Motivation and EmotionChapter 8

Motivation• Motivation - the process by which activities are

started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.

▫Industrial and Organizational Psychology (I-O) Motivational principles that boost efficiency, productivity,

and well being in the work place

• Incentive Theory- we are pulled toward behaviors by rewards or incentives▫Positive or negative environmental stimuli that

motivates behavior▫Extrinsic motivation- a person performs an action

because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. ( get rewards/avoid punishments)

▫Intrinsic motivation- desire to perform a behavior for it’s own sake

Instinct Approaches to Motivation•Instincts - the biologically determined

and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals. (unlearned)▫Ex.- salmon spawning at their birthplace,

migrating birds

•Instinct theory is not generally accepted as motivation for humans

Drive (Reduction) Theory of Motivation•Drive-reduction theory - approach to

motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal.

▫Need - a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism.

▫Drive - a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension(eating or drinking).

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation• Primary drives - those drives that

involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.

• (Acquired) Secondary drives - those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

• Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state; aspect of body chemistry▫What do you do when you are cold?

Arousal Approach to Motivation•Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be

unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.

•Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation.▫Sensation seeking behavior

Driven by curiosity

Arousal Approach to Motivation•Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating

performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high.

▫This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: easy tasks or well learned require a high-moderate level while more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.

Runners excel when aroused by competition. But facing a difficult exam, high anxiety may disrupt performance.

Abraham Maslow’s- Hierarchy of Needs•Humanist that believed we all have needs

we are motivated to satisfy

•Self-actualization - according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential.

•Peak experiences- according to Maslow, times in a person’s life during which self actualization is temporarily achieved.

Criticism- theory based on successful upper/middle class people living in the Western Hemisphere.

Self- Determination Theory•Humans have inherent growth tendencies

and do most things out of intrinsic motivation

•Positive Psychology▫Positive emotions and attributes contribute

to our overall health and well being Martin Seligman- feel-good, do-good

phenomenon

Hunger: Bodily Causes• Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas

to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream.

• Glucagons- hormones that are secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the bloodstream.▫ Provides Energy▫ When it is low, we feel hungry

• Endocrine System

Hunger: Bodily Causes•Weight set point – the particular

level of weight that the body tries to maintain.

“Weight Thermostat”- fall below and hunger increases while metabolism decreases

•Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting.

Menu

Biological factors of Eating •Lateral hypothalamus-

▫tells the body to eat. If damaged, a person could starve to death

•Ghrelin- a hormone, that, when released into the bloodstream, cues your brain that food is needed

Biological Factors of Eating Problems

• Ventromedial hypothalamus▫tells the body to stop eating- if

damaged a person will eat uncontrollably

• Leptin - a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full.▫Role of leptin in obesity.▫Genetics and obesity.

Genetics may play a part in anorexia and bulimia, as well as insensitivity to leptin.

Hunger: Social Causes• Social cues for when meals are to

be eaten.• Cultural customs.• Food preferences.• Use of food as a comfort device or

escape from unpleasantness.• Eat when other people eat.• Television Commercials• Magazines• Some people may respond to the

anticipation of eating by producing an insulin response, increasing the risk of obesity.

Obesity and weight control• Obesity - a condition in which the body

weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height (actual percents vary across definitions).

• Approximately 66% of Americans

• Especially dangerous for children (set point, basal metabolic rate, eating habits)

• Once a fat cell develops, it sticks around• Consequences are dire, lower life

expectancy and significant life long health problems

• Environmental factors contribute to weight- sleep loss, friendships, attitude towards food

Eating Problems• Anorexia nervosa - a condition in

which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs.

• Bulimia - a condition in which a person develops a cycle of “binging” or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and “purging” or deliberately vomiting after eating or taking lacatives▫ Leads to weakened heart muscle, tooth

decay, damage to the esophagus ▫ Binge Eating Disorder- without the

purging

Menu

Aggression • Hostile Aggression

▫ Aggression carried out for its own sake Tackling someone in the hallway

• Instrumental Aggression▫ Aggression that is working toward

some other goal besides aggression itself Tackling someone on the football field

• Frustration-Aggression Principle▫ When we are unable to reach an

objective we become frustrated

• Cathartic▫ Avenues to get your aggressions out

Elements of Emotion•Emotion - the “feeling”

aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of thoughts and feelings.

•Display rules - learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings.

Common Sense Theory of Emotion•Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a

stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal. (Not accepted in the psychological community)

James-Lange Theory of Emotion•James-Lange theory of emotion - theory

in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion.

•“I am shaking, oh no, it’s a cougar! I am afraid!”▫Fear followed your bodies response

•Cougar – Arousal – Emotion Stimulus Pounding Heart Fear

J-L = Jump then Label

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion•Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - theory

in which the physiological reaction and the subjective experience of emotion are assumed to occur at the same time by the thalamus.

•“Oh no, it’s a cougar! I am shaking and I am afraid!”

Arousal (Pounding Heart)• Cougar = +

Emotion (Fear)

Two Factor Theory of Emotion• Schacter’s Two Factor theory – theory of

emotion in which both the physical arousal and the cognitive labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment (situation) must occur before the emotion is experienced.▫Emotions can feel the same but they change

based upon situation

• Also called the Cognitive Arousal theory or The Schacter-Singer theory

Arousal (Pounding Heart)• Cougar = + = Emotion (Fear)

Cognitive Label(I’m afraid)

Opponent Process Theory• People start at a baseline stage; we perform

an act that moves us from this stage into another stage then we eventually go beyond homeostasis in the opposite direction ▫We may feel a “high” but will eventually return

to our baseline

• Bungee Jumping• Drug Addictions

• Highs and crashes

Emotion and the ANS•Autonomic Nervous System mobilizes your

body for action and calms it down

•Sympathetic system releases epinepherine and norepinepherine, the liver increases sugar in the blood, respiration increases, digestion decreases, pupils dilate, perspiration increases

•Parasympatheitc system takes over when the emotion subsides.

Emotion and the brain•Negative emotions are linked to the

right side while positive emotions are linked to the left.

•The Singer and Schacter study showed how we interpret and label our state of arousal will reflect in our emotional experience. (arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it)▫A stirred up state can be experienced in

one emotion or another depending on how we interpret it Example: Fear, Anger, Sexual Excitement

Brain’s shortcut for emotion•In the two track brain, sensory input may

be routed directly to the amygdala for an instant emotional reaction, OR to the cortex for analysis.

•Ex. We see a shadow and get alarmed only to realize it is something harmless.

•(speedy low road vs. thinking high road)

Brain’s shortcut for emotion

Detecting Emotion• Humans are good at detecting emotions of

others by listening to their voice and watching their facial muscles.

• It is easy to misread electronic communication due to the absence of nonverbal cues.

• Women have a stronger ability to read nonverbal cues and respond with more emotion to situations than men▫More likely to express empathy

Universal Expressions: Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard

•Happy

•Sadness

•Surprise

•Anger

•Disgust

•Fear

Paul Ekman added contempt

Facial Feedback Hypothesis•Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of

emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion.▫Smiling induces happy feelings▫Emotions are contagious

•Pencil-in-the-lips

•Behavior Feedback- head up vs. head down

Function of fear•Fear is adaptive. •Learning to fear is a natural process•Human fear is regulated by the

amygdala, which associates certain situations and object with fear/danger.

•Phobias= intense fears out of proportion to the danger they actually represent, that disrupts a persons ability to cope.

Stress•Stress- the process by which we

perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.▫Stressor- stimulus (acute or chronic)▫Stress Reaction- physical or emotional▫Stress- how we relate

Stress response system• Hypothalamus- pituitary gland- sympathetic-adrenal

gland- hormones- Fight or flight• Withdraw, pull back, conserve energy- “paralyzed

with fear”• Tend and befriend- common response among women

• General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Selye’s)▫ Alarm- Heart rate increases, body gets ready▫ Resistance- body remains physiologically ready▫ Exhaustion- body weakens as a result of the long fight;

Parasympathetic System

Severe stress seems to age people; cause health and emotional issues

Cognitive Model of Stress•Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman

•How we deal with stressors is dependent upon two cognitive processes:▫Primary-Appraisal Process- assess the

potential threat or harm; if true we move into the second stage…

▫Secondary-Appraisal Process- ability to cope with the event and resources available

Stress Inducing Conflicts- Kurt Lewin• Approach-Approach Conflict

▫Two equally attractive options and you couldn’t decide which one to choose

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict▫Two equally unattractive options and you couldn’t

decide which one to choose• Approach-Avoidance Conflict

▫A situation has both attractive and unattractive elements that makes it hard to decide

• Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts▫Same as above but there are multiple layers of

attractive and unattractive elements

Stressful life events•Catastrophes- increases in depression,

anxiety and suicide rates often result•Significant life changes-

▫Death of significant person, loss of job, marriage, divorce, birth of a child

▫Daily hassles- perhaps most significant source of stress; can negatively impact our health and well being increases in coronary heart disease are a

real impact of stress on the body

Coping with stress• Optimism- perceive more control, cope better

with stressful events and enjoy better health.• Find humor in daily life• Supportive family and friends (pets)• Exercise- hellloo… norepinepherine, serotonin

and endorphins!• Meditation, biofeedback and spirituality

• Type A Personality- competitive, hardworking impatient, aggressive, anger-prone, intense

• Type B Personality- easy going, laid back, relaxed▫Who is more likely to have heart problems?