Gamification:What can pigeons teach us about highway safety?

Michael Lee

Psychology Graduate Student

Center for Visualization and Virtual Environments

User Experience Lab

Overview

• “Gamification”• Using game elements in non-game contexts

• Psychological foundations• Punishment and reinforcement

• And when to punish or reinforce

• Examples in highway safety

Gamification

• “Game design elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding, 2011)• Ex: Fitness, Education, Apps

• Make it FUN!!

• Game design elements• Pyramid (Werbach, 2012)

• Game Dynamics

• Game Mechanics

• Game Components

“Grammar”

• Create implicit structure

• Ex: general narrative,

constraints to force

decision-making

“Verbs”

• Drive action forward

• Ex: challenges, chance,

feedback, rewards

“Nouns”

• Instantiations of elements

higher in the pyramid

• Ex: points, badges,

leaderboards

Wait a second…I took Psychology 100 in undergrad and this doesn’t

sound all that special.

Operant Conditioning

• E.L. Thorndike - Law of Effect (1898)• Followed by B.F. Skinner

• Stimulus -> Response -> Outcome• Reinforcement – satisfying outcome that strengthens

association• Increase responding

• Punishment – aversive outcome that weakens association• Decrease responding

• Positive – Added to the environment

• Negative – Removed from the environment

Increase

Responding

Decrease

Responding

AddedPositive

Reinforcement

Positive

Punishment

RemovedNegative

Reinforcement

Negative

Punishment

When to Punish or Reinforce

• Immediate• Outcome needs to be associated with response

• Schedule• Interval – amount of time

• Ratio – number of responses

• Fixed – fixed (predictable)

• Variable – varies (unpredictable)

Is reinforcement based on a number of

responses or an amount of time

passed?

Is the number of responses fixed or

does it vary?

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforce after fixed number of responses

Ex: FR3 = reinforce after every three responses

Predictability creates a break-and-

run pattern of responses

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforce after variable number of responses

Ex: VR3 = reinforce after 2 responses, then 4, etc.

Unpredictability creates high and steady rate of

responding

Is the amount of time fixed or does

it vary?

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforce after fixed amount of time has

passed

Ex: FI3 = reinforce the first response after 3 minutes

Predictability creates a scalloping pattern of responses

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforce after variable amount of time has

passed

Ex: VI3 = reinforce after 2 minutes, then 4, etc.

Unpredictability creates high and steady rate of

responding

number

time

fixed

fixed

vary

vary

Continuous vs. Partial

• Continuous – every response reinforced

• Partial – some responses reinforced• Longer to build association, but it lasts longer (resistant to

extinction)

• “partial reinforcement effect” – huge motivation• Ex: gambling

Examples in Highway Safety (speeding)

• Accident• Positive punishment

• Add adverse outcome to reduce future responding

• Outcome Broken car/human

• Ticket• Positive punishment

• Add adverse outcome to reduce future responding

• Outcome Loss of money/time

• Cop vs. Camera

Examples in Highway Safety (driving the speed limit)

• Loss avoidance• Negative reinforcement (remove adverse outcome(s) to reduce future

responding)

• Outcome -> No accident or ticket

• Tickets (and avoiding them) are lame.• Make driving the speed limit FUN!!

Speed Camera Lottery

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iynzHWwJXaA

Speed Camera Lottery

• Speed camera• Speeders pay fines into a pot

• Non-speeders entered into a drawing to win the money from the pot

• Lead to 22% decrease in traffic speed

• Positive reinforcement• Add satisfying outcome (money)

• Lottery = partial reinforcement effect• Huge motivation from being reinforced only some of the time

In conclusion

• “Gamification” (or the use basic psychological principles) can be seen in highway safety.

• Make being safe…

FUN!!!

Questions?

Thank you for listening.