Motivation and EmotionChapters 11 and 12

Chapter 9

Motivation and Emotion

Motive Specific need or desire, such as hunger,

thirst, or achievement, that prompts goal-directed behavior

Emotion Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise,

that underlies behavior

Motivational Concepts

Instincts and Evolutionary Behavior

Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species and unlearned

Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible

Human behavior is directed by both physiological needs AND by psychological wants

Drive-Reduction Theory

Theory that took the place of instinct theory

Drive A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily

needs Drive Reduction Theory states that

motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis

Sequence of events: lack of homeostasis, need, drive, motivation to act, homeostasis

Primary drive: Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state

Secondary drive: Learned drive, such as ambition

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment

Yerkes-Dodson law States that there is an optimal level or

arousal for best performance on any task

The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Incentives

External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior

We are often unaware of the incentive

Examples Aroma of food may

cause us to eat even when not hungry

Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation Motivation for a behavior is the behavior

itself Children playing is an example

Extrinsic motivation Behavior is performed in order to obtain

a reward or to avoid punishment A bonus program is an example Dangers of providing extrinsic

motivation for intrinsically motivated activities?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives Physiological

needs Safety needs Belongingness

needs Esteem needs Self-actualization

needs

Hunger

Biological Factors - Neurological

Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus Lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts

as a hunger center, triggering the onset of eating

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior

Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) influences the drive to eat specific foods

In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

Biological Factors - ChemicalChanges in blood glucose level, fats,

carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food

Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety

Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety, but it takes 20-30 minutes! EAT SLOWLY!

Biological Factors - Genetics OB-1/Chromosome 15

15th chromosome may carry a gene that predisposes some people to obesity

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) How quickly you burn calories may be

genetically influenced Set Point Theory

Body has a “set” weight it wants to be. Body has a set number of fat cells which shrink

with weight loss and enlarge with weight gain, but the number does not change.

Efforts to go below this are seen by body as a threat, and body will compensate by slowing metabolic rate

Cultural and Environmental Factors

Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning For example, time of day can trigger the

body to become hungry Even the SMELL of food may trigger

biological processes that instigate hunger!

Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume Social facilitation – we eat when others

are eating Unit bias – what is a “serving size?”

Eating Disorders

Anorexia nervosa Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body

weight Absence of at least three consecutive

menstrual cycles (for women) About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white

upper- and middle-class females

Karen Carpenter (1950-1983)

Eating Disorders

Bulimia nervosa Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain,

such as self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for

three months Body shape and weight overly influence self-

image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia

About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted

Dying to be Thin Clip (“Ana” and “Mia”) Binge Eating Disorder – binging without

purging

Summary of Hunger Motivation

Obesity

Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today

An estimated 66% of Americans are obese

Obesity can lead to increased risk for Hypertension Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Sleep apnea

Tendency may be inherited

Thirst

Thirst

Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive Internal cues include level of fluids

inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells

External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

Sexual Motivation

Human Sexual Response Cycle(Masters and Johnson, 1966) Excitement Plateau

OrgasmResolution

Woh

Woh

Biological Factors Hypothalamus controls the release of luteinizing

hormone from the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the release of androgens and estrogens.

Testosterone Important in both men and women in early development Men and women seem to need some to be interested in

sex, but as long as it is there its role in regulating sexual activity is minimal

Estrogens Female hormones that peak during ovulation Interestingly, when charting sexual activity, women are

more receptive to sex during ovulation Pheromones

Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology

There are many reasons why people have sex External Stimuli

Both men and women tend to become aroused when exposed to sexually explicit material

Repeated exposure to the same stimuli lessens arousal over time

Imagined Stimuli Sexual arousal while dreaming in both sexes Sexual fantasies are prevalent, but may not be indicative

of desires in real life

The Psychology of Sex

The Kinsey Reports Sexual Behavior in the Human

Male (1948) Sexual Behavior in the Human

Female (1953) Kinsey Scale and human sexuality

(0 to 6 the “X” was added later for asexual)

Controversial methods?▪ Prison population▪ Male prostitutes

10% ??

The Psychology of Sex

The Psychology of Sex

Sexual motivation

Social-cultural influences:

• family and society values• religious and personal values• cultural expectations• media

Biological influences:

• sexual maturity• sex hormones• sexual orientation

Psychological influences:

• exposure to stimulating conditions• sexual fantasies

Adolescent Sexuality

Teen Pregnancy US has a relatively high rate of teen pregnancy

and abortion Some explanations include a lack of knowledge

about sex and birth control, substance use, and lack of media reinforcement of protected sex

Sexually Transmitted Infections/STDs For reasons listed above, STIs are also

prevalent amongst young people (2/3 of all new infections occur in population under 25)

Many people do not know the risks of certain sexual practices and do not think about the number of partners their partner has had

Sexual Orientation

Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest Heterosexual

▪ Sexual attraction to opposite sex Homosexual

▪ Sexual attraction to same sex Bisexual

▪ Sexual attraction to both sexes Approximately 3-4% of men and 1-2% of women

are gay/lesbian. Sexuality is enduring over time and cannot be

“changed” Women’s sexuality seems to be more “fluid” than

men’s (“erotic plasticity”) Nature and nurture explain human sexuality

Sexual Orientation

Secondary Drives: Stimulus Motives

Stimulus motives push us to investigate or to change our environment

Example stimulus motives include: Exploration and curiosity

▪ E.g. Where does that path lead? How does the internet work?

▪ Why? An emotion? An acceptable expression of sex drive? Part of the drive to find the meaning of life?

Manipulation and contact▪ E.g. DO NOT TOUCH signs – why

are they necessary?▪ The need to touch, handle, or

play with objects to feel satisfied.

Harlow’s Monkeys

Harry Harlow (1958) wanted to find out why infant monkeys bonded with their mother.

Was the bond driven by a need for food (nursing) or something else? Harlow’s experiment Impact of denying infant m

onkeys physical comfort from their mother

Illustrates contact motive

Other Motives: Social Motives

Social motives are those which involve how we are driven to relate to others. They include the following: Aggression Achievement Affiliation

Social Motives: Aggression

Intent is a key element of aggression – behavior is aimed at DOING HARM to others

Why are we aggressive? Aggressive behavior may be innate,

although learning clearly plays a role

Frustration-Aggression Theory? Social Learning?

Aggression and culture Collectivist cultures are less

aggressive than individualistic cultures

Crime in the US? Gender and aggression

Males are more physically aggressive

Nature…or nurture?

Social Motives: Achievement

Motivation to excel at a task

Desire is for achievement for its own sake

Work and Family Orientation Scale (WOFO) Work orientation, mastery,

competitiveness Highest GPA – high

mastery and work orientation, lower competitiveness – WHY?

Social Motives: Affiliation

Motivation to be with others

Rats, monkeys and humans in stressful situations all feel a reduction in anxiety and fear when in the presence of another member of their species

Evolutionary value? Learned behavior?

Emotions

Defining Emotion

Emotion includes the following: A subjective conscious experience or

cognitive component Bodily or physiological arousal Overt or behavioral expressions

Emotional reactions are linked with the Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic/parasympathetic NS Autonomic responses accompanying

emotion are controlled by the brain

Measuring Emotional Responses

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) GSR measures increased

electrical conductivity of skin that occurs when sweat glands increase activity

GSR used to measure autonomic arousal and therefore emotional reactions

Polygraph/Lie Detector Assumes there is a link

between lying and emotions Measures respiration, heart

rate, blood pressure, and GSR Does not detect lies, but

rather nervousness Only accurate about 2/3 of the

time – some people do not become nervous when they lie!

Basic Emotions

Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust

Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions

Other (secondary) emotions are the

composites of primary emotions Surprise + Sadness = Disappointment Fear + Acceptance = Submission

Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

Basic Emotions

Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers

Revised model of basic emotions includes: Happiness Surprise Sadness Fear Disgust Anger

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange theory Environmental stimuli bring on

physiological changes that we interpret as emotions

EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful situation.  You then experience fear.

Theories of Emotion

Cannon-Bard theory Environmental stimuli elicit

emotions and bodily responses simultaneously

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  At the same time as these physiological changes occur you also experience the emotion of fear.

Contemporary Theories of Emotion

Schachter-Singer Theory/2-Factor Environment gives us clues that

help us interpret physiological reaction

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  Upon noticing this arousal you realize that is comes from the fact that you are walking down a dark alley by yourself.  This behavior is dangerous and therefore you feel the emotion of fear.

Contemporary Theories of Emotion

Izard’s Facial Feedback Theory Cognitive feedback is NOT necessary:

emotion provoked by the faces/body posture that results from an environmental stimulus

Based on five different “universal” facial expressions: happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, and fear-surprise

EXAMPLE:  You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You make a shocked face and the movement of these muscles sends signals to your brain to perceive this as fear.

Theories of Emotion

Nonverbal Communication of Emotion

Voice quality Facial expression and

Ekman’s work Body language

Posture The way we move

communicates information Personal space Explicit acts

Slamming doors Destroying stuff

Emblems

Facial Expression Activity Use the list of six basic emotions below

to label the faces of both the human and robot faces on your worksheet. You will use each of the six once for each set of faces.

Happiness Sadness Fear Surprise Anger Disgust

Gestures Exercise

Gender, Culture and Emotion

Gender and Emotion

Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently

Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation

Anger Men tend to direct their anger outward Women tend to direct their anger inward

Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

Culture and Emotion

Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms

Some emotional displays are universal

Display rules Culture-specific rules that govern how,

when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate

Etre et Avoir clip (1:11) Intensification, deintensification,

masking, neutralizing

Stress and Health

Stress is the manner in which we respond to events perceived as threatening or challenging Stress has an impact on our mood, our

behavior and our health Behavioral medicine integrates what we

know of human behavior and medicine to better understand health and disease

Health psychology involves the contribution of psychology’s contribution to behaviorla medicine

Stress Response Cannon’s fight-or-flight response

Epinephrine and norepinephrine released from adrenal glands

Sympathetic nervous system kicks in Hypothalamus and pituitary control cortisols

released from adrenal cortex Withdrawal “Tend and befriend” (Shelley Taylor) Gender and stress

Women more likely to nurture and band together Men more likely to withdraw and turn to alcohol

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Phase 1: Alarm (prepare to cope) Phase 2: Resistance (actual coping) Phase 3: Exhaustion (resources depleted)

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

Sources of Stress: Stressors

Catastrophes and PTSDChange and the SRRSPressureFrustrationConflict

Approach-approach Approach-avoidance Avoidance-avoidance

Stress and Health

“Type A” vs. “Type B” (Friedman and Rosenman) Type A: reactive, competitive, impatient, motivated,

aggressive and easily angered – susceptible to CHD Type B: easy going, mellow – much less susceptible

to CHD Pessimism makes you twice as likely to develop

CHD Depression also increases CHD risk Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

Studies relationship between nervous, endocrine and immune systems

Stress and AIDS Stress and cancer

Coping with Stress

Perceived feelings of controlOptimismSocial supportExerciseRelaxation/MeditationBiofeedbackSpirituality