module 5 critical thinking

8/2/2019 Module 5 Critical Thinking

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MODULE FOUR:

Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking!

Its true: I read

it in the

news a er!

Why?

Why?

Wh ?

Of course its

art: its in the

Art Galler !

Youre welcome

to your opinion,

but mine is right!

Critical thinking is the process of carefully considering information that is

presented to you, in order to create your own beliefs and direct your ownactions. In todays age of information technology, the amount of informationwe receive is increasing exponentially. Consequently, critical thinking is moreimportant than ever, especially in the academic arena.

How do you think critical thinking can affect you at university?

1. It will help me to decide who is the worst student.2. I will be able to evaluate and analyze information.3. Ill know which assignments to hand in.4. I might be able to pick the winning lottery numbers.

Module Four: Critical Thinking 1


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B

Keep the following questions in mind as you work through this module. Ifyou can answer them all when you get to the end of the module, you have

understood all the material presented.

What is critical thinking?

Why is critical thinking particularly important at university?

What are the attributes of a critical thinker?

How should I evaluate sources of information?

What are the elements of a good argument?

What are logical fallacies?

What are propaganda techniques?

Critical thinking is something you may already do every day without being

aware of it. Do you read between the lines when youre reading a newspaperor magazine? Do you avoid taking things at face value? Do you think beyondthe obvious? Are you skeptical about the claims made in commercials? If so,then youve started on the road to becoming a critical thinker.

New ideas and theories are created when you are actively involved in yourlearning and begin to question the information that is presented to you. Becareful not to slip into the habit of accepting what you read or are told byexperts; this can lead to being a very passive student. An old saying thereis no such thing as a stupid question could become your new credo as acritical thinker.

At the university level, critical thinkers are people who take their skepticismand ability to question and refine them into a disciplined way of thinking an organized way of evaluating, analyzing, and synthesizing information onwhich to base judgments and actions. Angelo (1995) suggests that Mostformal definitions characterize critical thinking as the intentional applicationof rational higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, problemrecognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation. If you do a little

What is Critical Thinking?

Key Questions

2 Module Four:Critical Thinking


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research on the internet or in the library, you will find as many differentdefinitions of critical thinkers as there are writers on the topic. In essencecritical thinking is about questioning everything, first your own thinking anbiases and then everything about the material you are examining or creating.

,d

ritical thinkers do the following:

s a critical thinker, you will be required to examine information of all kinds,

to

ritical thinking is essential in your reading, writing, and discussions at

C

CriticalThinkers

are curious

ask relevantand pertinent

questionsreserveju

un edgement

til they hav

all the facts

formulatew ell-reasoned

arguments

are open toc

op

are aware oftheir own

biases

hanging theirinions based on

new information

Acommunicated in different ways. You might be asked to analyze part of atextbook or review a magazine or newspaper article, or you may be askedevaluate a lecture youve heard. However the information is conveyed, thepurpose is for the writer or speaker to get their point of view across to you,the reader or listener. There will, therefore, be a main point (or conclusion)and several supporting reasons (or premises). It is these components thatyou must train yourself to identify and evaluate.

Cuniversity. It is important that you understand the elements of criticalthinking and practice your thinking skills regularly until they becomesecond nature (Paul & Elder, 2002).



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Paul and Elder (2002) also suggest six stages in the development of thinking

tage 1 The Unreflective Thinker (we are unaware of significant problems

tage 2 The Challenged Thinker (we become aware of problems in our

tage 3 The Beginning Thinker (we try to improve, but without regular

tage 4 The Practicing Thinker (we recognize the necessity of regular

tage 5 The Advanced Thinker (we advance in accordance with our

tage 6 The Master Thinker (skilled and insightful thinking becomes

s a university student, you should set Stage 5 as a goal to be achieved as

re Your Sources of Information Reliable?

s a critical thinker you must first learn to evaluate the source of your

ectures/discussionsWho is the speaker? What is his/her experience in

ritten material books, journals, magazines, and newspapers allow you

ilm, videos, television, and radio be aware of the target audience of the

skills:

Sin our thinking)

Sthinking)

Spractice)

Spractice)

S

practice)

Ssecond nature)

Ayou progress through your chosen program. Reaching Stage 6 would be areal achievement.

A

Ainformation.

Lthe chosen topic? Does he/she have any obvious biases? Is he/sheconsidered an expert in his/her field?

Wto know the name of the author and the name of the publishing body. A littleresearch will tell you whether you can trust the source; i.e., is the authorwell-respected in the field? Is the publishing body well-established, with agood reputation? Is the information up-to-date?

Fmedia. Are the views expressed balanced? Is the production designed toinform, educate, or make a profit?



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The internet millions of people have access to the internet and also theability to create websites. You must be a very discerning consumer when yousurf the net. Once again, check the credentials of the author and thepublishing body. There are many excellent websites; the trick is to avoidthose created with little or no subject knowledge or those with a hidden

agenda.

Analyzing Arguments

Once you have established that information comes from a reputable source,you can begin to analyze the message or argument it conveys. (In this casethe word argument means discourse intended to persuadeMerriam-WebsterOnline Dictionary). Most material that you look at or create can be regardedas an argument in that it makes a point (or draws a conclusion) andsupports that point with evidence or reasons (premises). This section willlead you through some of the basics of a good argument and show you how

to recognize a flawed argument.

Acknowledging Biases

First, you must acknowledge your own feelings and biases towards the topicunder discussion. All of us have life experience that colours our views aboutthe world and it is important to be aware of this as you analyze other peoplesarguments. Are your own pre-conceived ideas preventing you fromappreciating another point of view? The more you think about these issues,the more open-minded you will become.

Every good argument, whether presented in a lecture, a book, or anothertype of medium, must have certain essential elements. As a critical thinkeryou should recognize these elements and assess them:

Is the argument (or information put forward) clear? Lack of claritymakes it very difficult to follow an argument.

Is the information provided accurate? It may take time to do researchto verify facts presented, but it is worth doing.

Is the information presented relevant? Are the points being madeconnected with the main issue?

Is the argument logical? Do the premises (or reasons given) supportthe conclusion that is drawn?



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Determining Logical Validity

To determine if an argument is logically valid, first break it down intopremises and conclusions. To do this you will need to make sure youunderstand the content of the material you are looking at. Once you are sure

that you understand the argument, youll be able to break it down into thepremises and conclusion.

Pinpointing the premises and conclusion in an argument can sometimes betricky. You might first decide what the issue is; then you can determine theconclusion by asking yourself What is the main point? The remainingassertions or statements are the premises.

Look at the following example:

The use of the car for transport is one of the biggest causes of pollution in

our world today. If people were really concerned about the environment wewould see a much greater number of people actively seeking new and kinderfuels for their vehicles or changing to public transportation. Without achange in attitude we are going to destroy our environment.

The Issue: Pollution of the environmentThe Premises: Cars are causing pollution which is destroying our

environment.People are not looking for better fuels or using publictransportation.

Conclusion: We are going to destroy our environment

Activity

Go to the following website to read more about the basics of criticalthinking, or find another website on the topic. (Dont forget toevaluate these sites!)

http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/questioningmind.htm

Recognizing a Flawed Argument

There are many flaws that can occur in arguments and it is important torecognize the most common of these. They are known as logical fallacies. Ifthe logic in an argument is fallacious (from the Latinfallacia- deceit, trick,fraud) then the argument is not sound. Watch out for these logical fallacies



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in material that you are reading or listening to in the media. Be careful, also,not to use these flawed arguments in your own written work.

Common Logical Fallacies

Hasty generalization - making assumptions about the general case fromspecific cases.e.g., My poor Labrador puppy got sick and died within six weeks ofgetting it from the pet store. I wouldnt get a Lab again; they areobviously prone to infections.

Begging the question or circular reasoning -providing reasons thatassume the reader/listener alreadyaccepts the conclusion.

e.g., My nephew is a holy terror because he is so badly behaved.

False dilemma.either/or -giving an either/or choice to the

reader/listener when in actual fact there are more than two options.e.g., Tuition fees must be raised at university in order to cover thesalaries of professors; otherwise some universities will be forced to closetheir doors.

Ignoring the issue or red-herring -introducing irrelevant informationto tryand support a conclusion.

e.g.,Strengthening our healthcare system is at the top of most peoplespriority list and must become the number one issue for every politician.The number of new immigrants each year is rising and this only adds tothe urgency of developing a new healthcare strategy.

False cause -suggesting a cause and effect that is not really there (thatcannot be proved)

e.g., Since the introduction of no-fault divorces, the divorce rate hasrisen substantially.

False comparison - suggesting similarities between things that are actuallyvery dissimilar

e.g., Giving birth control to teenagers is like giving toddlers the use of thefamily car age inappropriate and dangerous.

Appeal to pity -trying to convince the reader/listener of a point by winningtheir sympathy.

e.g., Tom hasnt been able to play baseball since an accident on an ATVparalyzed him from the waist down. It is time legislation was brought into restrict the use of ATVs.



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Appeal to fear - frightening people into agreeing with an argument.e.g., Will there be a Canada pension when you become a senior citizen?It is time to invest in a company like ours where your money is safe.

Poisoning the well -asserting that all evidence proves your case or making

a statement that does not allow for open discussion for fear of personalattack.e.g., All patriotic Canadians are behind the governments commitment topeacekeeping duties.

Slippery slope -suggesting a chain reaction of one thing leading to another,despite the lack of evidence.

e.g., Lack of a dress code in school leads to skimpy outfits for girlswhich in turn leads to sexual innuendoes from the boys, an increase insexual desire followed by sexual activity which will end in pregnancy,dropping out, an increase in the welfare rolls, despair, crime and a

break down of society as we know it.

Special pleading -applying double standards.e.g., It is important to support our lumber industry by allowing them toharvest the natural resources that are available. We must also act toprevent the irresponsible destruction of forests in the developing world.

Straw man - distorting an opposing view and then attacking it.e.g., Feminists want to take all the best jobs, take control in the boardrooms of the country and still have control over the home. Where doesthis leave the rest of us?

Loaded descriptions - using terminology that favours one side of anargument.

e.g., The fanatical politician bashing that Ms.Chaucer has engaged inmakes her an unlikely candidate for the Editor in Chief of the magazine.

Ad Hominemor personal attack -attacking the person and his/hercharacter.

e.g., Anyone who dresses as carelessly as Mr. Brown does shouldnt beallowed to sit on the municipal council.

Appeal to authority - using an expert to try and prove a point althoughhe/she might be not be knowledgeable about the particular topic underdiscussion.

e.g., The Minister of the Environment made it quite clear that it is time toreview the education system because of the poor showing of Canadianstudents in international testing.



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Appeal to popularity -suggesting that if everyone believes something itmust be true.

e.g., Voters have made it quite clear that cutting taxes is the best way toa healthier economy.

Now that you can recognize some of the most common faults in arguments,you are in an even better position to determine the validity of the logic andthe truth of the premises. If the logic is valid, in other words if the conclusionfollows logically from the premises, and if the premises are true, then theargument is valid. If however, the logic is flawed or the premises are not true,or both, then the argument is not sound. A sound argument gives you goodaccurate information that you can use to further your knowledge andunderstanding of a topic. You might even rethink your views and opinionsbased on a sound argument that you have examined and found to be valid.

Can you find any problems with the arguments in the following?

The public phone box outside the high school has been destroyed twice inthe last year. Obviously high school students do not deserve the sameservices as adults until they have learnt to act responsibly.

You might have questioned why the writer has made the assumption that thephone was destroyed by high school students. No evidence was offered forthis; therefore you cannot assume cause and effect. You might also havenoted that a hasty generalization was made in assuming that that thedestruction of this phone box proves that all high school students areirresponsible.

Activity

For more information on logical fallacies, go to the internet and do asearch for logical fallacies or try the following site:

http://www.intrepidsoftware.com/fallacy/toc.php



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Activity

Read the following sentences carefully and check them for logicalfallacies:

1. The birth rate has been falling steadily since women were given thevote. Perhaps it is time to revisit the issue of who should vote beforewe cease to reproduce at all.

2. People should worry less about the environment; the real problem weface as a species is the threat of new and fatal diseases.

3. It is important to reduce the speed limits because we need lowerlimits.

4. Computers are useless. I had one and it was constantly breakingdown.

5. Shakespeare was a womanizer. His plays shouldnt be read inschools.

6. If we let children watch television they become immune to violencewhich means they are liable to be vicious to others, leading to crimesin schools, requiring police presence and possibly militaryintervention.

7. Should we provide a secure, traditional, two-parent, nuclear familysetting for children to be raised in or let them run wild in the streets?

8. Allowing more immigrants to enter the country will take more jobsaway from Canadians. Will your job be next?

9. Socialists want to give free education, free healthcare, and freehousing, and take the wealth away from those who have earned it.How will this help us to build a strong healthy economy?

10. Lowering the age for drinking alcohol is the same as giving kids gunsto play with.

Go to the end of the module to check your answers.



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Propaganda Techniques

The advertising industry is often guilty of flawed arguments as it tries topersuade us to buy particular products. Often advertisers use propagandatechniques, including the following:

Testimonials using famous names to endorse products.

Bandwagon suggesting that everyone else is using a product so you shouldtoo.

Plain folks implying that a product is for good, down-to-earth, every-dayfolks so that the majority of people can identify with a product.

Image appeal insinuating that using a particular product gives you aparticular image to the rest of the world.

Glittering generalities using superlatives that actually give no concreteinformation e.g. a product is fabulous, extraordinary, amazing.

Name calling making derogatory insinuations about a competitorsproduct.

Card stacking giving only positive information and leaving out importantdetails that are necessary for an informed decision.

Activity

Can you find an example of each of these propaganda techniques inmagazine advertisements or television commercials? Name theproduct and describe how the technique is used.

Testimonial:__________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Bandwagon:___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Plain Folks:___________________________________________________________________



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Image Appeal:___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Glittering Generalities:___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Name Calling:___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Card Stacking:

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Activity

Now go to the following website and analyze the arguments listed atthe bottom of the page.

http://www.mtroyal.ab.ca/programs/arts/english/dhyttenrauch/logic.htm#LE

When to Use Your Critical Thinking Skills

This module on critical thinking is a way to start you thinking about yourthinking. As an actively involved, curious student you will want to pursueyour learning in this area by exploring some of the books listed in thereferences or searching the internet. Refining your critical thinking skills willhelp you in every area of your university studies reading, writing,presentations, group discussions, and interpreting the information presentedto you in lectures and labs.

We all understand the importance of practice when it comes to playing amusical instrument or becoming proficient at a sport it is equally importantto practice your critical thinking skills every day. Exercise your mind as youread the newspaper, watch TV or have a heated discussion with your friends!



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The Essentials

Terms

Write out your own definitions for the following terms:

critical thinking

premise

conclusion

argument

biases

logical validity

logical fallacies

propaganda techniques

Tips

9 Question the way you think.9 Always evaluate the source of your information.9 Identify and analyze arguments breaking them into premises andconclusions.9 Recognize and avoid logical fallacies.9 Be aware of propaganda techniques.9 Practice your critical thinking skills every day !



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Answers to Logical Fallacy Activity

1. False cause2. Red herring3. Circular reasoning4.

Hasty generalization5. Ad Hominem or attacking the person

6. Slippery slope7. False dilemma8. Appeal to fear9. Straw man10. False comparison

References

Angelo, T.A. (1995). Beginning the dialogue: Thoughts on promoting criticalthinking: Classroom assessment for critical thinking. Teaching ofPsychology, 22(1), 6-7.

Annis, D. B. (1974). Techniques of critical reasoning. Columbus, Ohio: Bell &Howell

Cooper, S. & Patton, R. (1997). Writing logically: Thinking critically. 2nd ed.New York: Longman.

Gamache, P. (1996). Thinking critically: An introduction. Peterborough: The

Academic Skills Centre, Trent University.

Paul, R. W. & Elder, L. (2002). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of yourprofessional and personal life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Wright, L. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction to analytical reading andreasoning. New York: Oxford University Press.


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