Teachers are in a transition phase of going from the grammar-translation method to the communicative approach as there is a greater need for communication among people around the world.

Teaching languages has been influenced by linguistics and psychology throughout history. Approaches to teaching English have evolved into what we have today. This process has been evolutionary and many great scholars have proposed wonderful ideas which were new and ideal at that time but now have fallen wayside. In this article we will learn about some of the methods proposed through time and you will learn some of the fundamental points that can be used in the classroom today.

Since the end of the 18th century, the definitive solution to successful EFL/ESL instruction has been discovered many times. There is always another tried-and-tested methodology from yet another expert theorist who may or may not have had first-hand experience learning a second language. Before the late nineteenth century, second-language instruction mirrored the so-called 'classical' method of teaching Latin and Greek; lessons were based on mental exercises—repetition drills and out-of-context vocabulary drills as well as lots of reading and translations of ancient texts. Brown notes that languages were “not being taught primarily to learn oral/aural communication, but to learn for the sake of being ‘scholarly’ or … for reading

proficiency." Theories of second-language acquisition didn’t start to pop up until the instructional objective became oral competence. We will now cover some of the most widely used methods in history and finish with the communicative approach which is the method of choice today.

A brief history of methodologies

Grammar-translation

From the turn of the nineteenth century until the late 1940s, the grammar-translation method was the method of choice. Despite its antiquity, or because of it, the grammar-translation method is still alive but disappearing in language classrooms throughout Europe, Asia, and even in the Americas. It is easy to teach; it requires no more than the ability to memorise lists of isolated vocabulary words; and it aims low in terms of oral communication and aural comprehension—no one teaching or learning a target language is required to speak, pronounce, or even understand the spoken language. Because the target language is taught in the students’ native language, it is possible for students to have studied it for years without having been required to participate in the most elementary conversation. Indeed, the only real challenge confronting students and teachers in the grammar-translation classroom is a test.

A typical one-hour class might begin with ten minutes of synchronised verb reviewing. This might be followed by the instructor’s explanation of a particular grammatical feature of the target language. The instructor might then assign students a series of fill-in-the-blank exercises or sentence constructions that demonstrate the grammar point. Other features of the grammar-translation class include translations of literary passages from the target language into the native language, identifying antonyms and synonyms, drilling vocabulary words, memorising vocabulary lists, creating sentences with the new vocabulary words, and writing compositions in the target language. Except for the repetition drills, most of the above work is written.

One might wonder why this obviously antiquated method is still used. Aside from being easy for both teacher and student, some claim it is the most effective way to introduce literature in the target language. That is, in learning how to read in the target language, students are exposed to a variety of grammatical structures, thousands of vocabulary words in context, and they learn to translate across linguistic borders. It does not teach oral communicative skills, but that is not necessarily the scope of a language class.

Most ESL instructors have witnessed the results of the grammar-translation method in students who have studied English as a foreign language in their native countries. They are often able to read and write English—sometimes better than native speakers—but they have had no experience listening to or speaking the language. In fact, ESL teachers face the challenge of helping students overcome deviations in students’ pronunciation. Furthermore, grammar-translation students are accustomed to doing fill-in-the-blank exercises, learning grammar rules before applying them, memorising lists of vocabulary words, and creating artificial sentences to prove their mastery of

the vocabulary and grammar. When they are exposed to more creative methods of language instruction, they often find it difficult to perform.

Fundamental points:

- Classes taught in L1 (native language)

- Vocabulary lists

- In-depth grammar explanations

- Reading of difficult texts for translation

- Little or no emphasis on pronunciation

- Grammar rules for constructing sentences

A brief history of methodologies

The direct method

Second-language theorists maintain that the first real method of language teaching was the direct method, which was developed as a reaction against the monotony and ineffectiveness of grammar-translation classes. The direct method was developed by Charles Berlitz, a nineteenth-century linguist whose schools of language learning are famous throughout the world. He tried to imitate the naturalistic approach. Berlitz wanted to immerse students in the target language. He believed that one could learn a second language by imitating the way children learn their first language; that is, directly and without explanations of grammatical points and using only the target language. Therefore, grammar was taught inductively. The objectives were speaking and listening comprehension, not translation; for this reason, vocabulary was introduced in context and through demonstrations and pictures; and an emphasis was placed on correct usage and pronunciation. Students learned to write by taking dictation in the target language.

A typical direct method class has few students. Students might first take turns reading aloud, preferably a dialogue or anecdotal passage. To test for understanding, the teacher would then ask questions in the target language and students would have to respond appropriately in the target language. Following the question-response session, the instructor might dictate the passage to the students three times. Students would then read the dictation back to the class.

The direct method was popular in Europe and the United States, especially during the first quarter of the twentieth century. Nevertheless, its very intensity and necessarily small class sizes made the method impossible for public schools. In addition, it was considered a weak method because it was not supported by heavy-duty theories and it depended too much on teachers’ ability to teach as well as their fluency in the target language.

Fundamental points:

- Classes taught in target language L2 (second or foreign language)

- Only everyday language taught

- Small intensive classes

- Grammar learnt inductively

- New language modelled and practised

- Vocabulary is presented through demonstration, object and pictures

- Correct pronunciation and grammar taught

A brief history of methodologies

The audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method (ALM) was first known as the 'Army' method because it had been adopted by the military during the Second World War. ALM is not unlike the direct method in that its purpose is to teach students to communicate in the target language.

The audio-lingual method is a purely behaviouristic approach to language teaching. It is based on drill work that aims to form good language habits, and it makes use of extensive conversation practice in the target language. Students enter the target language classroom without any knowledge and they receive various linguistic stimuli and respond to them. If they respond correctly, they enjoy a reward and repeat the response, which promotes good habit formation. If they respond incorrectly, they receive no reward and therefore repress the response, which represses the response. The objective is to become fluent in the language.

Its theoretical support also comes from post-war structural linguists. Structural linguists analyse how language is formed but as it is “currently spoken in the speech community” (Stafford paragraph 3). Language was now seen as a set of abstract linguistic units that made up a whole language system. The realisation that all languages are complex, unique systems allowed linguists to understand the multi-faceted, singular structure of English without comparing it to Latin. This led to new thinking in terms of how language should be taught. Individual structures should be presented one at a time and practised via repetition drills. Grammar explanations should be minimal or non-existent, for students will learn grammatical structures by inductive analogy.

A typical ALM class consists of ten-minute drill periods interspersed with activities such as the reading and memorisation of a dialogue. The instructor then examines a grammar point by contrasting it with a similar point in the students’ native language.

(The teacher speaks in the native language, but discourages its use among students.) This is followed by more drills—repetition drills, substitution drills. Target language vocabulary is introduced and learnt in context, and teachers make abundant use of visual aids. Like its predecessors, ALM focuses on the surface forms of language and rote learning.

While some students, especially those who could memorise dialogues, did well in the classroom, they still were not able to use the target language with any proficiency.

Fundamental points:

- New material is presented in a dialogue

- Grammar structures presented one at a time

- Structures presented using repetitive drills

- Little or no grammar explanation

- Heavy emphasis on pronunciation

- Use of L1 severely limited

- Dependent on memory, body language and over-learning

- Heavy reliance on CDs, language labs and visuals

A brief history of methodologies

Suggestopedia

It was developed by Georgi Lozanov in 1979. It states that when the mind and body are relaxed, the brain absorbs knowledge without effort.

The Suggestopedia classroom uses music—particularly Baroque music with its ideal sixty beats per minute—to help soothe students as teachers employ various language-learning activities. In this classroom, even adult learners are encouraged to behave as pliable, suggestible children, and to regard their teacher as a super-mentor parental figure. Imagery, music, suggestion, relaxation, comfortable armchairs, and dim lighting are the essential ingredients of the Suggestopedia classroom. With soft music playing in the background, students role-play and learn vocabulary under the guidance of the all-powerful teacher.

In a typical lesson—or concert—the teacher plays a piece of music, preferably Baroque, but any emotionally charged music will do. The teacher then reads a passage from a text in the target language, trying to harmonise with the music while maintaining a slow, rhythmic pace. Students follow along with their own texts and

translation. Students then return their translations to the teacher, close their eyes and settle back to listen to a replay of the music and reading performance.

Fundamental points:

- Use of the power of suggestion

- Use of Baroque music in the background

- Comfortable 'classrooms' that were similar to a living room

- Students could choose a name in the given language

A brief history of methodologies

Total physical response (TPR)

Total physical response goes back to the direct method of the mid-nineteenth century. James Asher reasoned that since children in the process of acquiring their native language seem to listen more than they speak and often react physically to speech, second-language learners might learn a target language in the same way. In addition, he felt that language classes were too stressful for learners, and he wanted to create an atmosphere in which learners didn’t have to do anything other than respond to imperatives such as Go to the door! or Walk slowly to the chalkboard! Students could absorb other linguistic forms such as questions by watching and imitating the teacher shrug his/her shoulders, look confused, and askWhere is the book? In these ways, students magically begin asking questions and creating their own commands. In theory, this process guides them to fluency in the target language.

TPR can be an effective methodology in small doses when language learners have no knowledge of the target language or are children. It has the advantage of getting students out of their seats, which alleviates boredom and allows students to associate specific actions with specific language.

Fundamental points:

- Based upon the way children learn their mother tongue

- Language-body conversations

- Listening skills are developed first and speech emerges later

- Very active involvement and participation from students

- Great for young learners

A brief history of methodologies

The communicative approach ('CLT')

The communicative method was developed during the 1970s by the Council of Europe. This method is a more recent phenomenon that comprises all sorts of methodologies.

The communicative method is still the method of choice. CLT does not teach about language; rather, it teaches language. It is often associated with the 'functional-notional' approach; that is, the emphasis is on functions such as time, location, travel and measurements. In short, it seeks to recreate real-life social and functional situations in the classroom to guide students toward communicative competence. The linguistic accuracy that was deemed so essential in grammar-translation, the direct method, and other approaches is not as important in the communicative classroom. Teachers avoid upsetting their students by requiring them to identify or recognise nouns, verbs, or direct objects; instead, they guide them to second-language proficiency by employing 'the three Ps'— presentation, practice, and production. Teachers present the target language via everyday situations; they give students time to practise the language via structured situational dialogues; and, finally, they step aside for students’ production of the language—the phase in which they are able to function independently in the target language. Grammar has recently made a comeback in CLT and teachers now incorporate grammar in their lessons.

Students work in pairs or small groups. The student is the centre of the class and the teacher is a guide or a facilitator.

Fundamental points in the next article.

A brief history of methodologies

CONCLUSION

Teaching English as a second language or a foreign language has come a long way since rote learning. Still, it has a long way to go. The trend since the late 1990s has been toward eclecticism, and this is probably the healthiest approach for it accommodates many styles of learning. Furthermore, an eclectic approach allows teachers to glean the effective elements from many methods that really work in the classroom.

Language learning methodologies certainly mirror the times in which they thrive; but some have claimed to have virtues that are not evident beyond their theoretical framework.

The eclectic approach takes the best that theorists have to offer and incorporates it with techniques that work. Language learning is difficult business. Students’ attitudes

about school and authority, their home situations, literacy, self-confidence, academic level, identification with their native language and country are only a few factors that affect their ability to learn or acquire a new language. In the end, teachers have a tremendous challenge in trying to give their students the tools with which to function on all levels in the target language.

The Communicative Approach

The communicative approach focuses on the importance of students actually using English to exchange information which is integral to experiences that are relevant to their daily lives. Below you will find some of the fundamental points of the communicative approach.

Students develop an incentive to learn by participating in activities that allow them to use English immediately by communicating in topics that are relevant to their daily lives.

Students are involved in meaningful use of the language in real-world contexts.

The teacher guides the students in the direction of spontaneous use of the language.

Natural speech is used primarily in the classroom.

Students are motivated to learn the language by participating in challenging and enjoyable activities.

Students are the centre of the class. The lesson does not revolve around the teacher.

The communicative approach places emphasis on function over form. Grammar is presented inductively and practised throughout the lesson. Grammar points are reintroduced in later lessons to create a new use or function for the language.

Students are encouraged to try out what they have learnt in a context of free choice. Students are presented with structured activities to solidify information taught but guided on to unstructured activities to develop fluency in the language.

Memorisation and repetition have their place, mainly in pronunciation, but are not emphasised.

Students are not overloaded with grammar rules. Grammar should be presented but teachers need to emphasise the use of the language not the grammar formula.

Students and teachers focus on grammar as a framework for guidance and self-correction.

Language is treated as more than the sum of its parts. The teacher should emphasise meaningful communication rather than individual sounds, words or sentences.

All four skills need to be taught simultaneously and should be integrated. The four skills are listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing.

Pair work, small group and class-as-a-whole activities are used to facilitate interaction among students. Activities should start from simple structured activities, to open-ended task-based activities that centre around the students and not the teacher.

Multiple intelligences: theory and practice in adult students

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) broadens the traditional view of intelligence as solely composed of verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical abilities. MI theory maintains that all humans possess at least eight different intelligences that represent a variety of ways to learn and demonstrate understanding. This digest outlines the basic tenets of MI theory and describes how it has been applied in teaching English as a second language (ESL) to adults.

The theory

Intelligence has traditionally been defined in terms of intelligence quotient (IQ), which measures a narrow range of verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical abilities. Howard Gardner (1993) argues that humans possess a number of distinct intelligences that manifest themselves in different skills and abilities. All human beings apply these intelligences to solve problems, invent processes, and create things. Intelligence, according to MI theory, is being able to apply one or more of the intelligences in ways that are valued by a community or culture. The current MI model outlines eight intelligences, although Gardner (1999) continues to explore additional possibilities.

 

* Linguistic intelligence: The ability to use language effectively both orally and in writing.

 

* Logical/mathematical intelligence: The ability to use numbers effectively and reason well.

 

* Visual/spatial intelligence: The ability to recognise form, space, colour, line and shape and to graphically represent visual and spatial ideas.

 

* Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings and to solve problems.

 

* Musical intelligence: The ability to recognise rhythm, pitch, and melody.

 

* Naturalist intelligence: The ability to recognise and classify plants, minerals, and animals.

 

* Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to understand another person's feelings, motivations and intentions and to respond effectively.

 

* Intrapersonal intelligence: The ability to know about and understand oneself and recognise one's similarities to and differences from others.

Application of MI theory with adult ESL learners

Rather than functioning as a prescribed teaching method, curriculum, or technique, MI theory provides a way of understanding intelligence, which teachers can use as a guide for developing classroom activities that address multiple ways of learning and knowing (Christison, 1999b). Teaching strategies informed by MI theory can transfer some control from teacher to learners by giving students choices in the ways they will learn and demonstrate their learning.

By focusing on problem-solving activities that draw on multiple intelligences, these teaching strategies encourage learners to build on existing strengths and knowledge to learn new content and skills (Kallenbach, 1999). It may also mean the adult learners who have had little success in traditional classrooms where only linguistic and mathematics skills are valued may experience more success when other intelligences are tapped. Likewise, adult ESL learners from cultures where other intelligences are highly valued - such as interpersonal or musical - may find the MI classroom a productive learning environment.

Broadly speaking, teachers have developed four ways of using MI theory in the classroom.

1. As a tool to help students develop a better understanding and appreciation of their own strengths and learning preferences. Christison (1999a) has developed an inventory to identify the preferred intelligences of adult English language learners. Learners are asked to respond to six statements about each of eight intelligences. An excerpt follows.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES INVENTORY FOR ESL/EFL ADULTS

Directions: Rate each statement 2, 1, or 0. 2 means you strongly agree, 1 means you are in the middle, 0 means you disagree. Total the points for each intelligence. Compare your scores on the different intelligences.

 

Verbal/linguistic intelligence

1. I like to read books, magazines, or newspapers.

2. I often write notes and letters to my friends and family.

3. I like to talk to people at parties.

4. I like to tell jokes.

5. I like to talk to my friends on the phone.

6. I like to talk about things I read.

 

Logical/mathematical intelligence

1. I can do arithmetic easily in my head.

2. I am good at doing a budget.

3. I am good at chess, checkers, or number games.

4. I am good at solving problems.

5. I like to analyse things.

6. I like to organise things.

7. I like crossword puzzles.

 

Naturalist intelligence

1. I like houseplants.

2. I have or would like to have a pet.

3. I know the names of many different flowers.

4. I know the names of many different wild animals.

5. I like to hike and to be outdoors.

6. I notice the trees and plants in my neighbourhood.

Teachers may adapt the language and accompanying activities to suit the needs of the language learners in their classes. Word finds, pair dictations, dictionary and spelling work, focused listening and grammar activities can help learners become comfortable with the inventory language even while they are engaged in skills work. Teachers may choose to let the students decide whether or not to score the inventory. Other activities, such as dialogue journals, murals or bulletin boards and small group conversations also offer adult ESL learners opportunities to reflect on their own strengths. The ideas and information that come from these activities can inform learner needs assessment and goal-setting processes.

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2. As a tool to develop a better understanding of learners' intelligences.

An understanding of MI theory broadens awareness of students' knowledge and skills, and enables teachers to look at each student from the perspective of strengths and potential. Teachers also become aware of the different ways in which students may demonstrate their understanding of material. MI theory provides a structured way of understanding and addressing the diversity that EFL/ESL instructors often encounter in the classroom (Christison, 1996). On a given topic or skill, teachers can brainstorm with learners a list of activities to practise. For instance, beginners can learn about consumerism by making and labelling collages of merchandise, reading newspaper ads, developing dialogues, or going on a scavenger hunt to the store. In this way, each learner can acquire language skills by employing individual strengths or preferences.

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3. As a guide to provide a greater variety of ways for students to learn and to demonstrate their learning.

Identification of personal strengths can make students more receptive to non-traditional learning activities and can give students a successful experience that builds their confidence as learners. As learners and teachers work together, intelligences can emerge naturally through partner interviews, preference grids (I can ..., I like to...), and needs assessments. However, some teachers have encountered at least initial resistance to this process of describing intelligences among students whose cultural or educational backgrounds emphasise more traditional modes of teaching and learning (Costanzo & Paxton, 1999). In this case, teachers may choose to focus learners' attention on the language they are practising through these activities rather than on the theory. (More challenges to using MI-based activities in the adult ESL classroom are described in the upcoming study on MI from the National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy [Viens & Kallenbach, in press].)

Teachers have noted other positive effects of applying MI theory. A curriculum informed by MI theory provides a way of handling differing language skill levels within one class - a very common situation in adult ESL classes (Costanzo & Paxton, 1999). When multiple activities are available, more students can find ways to participate and take advantage of language acquisition opportunities. With an MI curriculum, students become aware that different people have different strengths and that each person has a substantive contribution to make (Kallenbach, 1999). This fits in well with project-based learning where students in a group can divide tasks based on individual strengths. For example, one learner might feel confident about planning, another might prefer to do the writing, and a third might feel able to present the project to the whole class.

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4. As a guide to develop lesson plans that address the full range of learner needs.

An MI-informed reading lesson may begin with typical pre-reading activities (reviewing earlier material, predicting what will happen next), followed by silent reading or reading aloud with discussion of vocabulary and text meaning. Learners can then complete a project, individually or in groups, to demonstrate their understanding of the text. The teacher offers a choice of projects, such as descriptive writing, map drawing, illustration, creation of a dialogue or skit, making a timeline, songwriting, and retelling. The objective is not to teach to specific intelligences or to correlate intelligences with specific activities, but rather to allow learners to employ their preferred ways of processing and communicating new information (Coustan & Rocka, 1999).

Teachers using this type of lesson report that students become more engaged in and enthusiastic about reading; the students gain greater understanding of material when they express what they have read in ways that are comfortable for them; and their reading strategies improve as reading becomes a tool for completion of projects they are interested in (Coustan & Rocka, 1999).

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Conclusion

Teachers who use MI theory inform their curriculum development team that they gain a deeper understanding of students' learning preferences and a greater appreciation of their strengths. Students are likely to become more engaged in learning as they use learning modes that match their intelligence strengths. In addition, students' reflection on their learning broadens their definitions of effective and acceptable teaching and learning practices. Increased engagement and success in learning stimulates teachers to raise their expectations, initiating a powerful 'expectation-response' cycle that can lead to greater achievement levels for all.

 

Grammar - introduction

What is grammar?

Our main objective in this section of the course is to develop your overall knowledge and understanding of English grammar. Some of you will have a vast knowledge of grammar and others will be learning it for the first time. We have divided our grammar section into different areas for easier learning and understanding. We will provide you with the necessary information so that you can feel confident when you start your teaching career. We will not cover all aspects of grammar; the emphasis of this course is to train you to teach English and not to become an expert in grammar.

Grammar is a set of rules that make up a language. Grammar is also used as a term to refer to the prescriptive rules of a given language, which may change over time. The way people spoke in the 1700s is not the way we speak today. Languages are living organisms and evolve over time so grammar must also evolve and change over time.

Grammar may be separated into two common categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are used today, although in general, linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while people teaching a specific language (English) might tend towards a more prescriptive approach.

A descriptive grammar tries to look at the grammar of any language as it is actually used, judging whether a sentence is grammatical or not based on the rules of the speech group in which it is spoken, rather than the set of rules. For example, in many speech communities, a sentence such as Ya'll ain't gettin' that would be entirely grammatical, and an entire set of rules of grammar can be deduced that explain why that formation is used. In another speech community, however, that sentence might be considered ungrammatical. You are not getting that would be the only version considered acceptable.

A prescriptive grammar covers the norms of speech as given by authoritative sources, such as an upper class or academics, and creates strict rules by which all speech within that language must abide to be considered grammatical. Few linguists take a prescriptive approach to grammar in the modern times, preferring to describe language as it exists in a given speech community. Many teachers and pedagogues in general still have a prescriptive approach towards grammar, however, holding to standardised rules as being the only proper way to speak.

Prescriptive grammar is also used to some extent in teaching a language to non-native speakers. When teaching English, for example, it can be useful to employ a standard form of English as a baseline to teach from. This usually helps reduce confusion among students. Once the language has been acquired, of course, a less prescriptive approach will necessarily take over, as the non-native speaker learns regional rules and new dialects that may not conform to the prescriptive grammar he or she originally learned.

We will now cover the following areas of grammar:

Parts of speech

Tenses

Modal verbs

Gerunds

Articles

Active and passive voice

'If' conditional clauses

Grammar test (online)

There are two links at the end of the grammar section. Once you click on them a pop-up window will appear that will take you to a different website where you can practise and review. They are not part of the test. They are there only for you to review and prepare for the test. Once you complete the grammar section you will be ready to take the grammar test.

This is the suggested grammar book:

Grammar for English Language Teachers - Martin Parrot - Cambridge University Press

www.amazon.co.uk/Grammar-English-Language-Teachers-Exercises/dp/0521477972

"Good teaching is more a giving of right questions than a giving of right answers." Josef Albers

Grammar

Grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech. Each part of speech explains not only what the word is but how the word is used. They allow you to label a word in a sentence and provide the framework for the rules to follow in a sentence. Learn these parts of speech and be able to label or name a part of speech in a sentence.

 

Nouns: Nouns point out or name people, places, things or ideas.

eg chair, computer, car, pen

Types of nouns

Proper nouns – a name of one specific person, place or thing that is capitalised.

eg Peter, London, Washington

Common nouns – one specific class or group that is not capitalised.

eg dog, lock, pen

Noun as a subject – The dog broke the lock

Noun as a direct object – The dog broke the lock

Noun as an indirect object – I gave Harold the lock

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Pronouns: Pronouns are used in place of a noun.

Types of pronouns

Personal (subject) – I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

Interrogative – who, what, where, when, how, why, which, whom

Relative – who, which, that, when, whose

Indefinite – anyone, someone, somebody, anybody, nobody, no one

Demonstrative – these, those, this, that

Reflexive – myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourselves, ourselves

Possessive – mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

Possessive adjectives – my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

Object – me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

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Adjectives: Words used to describe a noun or a pronoun - what kind, how many or which one.

eg tall, short, beautiful, strong, bold, ugly

Types of adjectives

Comparative – bigger than, richer than, better than (eg John is bigger than Peter)

Superlative – the biggest, the richest, the best (eg he is the richest man in the world)

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Verbs: Verbs describe the state of being of a subject. It can also be used to describe or to show physical or mental action.

eg eat, jump, read, write, dance, fix

Types of verbs

Transitive – relates an action that has an object (ie gives transit).

eg Helen baked a cake

Intransitive – does not need an object.

eg the baby cried

Linking – links the subject and the complement.

eg The old man seems tired

Regular – form their past and past participle form with –d and –ed.

eg work-worked, dance-danced

Irregular – forms completely change.

eg go-went, sleep-slept

Auxiliary – helping verbs; when used with main verbs show mood and tense.

eg will, have, to be

Modal – used to indicate possibility, a need, willingness, ability or obligation.

eg can, could, may, should

Infinitive – verbs that are always preceded by 'to'.

eg to go, to dance, to speak

Bare infinitive – verbs that are not preceded by 'to'.

eg go, dance, speak

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Active and passive voices

Verbs can also be used in active or passive voices.

Active voice – when the subject is the doer of the action.

eg Mary had helped John

The French built the Eiffel Tower

Colombians grow coffee

Passive voice – when the subject becomes the receiver of the action.

eg the Eiffel Tower was built by the French

John had been helped by Mary

Rice is grown by Chinese

Guiltless structure – Active voice - eg who broke the lamp?

Passive voice - eg the lamp was broken before I came in

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Adverbs: Adverbs describe a verb, an adjective or another adverb - when, where, why, how much, to what extent.

eg he is very rich

Many adverbs are formed by simply adding –ly to an adjective or a noun.

eg seriously, quickly, extremely

Types of adverbs

Adverbs of frequency – always, sometimes, often, never

Adverbs of time – before, yet, still

Adverbs of place – there, here, everywhere, somewhere, anywhere

Adverbs of degree – almost, nearly, barely, hardly, just

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Prepositions: Prepositions express relationships between people, things and actions by placing words in front of nouns, noun phrases or pronouns to connect them to another word.

eg He was in the garden

I spoke to Mr. Hall on Friday about the hole in our roof

They can also be used to introduce a phrase which completes the meaning of a verb.

eg I told him about …

Types of prepositions

Prepositions of place: at, in, beside, between, for, behind, off, on

Prepositions of time: in, on, at, about, off, on

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Conjunctions: Conjunctions are words that connect parts of speech - but, because, and

eg I like tea but I don't like coffee because it's too strong for me.

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Interjections

Interjections are words to express feelings or emotions - Help! Ouch! Yummy! Wow! Yuck! Oh God!

eg Help! Call the police

English grammar – tenses

In this objective, we will cover the 12 tenses in the English language and provide you with examples, the formula and key time expressions.

Even though you may think that this may be very simple and easy, it is not. It is important that you know the tenses and be able to explain them.

Knowing the formulas for each tense is a must. Tenses are the foundation of the language. One of the challenges that you'll face when teaching English is that students will actually challenge you to see how much you know. They want to know if you really know the tenses and their formulas. You have to be able to explain them clearly and effectively.

If you are a native speaker, you have been using these tenses since you were very young. If you are not a native speaker then this was the first information that was probably taught to you. Whether you are a native speaker or not, knowing this

information is extremely important and it is also part of your grammar exam and a prerequisite for this course. At the end of this objective you should have learned the tenses, be able to provide examples, the formula and the use of the tense.

If you were to compare the tenses to a house, the tenses would be the beams of a house. The tenses would be the columns that hold the structure together.

It is important that you purchase a grammar book (online or paperback). Make sure that it is a grammar book for teachers and not for students. A grammar book is a vital tool that all teachers should have when preparing their lessons plans.

To learn these tenses, I would recommend that you write sample sentences and underneath write the formula.

 

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Simple tenses

 

Simple past

Meaning: We use the simple past when we talk about a completed action or condition.

Examples:

I was in Spain last week.

She played the piano when she was a child.

We didn’t go to the mall the other day.

Formula - subject + verb in the past tense + complement

Key time expressions – last, ago, yesterday

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Simple present

Meaning: We use the simple present to describe facts, habits, and recurring actions or situations.

Examples:

I work in Rome.

I walk the dog everyday.

She goes to the gym three times a week.

Formula - subject + verb

Key time expressions - every, usually, sometimes, often, frequently, never, now, always, after, when, as soon as, until

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Simple future

Meaning: We use 'will' when discussing unplanned future events and predictions without evidence, and 'going to' when talking about planned future events and predictions with evidence.

Examples:

Will:

I will travel to Asia next month.

The plane will land in 20 minutes.

Going to:

It's going to rain later.

We're going to spend a few days with my mother.

Formula - subject + will + bare infinitive + complement / subject + to be + going to + bare infinitive + complement

Key time expressions – next, tomorrow, in, after

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Progressive or continuous tenses

Past progressive

Meaning: We use this tense to talk about something that was in progress at a specific time in the past.

Examples:

I was having a horrible nightmare when my alarm clock rang.

The sun wasn’t shining when we were swimming.

Formula - subject + was/were + -ing form of the verb + complement

Key time expressions – while, when, as

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Present progressive

Meaning: We use the present progressive when we’re talking about an action taking place at the moment of speaking.

Examples:

I am teaching English now.

We are watching a film right now. I can't talk to you.

The weather forecast was not good, but the sun is shining now.

Formula - subject + to be + –ing form of the verb

Key time expressions – now, presently, currently, these days, always, forever, constantly

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Future progressive

Meaning: We use this to talk about something which will be in progress at a time in the future.

Examples:

I will be leaving soon.

Will you be coming to the party?

I won’t be seeing Steve until next week.

Formula - subject + will be + present participle (base verb + -ing)

Key time expressions – next, tomorrow, soon, in, later

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Perfect tenses

Past perfect

Meaning: The past perfect refers to an action taking place before the story being told. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It is also known as the past of the past.

Examples:

He wasn’t very tired because he had slept well the night before.

Robert had gone out when I arrived at the office.

Formula - subject + had + past participle of the verb + complement

Key time expressions – before, until, after, just, went

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Present perfect

Meaning: When we talk in the present perfect we’re talking about past actions that are relevant today or actions that happened in the past but when they occurred is not important. It also can refer to the recent past.

Examples:

They have not lived there for years.

I have worked here since 1999.

Have you just finished work?

Someone has just eaten my sweet!

Formula - subject + have/has + past participle of verb + complement

Key time expressions – since, before, until, yet, already, ever, never, just

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Future perfect

Meaning: The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future. We can also use this tense when we project ourselves into the future and when we are looking back at the completed action at a time later than now.

Examples:

You will have arrived by then.

Will you have finished your report on time?

I will not have left by the time you read this.

Formula - subject + will have + past participle of verb

Key time expression - by

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Perfect progressive tenses

Past perfect progressive

Meaning: We use the past perfect progressive when you want to focus on an action which was in progress up to or near a time in the past, rather than a completed event.

Examples:

I hadn’t been sleeping long when you called.

It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.

Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?

Formula - subject + had +  past participle of 'to be' (been) + -ing form of the verb + complement

Key time expression – since

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Present perfect progressive

Meaning: We use the present perfect progressive to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. We can also talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now.

Examples:

She has been dancing for three hours.

They have been waiting for you all day.

Formula: subject + have/has + been + –ing + complement

Key time expression – since

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Future perfect progressive

Meaning: These are actions or events in a time between now and some future time, that may be unfinished.

Examples:

We will have been living in Madrid for five years in June.

We will have been working out for two hours at 6 o’clock.

Formula - subject + will have + been + present participle (base form –ing)

Key time expressions – by, after

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These are the 12 tenses in the English language. As mentioned before, please learn them as they are part of the grammar exam.

Grammar: parts of speech and conditional clauses

The English language has these additional basic grammar objectives:

Conjunctions – Words that connect parts of speech.

eg and, or, because, for, however, but, if, so, meanwhile, although

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Prepositions – Prepositions express relationships between people, things or actions or introduce phrases that complete the meaning of a verb.

eg I spoke to Mr. Hall on Friday about the hole in our roof

I told him about ...

Types of prepositions

Prepositions of place – at, in, on, behind, between, for, to, off

Prepositions of time – in, on, at, about

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Articles – There are two different types of articles, ‘indefinite’ and ‘definite’. Although articles are not parts of speech, they are learned by

our ESL or EFL students in the basic levels.

 

Indefinite – a, an

eg I’ve just seen an accident

Definite – the

eg I saw him run from the accident

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Gerunds – Gerunds are the –ing form of a verb used as a noun.

eg running, dancing, singing

He likes singing

Running is a great sport

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Countable / uncountable nouns

Countable nouns – these are nouns that can be counted, eg book, flower, people, TV, chair, table

Plural terms: many, (a) few, a lot

Uncountable nouns – eg information, love, bread, rice, ice, water, oil, sugar

Plural terms: much, (a) little (bit), a lot

Terms used in counting both – plenty of, no, enough

Uncountable nouns can become countable when used in containers.

eg Three bags of ice

Many cubes of sugar

Six loaves of bread

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Modal verbs – These are auxiliary verbs that are used to indicate possibility, necessity, willingness, ability, obligation and more.

Below you will see the different types of modal auxiliary verbs and their uses.

 

May

eg Teacher, may I go to the bathroom?

He may be at the library

Uses: polite request / formal permission / less than 50 per cent certainty

Present/future - may be

Past - may have (been)

Might

eg I might go to the concert

Uses: polite request / less than 50 per cent certainty

Present / future: might be

Past: might have (been)

Should

eg You should go to the doctor

Uses: advice / suggestion / 90 per cent certain

Present/future: should

Past: should have

Ought to

eg You ought to go to the doctor

Uses: advice / suggestion / 90 per cent certainty

Present/future: ought to

Past: ought to have

Had better

eg You had better go to the doctor / You'd better go to the doctor

Uses: advice with a threat of bad result

Present/future: you had better …

Past: none

Be supposed to

eg He is supposed to arrive at two o'clock

Uses: expectation

Present/future: is supposed to … / are supposed to …

Past: was supposed to …

Be to

eg I am to be there at five pm

Uses: strong expectations

Present/future: are to be here … / are to pass …

Past: were to be …

Must

eg You must pass the grammar test

Uses: strong need or necessity / prohibition (must not) / 90 per cent certainty

Present/future: you must

Past: must have (been)

Have to

eg They have to buy the paper today

Uses: lack of necessity / necessity

Present/future: I have to … / I don’t have to …

Past: I had to … / I didn’t have to …

Will

eg I will pass this test

Uses: 100 per cent certainty / willingness / polite request

Present/future: I will pass … /  I’ll get it … / Will you please …?

Past: -

Be going

eg I am going to pass this test

Uses: 100 per cent certainty / definite plan

Present/future: he is going to be here / I am going to travel this weekend

Past: I was going to go …

Can

eg I can ride a horse

Can I go out tonight?

Uses: ability / possibility / informed permission / informal request / impossibility

Present/future: I can ride a bike/ I can lend you $$$/ You can go …/ Can I go …? / You can’t …

Past: -

Could

eg Could you please pass the salt?

Uses: past ability / polite request / suggestion / less than 50 per cent certainty / impossibility

Present/future: Could I …? /  You could … / He could be … / That couldn’t …

Past: I could ...

Would

eg Would you please pass the salt?

Uses: polite request / preferences / repeated action in the past

Present/future: would you please …? / I would rather go …

Past: when I was a child I would …

Used to

eg I used to play tennis everyday

Uses: repeated action in the past

Past: when I was a kid I used to …

Shall

eg Shall we open the door?

Uses: future action / volunteering promise / inevitability

Present/future: Fred shall be there by 8:00am / I shall take care of everything / We shall overcome this

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'If' conditionals ('if' clauses)

There are three types of 'if' conditionals or 'if' clauses.

 

Type 1 – cause and effect (true in the present/future)

Verb form “if clause” – simple present

Verb form “result clause” – simple present/future

eg If I stop smoking, I live longer

If I stop smoking, I will live longer

 

Type 2 – Hypothetical (untrue in the present/future)

Verb form “if clause” – simple past

Verb form could/should/would + simple form of verb

eg If I won the lottery, I would buy a yacht

 

Type 3 – Hypothetical (unreal in the past)

Verb form “if clause” – past perfect

Verb form “result clause” – would have + past participle

eg If you had driven my car, I wouldn’t have got so tired from walking.

 

Mixed Time – Type 2 and 3 - You can also mix type 2 and 3.

eg If  I were rich, I would have bought the car we saw yesterday.

If I had travelled by plane, I would be rested.

Teaching grammar communicatively

Language structure or grammar is fundamental in learning a language. Understanding it and knowing when and how to use it is very important for our students. The majority of your future students have had some contact with the language but mainly through grammar structures.

Many teachers are still teaching based on the grammar–translation approach around the world. When we teach English and interact with students on a daily basis, we teach grammar directly or indirectly. All major publishers have grammar sections in their coursebooks because they know of the importance it has on student´s learning process.

To be able to teach grammar communicatively we recommend that you follow the steps presented below. These 10 steps will guide you when teaching grammar in the presentation stage of your lesson plan.

 

1. Previous knowledge – Always begin with previous knowledge. If you are going to teach the simple past begin by asking your students questions in the simple present.

This builds their confidence in the language and links previous knowledge to new information presented.

 

2. Provide students with examples – Show your students, in context, when and how to use this new language structure presented.

 

3. Elicit – Have students provide you with examples. This will allow you to evaluate and assess if they are learning or if they know it already.

 

4. Teach vocabulary – Providing students with new vocabulary will allow them to use the new grammar topic in a different context.

 

5. Use colour markers / use gestures – The majority of our students are visual learners. Colour markers will allow you to illustrate the new grammar objective. You can write the verb in the past tense in red to highlight it. Provide your students with lots of examples. The more examples they have, the easier it will be for students to understand. Use the board, posters and flash cards as tools to transfer this new knowledge to them.

6. Use construction paper – You can use construction paper, worksheets, colour paper or any other colourful material that will keep your students focused on the learning objective.

 

7. Use flash cards / visual aids – A picture is worth a thousand words. A flash card can eliminate the use of the native language in the classroom and need to translate.

 

8. Evaluate – Once you have taught the grammar objective, have students provide you with examples in a context. This will also let you know if you were effective in teaching the new grammar objective.

 

9. Teach your students the affirmative, negative and question form (ie I am a teacher, I am not a teacher, are you a teacher?). Your students need to be able to use all forms in the new grammar topic.

 

10. Formula/form/name of tense – Once you have completed the presentation of the grammar topic, let your students know the name of the tense and the formula if necessary.

 

NEVER begin by presenting the grammar formula first!

 

In Module 2 you will find a sample lesson plan on grammar. That sample lesson plan will help you when writing your assignment in Module 2.